Atlantic revolutions

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The term Atlantic Revolutions refers to a series of revolutions that took place around the Atlantic between around 1770 and around 1830 . The most important are the American Revolution (1773–1783), the French Revolution (1789–1799), the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804), the Spanish Revolution (1807–1814) and the Wars of Independence in Spanish America (1810–1826) ).

Despite all the differences, these revolutions were - at least from a predominantly European perspective - shaped by similar “modern” ideals: popular sovereignty , human rights , equality , separation of powers and written constitutions . The aforementioned revolutions also formed the starting point for the development of modern nation-states in Europe and America, including the Caribbean . In addition to colonialism , migration and slave trade, a transatlantic public and associated political journalism , which was mainly expressed in pamphlets and newspapers, acted as links in the formation of a coherent Atlantic area .

The far-reaching aftermath of the Atlantic Revolutions includes a number of uprisings and subsequent revolutions inspired by them, especially in Europe. The Atlantic Revolutions continue to have an impact on questions of democratic theory and questions of historical interpretation into the 21st century . References to special ties within the Atlantic area, which were preserved long after the Atlantic Revolutions, include the Atlantic Charter as a guide to the United Nations and the North Atlantic Alliance, NATO .

Concept of the Atlantic Revolutions

After contemporaries had compared the American Revolution and the French Revolution in particular and discussed their common origins and mutual influences intensively, the revolutions in historiography during most of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century became especially important interpreted as central events within the respective national histories. Against the background of the beginning of the Cold War and the founding of NATO , the concept of an Atlantic world outlined by Walter Lippmann as early as 1917 was taken up and expanded to include that of the “Atlantic Revolutions” - as a connecting element of the history of Europe and North America. With recourse to the idea of ​​a historical space formed by an ocean in the sense of the school of the Annales , Jacques Godechot and RR Palmer developed the idea of ​​an “Atlantic civilization”, which was based on shared revolutionary experiences from 1770 to 1800 and determined by democratic values ​​derived from it. This approach met with considerable criticism in some cases because it was ideologically motivated, ignored important economic and political developments and did not do justice to the complexity and special features of the various revolutions. Neither the Haitian nor the Latin American revolutions found any attention in the work of Godechot and Palmer. It was only from the late 1980s that historians began to focus more on these. In the 1990s, research was also carried out into the significance of a number of initially neglected actors in the revolutions, such as slaves, seafarers and soldiers. Around the turn of the millennium, with the advent of global history, aspects of cultural history and practices of networking between the actors of the various revolutions increasingly came to the fore in the area of ​​Atlantic history .

History and causes

Alliances and territories of those involved in the Seven Years' War
  • Great Britain , Prussia , Portugal , Allies and Colonies
  • France , Spain , Austria , Russia , Sweden , Allies and Colonies

    • The Atlantic Revolutions each had specific, but also some similar or common causes. The central precursor event was the Seven Years War (1756–1763), which not only affected the colonial powers France, England and Spain, but also their possessions in the Americas and West Africa. The high military spending of the colonial powers involved led to a high level of debt, which they tried to transfer to their populations in Europe and overseas by means of taxes and economic reform measures. As a result, part of the population, especially in the colonies, felt that they were burdened by excessive taxes, treated economically unfairly and not sufficiently represented in political institutions. However, while France also fought for the abolition of privileges in the still feudal class society , the white population in the Americas was far less hierarchically organized and accordingly more interested in maintaining the status quo . There were some slave revolts and clashes between the various ethnic groups, but only in Haiti was the black population able to prevail over the white in the long term. Both the intellectual elites in Europe and those in the colonies were shaped by the ideas of the Enlightenment and by an increasing belief in progress. This enabled them to legitimize the rebellion against the old order and the introduction of republican forms of government and to invoke concepts such as popular sovereignty, national independence and human rights - even if they did not implement them consistently. Networks in which newspapers, pamphlets and books were exchanged were the basis for the transatlantic dissemination of these ideas and the practical experience gained with them. Another effective condition for this was the creation of public spaces in coffee houses, political clubs and learned societies.

    Revolutionary processes in the Atlantic area

    The presentation of the following revolution complexes follows the chronological structure principle. The founding of the United States of America, which was directed against the predominance of England, and the consequent French Revolution, which was connected with it both partly in terms of the cause as well as in terms of the program of ideas and through prominent personalities, proved to be particularly significant and radiant. Under the impression of enthusiasm for the revolutionary events in France, then of disillusionment and rejection in the face of Napoleon's striving for supremacy, independent revolutionary movements developed in Europe and in the Atlantic area that produced a democratic culture and liberal-democratic traditions.

    North American Revolution (1773–1783)

    Signing the declaration of independence.

    The American Revolution is the term used to describe the process that led from the rebellion of the North American colonists against British tax legislation to the establishment and later state recognition of the United States of America. Along the way, the former subjects of the British Crown proclaimed a number of principles, the impact of which extended beyond the time and region of origin. This included the demand derived from the British Bill of Rights : “ No taxation without representation .” With the publication of Thomas Paine's pamphlet “ Common Sense ”, the independence movement received a decisive boost. With the Declaration of Independence signed on July 4th, 1776 and the constitution established in 1783 , the Thirteen Colonies, united in the struggle against England, set further milestones in the assertion of their economic and political interests.

    Human rights, constitutionalism and the separation of powers in the form of “checks and balances” , which were rooted in enlightened state theory , found their way into the state and social reality of the USA and could thus become the model for emancipatory and democratic endeavors and implementation variants elsewhere. The Atlantic moment of this event is due not least to the fact that the intellectual spokesmen and founding fathers of the United States had networks in the political centers of Western Europe. But it is also based on the fact that the continental army founded by the " Patriots " was only able to prevail against the British army and its allies, the " Loyalists ", during the War of Independence (1775–1783) thanks to the support of French and ultimately Spanish troops .

    French Revolution (1789–1799)

    Execution of Louis XVI.

    The French Revolution put an end to monarchical absolutism modeled on Louis XIV in France. The royal autocracy was initially curbed by the National Assembly through constitutionalization and separation of powers against the resistance of the Ancien Régime and in the subsequent republican phase with the execution of Louis XVI. demonstratively eliminated. The starting position in the run-up to the French Revolution was partly determined by the costly French participation in the war of independence of the American colonists against Great Britain. The increased national debt and the first refusal of the privileged classes of the nobility and clergy to continue to give the crown a free hand, forced Louis XVI. to convene the Estates General. Only through their approval could the king have raised further funds. Prominent personalities were the Marquis de Lafayette , who fought in the American War of Independence , and Thomas Jefferson, the American ambassador, for the transatlantic dissemination of new political guiding principles based on the American model, which was expressed, among other things, in the Declaration of Human and Civil Rights from 1785 to 1789 in Paris.

    The course of the revolution in France was essentially determined by the interests, actions and reactions of various population groups. The property and educated bourgeoisie strove for the abolition of noble privileges and their own political participation in power; the urban population, especially in Paris, was partly driven by lack of bread, was on the lookout for all sorts of counterrevolutionary conspiracy and also relied on radical social equality in questions of property distribution; the peasants engaged in the fight against the feudal regime , which was a burden on them , but the majority were not interested in further changes in the political and social conditions. The war against those with Louis XVI. European great powers in solidarity to save the nation and revolution brought about a popular army with mass levies and the Marseillaise , on which Napoleon I , who ended and inherited the revolution at the same time, founded the French power expansion in Europe.

    Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

    In 1791, almost half a million slaves imported from Africa were employed in around 1,000 plantations in Saint-Domingue . In the course of the French Revolution and the accompanying proclamation of human rights, various groups in Saint-Domingue began to revolt against the existing discriminatory conditions. Free blacks first demanded their equality. In May 1791, a law was passed to improve the living conditions of colored people, which was largely ignored by the grands blancs (plantation owners), but viewed by the petits blancs ( without property whites) as an attack on their rights. On August 21, 1791, the uprising of the slaves began, of which 4,000 whites fell victim by September 1791 and in which over 1,000 plantations were burned down. On April 4, 1792, the French National Assembly passed a law granting equal rights to all free residents of the French colonies, regardless of their skin color. In 1793 the First Coalition War broke out between France and Great Britain . Thus both Spain and Great Britain became involved in the uprisings in Saint-Domingue. In order to preserve French rule over the colony, government commissioner Léger-Félicité Sonthonax first abolished slavery in Saint-Domingue. On February 4, 1794, the French government officially ended slavery in all colonies. The slaves thus became citizens with all constitutional rights.

    After the British were expelled from the island, the governor and commander-in-chief of Saint-Domingue Toussaint Louverture issued a constitution for Saint-Domingue in 1801, which was not coordinated with France under Napoleon . The 6,000 French soldiers sent to force Saint-Domingue back under French law did not succeed in taking Saint-Domingue in full; rather, the French were finally defeated in 1803. On January 1, 1804, the independence of Saint-Domingues was officially proclaimed. The new state was named Haiti and was the first independent state in Latin America. From then on, slavery was prohibited by the constitution.

    Spain's Cortes of Cádiz (1810-1814)

    The post-revolutionary military expansion of France under Napoleon I also made the Iberian Peninsula the scene of armed conflicts and resistance struggles against the claim to power of Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte and the imposed statute of Bayona . This resistance found lasting expression in the meetings and resolutions of the Cortes of Cádiz , an assembly in the southern Spanish city of Cádiz , which was defined as representing the people of Spain and its overseas territories , which was not under French rule. Regions that had not been able to send MPs due to the occupation situation were represented on an interim basis by citizens from the region who were present in Cádiz. In contrast to earlier meetings of the Cortes, the chamber met in the manner of the French National Assembly of 1789 without class differences.

    Initially, the deputies upheld the unity of the Spanish empire in language, religion and politics and debated economic issues such as free trade and the abolition of royal monopolies. On March 19, 1812, they brought a constitution on the way, with which they abolished the Inquisition, but also tribute payments of the Indios overseas and the forced labor. A council of state was placed at the side of the king; New legislative elections should take place every two years. Indians and mestizos also had the right to vote; Servants, criminals, debtors and blacks were excluded. It is true that all the decisions of the Cortes were reversed by Ferdinand VII in 1814; but the constitution had a fundamental effect, especially in the states in Central and South America striving for independence.

    Striving for independence in Central and South America (1809-1824)

    The impulses of the American and French revolutions had also taken effect in the Spanish viceroyalty of Latin America. The majority of the population was made up of Indians , partly plus slaves of African origin. The exercise of power lay with the minority of the Spanish-born royal administrators ( peninsulares ), against whom the Creoles of Spanish origin who were born in Latin America increasingly rebelled and demanded more economic, administrative and political independence. From 1809 on, the viceroyalty councils ( juntas ) were set up in many cities to better represent their own interests vis-à-vis Spain.

    Simón Bolívar took the lead in the struggle for independence . At the side of Francisco de Miranda , a Spanish officer who had previously been in league with the North American independence fighters and then also with the French revolutionary troops, he achieved Venezuela's independence from Spain on July 5, 1811 - but initially only for one year. In the dispute with Ferdinand VII, who had returned to the Spanish throne, the resistance movement spread beyond Venezuela to the present-day states of Colombia , Panama , Ecuador , Peru and Bolivia . In the course of an exile in Haiti, Bolívar obtained the support of the government of Alexandre Sabès Pétion for the struggle for independence in South America. In alliance with José de San Martín , who liberated Argentina and Chile from Spanish rule, Bolívar also brought about the independence of Peru. In 1824 there were no more Spanish troops in South America.

    Corresponding revolutionary events and end of the era

    There were a number of other revolutions and revolts that are also counted among the Atlantic revolutions, such as the Liege Revolution (1789), the Brabant Revolution (1789), the Inconfidência Mineira in Brazil (1789) and the Irish Rebellion (1798). As the end of the epoch of the Atlantic Revolutions and in contrast to the era of the European revolutions of the 19th century since 1830, the year 1823 is often given (e.g. by Thomas Bender), when the USA ended its exceptionalism and was replaced by the Monroe Doctrine entered the circle of the great Atlantic powers.

    Similarities and special features

    In addition to the spatial-temporal connection, the Atlantic Revolutions reveal a number of other similarities, including elements of enlightenment state theory, social disparities and the multi-locality of certain historical personalities. On the other hand, the individual surveys also show clear peculiarities that oppose an equation or the idea of an all-encompassing revolutionary process.

    Influences of Enlightenment State Theory

    In the American Revolution and the subsequent Atlantic revolutions, recourse to the theories of Locke , Montesquieu and Rousseau in particular had a role model function, each with a different emphasis, depending on which goals were at the top of the revolutionary process at the time standing assets. Following the Constitution of the United States , it was common for the rights and responsibilities of political action under contract law to define and to make known in written constitutions. The constitutionalization of power relations now often included a doctrine of the separation of powers, originally based on Locke and the Glorious Revolution of 1689 . This added the element of independent justice to Montesquieu in the 18th century .

    Where in the Atlantic Revolutions the equality of rights and social equality of all men (male sex) became the main motive, as in the second phase of the French Revolution or in the Haitian Revolution, Rousseau's social contract became groundbreaking. In it, Rousseau elevated the general will , which included all citizens on the one hand, but to which on the other hand they also had to submit without exception, to the principle of political rule. The popular sovereignty determined in this way did not provide for a separation of powers.

    Social conflict situations

    One of the common features of the Atlantic revolutions is that their mainspring was the desire for increased political participation of certain sections of society. These were initially directed primarily against the absolutist claims to rule by monarchs, but subsequently also led to conflicts between privileged and disadvantaged population groups. Because it was not a question of uniform surveys of the entire population; rather, these were often rejected by large parts. In North America, for example, there were many loyalists who stood by England, while in France the counter-revolutionary resistance included not only nobles and oath-refusing priests , but also large parts of the rural population in the second phase of the revolution.

    Unlike the North American settlers, the societies of the pre-revolutionary European monarchies were still organized according to estates . For the underprivileged Third Estate in the France of the Ancien Régime , which made up 98 percent of the population, the first step in the revolution was the abolition of all class privileges. As a result, it became apparent that the property-owned and educated bourgeoisie, who were predominantly represented in the National Assembly, asserted their own interests more than those of all population groups previously grouped together in the third estate , which contributed to new unrest and changed accents in the second phase of the revolution. In the Latin American revolutions of independence, it was again slaves, Indians and mulattos who interpreted the impulses typical of the time for freedom and democracy according to their own needs and brought them into the action. They had not been better placed by any of the previous human rights declarations.

    Transatlantic Public

    In the course of the Enlightenment , a bourgeois public had developed in Central and Western Europe by the end of the 18th century , in the emerging press and newspaper industry, but also in a variety of organizational forms of bourgeois sociability, such as salons , clubs and literary and scientific learned societies found her expression. These information and debate circles were politically interested and activated by the increasing circulation of newspapers. In 1775 there were 38 newspapers in the thirteen British colonies of North America, filled with political arguments, official documents, excerpts from speeches, etc. Five newspapers appeared in Paris in 1788; but with the beginning of the revolution and the abolition of press censorship in 1789, at least 184 new titles were added, not all of which were permanently established, but testified to the political impact of the press. An example of newspapers in exile that could spread revolutionary ideas relatively unhindered was the London exile newspaper "El Colombiano" by Francisco de Miranda, who propagated the need for practical detachment from motherland Spain as a prerequisite for the continued existence of the Spanish Empire. Articles from this newspaper were reprinted in Gazeta de Caracas and Gazeta de Buenos Aires and provoked the colonial authorities there. In addition, there were various pamphlets, especially in North America, which, as an inexpensive and quickly available alternative to newspapers, reached a larger audience and were able to mobilize them if necessary. Almost every political event was accompanied by pamphlets or counter-pamphlets; important revolutionary events triggered waves of pamphlets.

    The clubs and societies represented an opportunity for a growing part of society to come into contact with revolutionary ideas and to find out about the progress of revolutionary events. Newspapers were available for reading in the clubhouses, speeches and debates were held; one was politically agitated and cultivated international contacts. Overall, the number of clubs and societies in France exploded from 21 in 1790 to around 5500 in 1793, including political salons such as the Paris Salon of Madame Roland, founded in 1791, or emancipatory groups such as the Société des Amis des Noirs or the von revolutionary women founded Société des républicaines révolutionnaires .

    Limited emancipation successes

    In Europe, the age of the revolutions was followed by a phase of restorations - in a coordinated form by the Holy Alliance after the Congress of Vienna . In some European countries, however, the abolition of serfdom , torture and the guild system as well as the guarantee of freedom of religion, expression and freedom of the press remained. The Code Napoléon also persisted in parts of Europe, but was also adopted in some Latin American countries in the further course of the 19th century.

    The human and civil rights of women did not play a significant role in the Atlantic Revolutions and in the subsequent period, despite the courageous and lifelong commitment of the French suffragette Olympe de Gouges with her declaration of the rights of women and citizens of 1791. The The founding of the state of Haiti boosted the abolitionism debate in Europe and contributed to the abolition of slavery in Great Britain in 1807 and the ban on the slave trade to be included in the final act of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The final abolition of slavery in all French colonies did not take place until 1848 through a decree of the National Assembly initiated by Victor Schœlcher . In the USA, after individual advances, a broader abolitionist movement did not emerge until 1820, but its final success was not certain until 1865 with the victory of the northern states over the southern states in the war of civil secession .

    Transatlantic idea generators and actors

    It was not just the important state theorists of the Age of Enlightenment that inspired the formative forces of the transatlantic revolutions. Even the campaigners for the American constitution in the Federalist Papers included the much older political communities of Greco-Roman antiquity in their reflections.

    In addition to the theoretical masterminds and companions of the transatlantic revolutions, it was diplomats like Benjamin Franklin and the military like the Marquis de La Fayette who gained importance on both sides of the Atlantic. As a “hero of two worlds”, La Fayette became the most important representative of the constitutional-monarchical phase of the French Revolution. He was elected Vice President of the National Assembly and appointed Commander of the National Guard . With the fall of Louis XVI. but La Fayette's leading role was also played out.

    The transatlantic sphere of activity of Francisco de Miranda , who, after studying on the one hand in Caracas and on the other hand in Madrid, took part in the Spanish war in Morocco , later supported the United States with Spanish troops on the way to independence, and after his military departure in 1783, was also broad made contact with some of its most important representatives. Extensive travels in Europe and up to the court of the tsars followed in the remaining 1780s. As a revolutionary general on the French side, Miranda took part in the Valmy cannonade , but was imprisoned in Paris until 1795 due to strategic differences. Released after England, he waited for the opportunity that finally presented itself in 1805 to intervene in the South American struggle for independence with English support at the side of Simón Bolívar .

    aftermath

    From a historical point of view, the Atlantic Revolutions, which are related to each other in different forms and manifestations, are a distinctive section in the history of the Atlantic area, which had developed in diverse interdependencies through migration , trade, colonialism and slavery since the 16th century . The impulses emanating from this and from the Atlantic revolutionary events were always diverse and stimulate relevant research also in the 21st century.

    In her publication “Hegel and Haiti”, the American philosopher and historian of ideas Susan Buck-Morss develops the thesis that Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's phenomenology of the mind emerged under the influence of the Haitian Revolution . The remarks on “ domination and servitude ” reflected Hegel's knowledge of the successful liberation struggle of the slaves of Saint-Domingue from reading the magazine Minerva . “Theoretically, the revolutionary struggle of the slaves, overthrowing the oppressive system and establishing a constitutional state, represents the hinge through which Hegel's analysis leaves the plane of the infinitely expanding colonial economy and enters that of world history. Hegel defines the latter as the perfection of freedom - a theoretical solution that was put into practice at precisely that moment in Haiti. "The slaves have become active agents of world history by acting against theirs under the motto" Freedom or death! " Exploitation to the field. This is also reflected in the literature of the time, for example in Heinrich von Kleist's novella “ The engagement in St. Domingo ”.

    The insight into the global importance of Haiti was around 1800 "general political knowledge". Buck-Morss attributes the fact that Hegel does not explicitly mention Haiti in the Phenomenology of Spirit to Hegel's concern that the subject would fall out of favor with the authorities in Germany or with Napoleon. "The ambitious young author, who was just starting his life's work of understanding the events of his time with the means of philosophy, had little desire to be arrested." The contemporary slavery, which u. a. took place in the overseas French colonies, even in the writings of Rousseau, who advocated a radically egalitarian approach to emancipation. Buck-Morss said that Rousseau spoke about the plight of people from all over the world, but left out the Africans.

    The fact that Hegel later spoke out in favor of maintaining slavery "and that his philosophy of history provided a justification for the most complacent forms of Eurocentrism for over two hundred years" does not prevent Buck-Morss from turning her Hegel investigation productively into the idea, " that this might make it possible to save the idea of ​​a universal history of humanity from the hands of those who for too long have abused it in the spirit of white supremacy. If it is possible to extract historical facts concerning freedom from the narratives of the victors and to preserve them for our time, then there is no reason to abandon the project of universal freedom, but rather to rehabilitate this endeavor and start it again on a new basis to put on its feet. "

    The reverberations of the Atlantic Revolutions in political thought on both sides of the Atlantic as well as on a world scale extend to the present day, especially in questions of democratic theory. With his work On Democracy in America , Alexis de Tocqueville created an early basis for this. Follow-up revolutions such as the revolutions of 1848/49 in Europe kept alive or revived the central ideas of the revolutionaries from this side and the other side of the Atlantic. Special transatlantic ties and relationships have been and are often emphasized since then and expressed in many conceptual variations. These include the Atlantic Charter , which resulted in the founding of the United Nations , the North Atlantic alliance NATO , the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council , associations such as the Atlantik-Brücke and the Atlantic Initiative, and personalities who profess to be Atlanticists .

    literature

    • Manuela Albertone, Antonino De Francesco (Ed.): Rethinking the Atlantic World: Europe and America in the Age of Democratic Revolutions. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke 2009.
    • David Armitage , Sanjay Subrahmanyam (Ed.): The Age of Revolutions in Global Context, c. 1760-1840. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke 2010.
    • David A. Bell : Questioning the Global Turn: The Case of the French Revolution. In: French Historical Studies. Durham (NC) 2014: 37, 1, pp. 1-24.
    • Bender, Thomas, Laurent Dubois (Ed.): Revolution !. The Atlantic World Reborn . Kingston, UK 2011. ISBN 978-1-904832-94-2 .
    • Buck-Morss, Susan: Hegel and Haiti. For a new universal story . Translated by Laurent Faasch-Ibrahim. Berlin 2011 [first in Critical inquiry , 2000]. Review of “Hegel and Haiti” in H-Soz-Kult
    • Canny, Nicholas P., Philip Morgan (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of the Atlantic World, c. 1450- c. 1850 . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2011
    • Dubois, Laurent: A Colony of Citizens. Revolution and Slave Emancipation in the French Caribbean, 1787-1804 . Chapel Hill 2004
    • Geggus, David P. (Ed.): The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World . Columbia 2003.
    • Gould, Eliga H., Peter S. Onuf (Eds.): Empire and Nation. The American Revolution in the Atlantic World. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2005
    • Innes, Joanna, Mark Philp (Eds.): Re-imagining Democracy in the Age of Revolutions: America, France, Britain, Ireland 1750-1850 . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2013
    • Klooster, Wim: Revolutions in the Atlantic World. A Comparative History . New York University Press, New York (NY) 2009
    • Susanne Lachenicht : The French Revolution. 1789-1795 . 2nd edition. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft WBG, Darmstadt 2016. The final chapters VI and VII are well suited as a German-language introduction to the topic of the Atlantic Revolutions . The author has also extensively reviewed the relevant recent literature.
    • Miller, Joseph C. (Ed.): The Princeton Companion to Atlantic History . Princeton University Pres, Princeton 2015
    • Polasky, Janet L .: Revolutions without Borders. The Call to Liberty in the Atlantic World . Yale University Press, New Haven 2015
    • Rinke, Stefan: Revolutions in Latin America. Paths to independence. 1760-1830 . Beck, Munich 2010 ISBN 978-3-406-60142-2
    • Serna, Pierre, Antonino De Francesco, Judith A. Miller (Eds.): Republics at War, 1776-1840. Revolutions, Conflicts, and Geopolitics in Europe and the Atlantic World . Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke 2013

    Web links

    Remarks

    1. ↑ Edmund Burke: About the French Revolution. Reflections and treatises. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1991 [orig. 1790]; Thomas Paine: Human Rights. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1973 [orig. 1791]; Allan Potofsky: The One and the Many. The Two Revolutions Question and the 'Consumer-Commercial' Atlantic, 1789 to the Present. In: Manuela Albertone, Antonino de Francesco (Ed.): Rethinking the Atlantic World. Europe and America in the Age of Democratic Revolutions. Palgrave Macmillan, London 2009, pp. 17-45.
    2. ^ Christopher Schmidt-Nowara: Democratic Revolutions, Age of. In: Joseph C. Miller (Ed.): The Princeton Companion to Atlantic History. Princeton University Press, Princeton 2015, pp. 129-131, here pp. 129-130.
    3. ^ Robert R. Palmer: The Age of the Democratic Revolution. A comparative history of Europe and America from 1760 to the French Revolution. Akad. Verl.-Ges. Athenaion, Frankfurt am Main 1970 [orig. 1959]; Jacques Godechot: France and the Atlantic Revolution of the Eighteenth Century, 1770–1799. Free Press, New York 1965 [orig. 1963].
    4. ^ Christopher Schmidt-Nowara: Democratic Revolutions, Age of. In: Joseph C. Miller (Ed.): The Princeton Companion to Atlantic History. Princeton University Press, Princeton 2015, pp. 129-131, here pp. 129-130.
    5. ↑ Peter Linebaugh, Marcus Rediker: The many-headed hydra. The hidden history of the revolutionary Atlantic. Association A, Berlin 2008 [orig. 2000]; Jane Landers: Atlantic Creoles in the Age of Revolutions. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (MA) 2010.
    6. ↑ For example Janet L. Polasky: Revolutions without Borders. The Call to Liberty in the Atlantic World. Yale University Press, New Haven 2015.
    7. ↑ Christopher Bayly: The Birth of the Modern World. A Global History, 1780–1914. Campus-Verl., Frankfurt 2006 [orig. 2004], pp. 119-122.
    8. ↑ Alyssa Goldstein Sepinwall: Atlantic Revolutions. In: Peter Stearns (Ed.): The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World. Vol. 1, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008, pp. 284-289, here pp. 285-286; David A. Bell: Questioning the Global Turn. The Case of the French Revolution. In: French Historical Studies. Durham (NC) 2014: 37, 1, pp. 1-24.
    9. ↑ Lachenicht 2016, p. 149.
    10. ^ Sophia Rosenfeld: Revolutions, National: France. In: Joseph C. Miller (Ed.): The Princeton Companion to Atlantic History. Princeton University Press, Princeton 2015, pp. 407-411, here p. 407.
    11. ^ David Geggus: The Haitian Revolution in Atlantic Perspective . In: Nicholas Canny; Philip Morgan (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Atlantic World . New York 2011, p. 534 .
    12. ↑ Oliver Gliech: Saint-Domingue and the French Revolution. The end of white rule in a Caribbean plantation economy . Cologne 2011, p. 320-337 .
    13. ^ David Geggus: The Haitian Revolution in Atlantic Perspective . In: Nicholas Canny; Philip Morgan (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Atlantic World . New York 2011, p. 538 .
    14. ^ David Geggus: The Haitian Revolution in Atlantic Perspective . In: Nicholas Canny; Philip Morgan (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Atlantic World . New York 2011, p. 541 .
    15. ^ Haitian Constitution of 1801. Retrieved June 10, 2017 .
    16. ^ Act of Independence. Retrieved June 10, 2017 .
    17. ↑ Buck-Morss comments: “Toussaint-L'Ouverture's constitution from 1801 undoubtedly marks the furthest advance in universal history to date. It extended the principle of racial freedom to all people who were in Haiti, including those political refugees who sought refuge there from slavery. The French Jacobins now saw themselves forced to follow the Haitian model (at least temporarily). ”(Buck-Morss 2011, p. 129)
    18. ↑ Juan Sisinio Pérez Garzón: Las Cortes de Cádiz. El nacimiento de la nación liberal (1808-1814) . Síntesis, Madrid 2007; Carlos Canales Torres: Brief historia de la guerra de la independencia, 1808-1814 . Nowtilus, Madrid 2006.
    19. ↑ Lachenicht 2016, p. 145.
    20. ↑ Lachenicht 2016, p. 143 f.
    21. ↑ Lachenicht 2016, pp. 144–147.
    22. ↑ Lachenicht 2016, p. 149.
    23. ↑ Habermas, Jürgen: Structural change of the public: Investigations into a category of the civil society . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1990, ISBN 978-3-518-28491-9 , pp. 90-97 .
    24. ^ Bernhard Bailyn: The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution . Cambridge, Massachusetts 1967, p. 10 .
    25. ↑ Jeremy Popkin: Upheaval and Continuity of the French Press in the Revolutionary Age . In: Reinhart Koselleck, Rolf Reichhardt (Ed.): The French Revolution as a break in social consciousness . Munich 1988, p. 167 .
    26. ^ Stefan Rinke: Revolutions in Latin America. Paths to Independence 1760–1830 . Munich 2010, p. 127 .
    27. ^ Bernhard Bailyn: The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution . Cambridge, Massachusetts 1967, p. 10 .
    28. ↑ Polasky, Janet L .: Revolutions without borders: the call to liberty in the Atlantic world . Yale University Press, New Haven 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-20894-8 , pp. 117-120 .
    29. ↑ Polasky, Janet L .: Revolutions without borders: the call to liberty in the Atlantic world . Yale University Press, New Haven 2015, ISBN 978-0-300-20894-8 , pp. 119 .
    30. ↑ Lachenicht 2016, p. 151.
    31. ↑ So said Alexander Hamilton , who under the pseudonym Publius , wrote right at the beginning Sparta, Athens, Rome and Carthage as early examples that republics to military expansion tended. (Federalist No. 1 (Hamilton))
    32. ↑ Buck-Morss 2011, p. 26 f.
    33. ↑ Buck-Morss ibid, p. 15.
    34. ↑ Buck-Morss 2011, p. 37 f. Hegel also did not mention the French Revolution, "not even in the places where all experts agree to read it into the text." (Buck-Morss ibid, p. 75)
    35. ↑ Buck-Morss 2011, p. 52 f.
    36. ↑ Buck-Morss 2011, p. 105.
    37. ^ Atlantic Revolutions: New Perspectives, New Paradigms?