Bhil

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Bhil women in Raisen district in Madhya Pradesh (2010)
Water-carrying Bhil women on the Kathiawar Peninsula in Gujarat (around 1880)

The Bhil are an indigenous people in India and with 17 million members numerically the largest ethnic group among the approximately 700 "recognized tribal communities" ( Scheduled Tribes ). Their settlement areas are spread over the whole of West India, especially in the states of Madhya Pradesh , Gujarat , Maharashtra and in southern Rajasthan . Small groups of the Bhil live in Karnataka and in Northeast India in Tripura and Andhra Pradesh , where they have been recruited as cheap labor on tea plantations since the 19th century. One group settles in Sindh, Pakistan . Around 98% of all Bhil are Hindu beliefs . They have their own language with numerous dialects: Bhili is derived from Gujarati , an Indo-Aryan language .

The name Bhil is traced back to the Dravidian word billu: " bow ". This main weapon of the Bhil, in whose use they are described as skillful, can still be found today (compare the archery of the Khasi ). It has also been suggested that the name derives from the Sanskrit word bhilla ("savage of a certain tribe"). It is also assumed that the Bhils have common ancestors with the Munda people , but this is not considered certain.

population

The Aravalli Mountains in northwest India and the western Vindhya Mountains in central India are considered the original home of the Bhils . The geographically wide dispersion over a large area led to the formation of distinguishable subgroups of the Bhil. In the Malwa region alone , these are the Bhilala and Patelia, both of whom mixed with Rajput ancestors, as well as the Barela, Tadvi, Rathia, Mankar and others. The latter are usually wage and farm workers or trappers. On Nabada the Dhankas live. Another sub-group are the Bhil Mina. The Rawat Mina (in Rajasthan ), the Damur and others who have lived in the lowlands for a long time and therefore more in contact with Indian society, no longer consider themselves to be part of the Bhil tribe. The Grasia in Maharashtra are also said to have belonged to the Bhil a long time ago.

Scheduled Tribes (ST)

In 8  states the Bhil (with many subgroups) are recognized as resident Scheduled Tribe (ST: "registered tribal community"), in total all Bhil are divided into 12 Scheduled Tribes, which are entitled to state protection and promotion measures according to the constitution of India .

In Gujarat the Bhil 2 form independent ST: The large group includes members of the "Bhil, Bhil Garasia, Dholi Bhil, Dungri Bhil, Dungri Garasia, Mewasi Bhil, Rawal Bhil, Tadvi Bhil, Bhagalia, Bhilala, Pawra, Vasava, Vasave" ( 4,215,600), the small group includes “Bhil, Bhilala, Barela, Patelia” (54,434). There is also another small group in Gujarat, “Tadvi Bhil, Bawra, Vasave” (572 members), which is recognized as a separate ST, but is not counted as part of the Bhil group as a whole. There is also a very large Bhil-ST and a smaller one in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

The subgroup of the Bhil Mina has an independent status as ST in Rajasthan (105,393), Madhya Pradesh (2,244) and in Chhattisgarh (71).

Population development

A total of 17,071,000 Bhils are found in the 2011 census in India among the 12 national tribal communities, with a population explosion of plus 34.5% since 2001 (India: + 17.6%). Most of the Bhils live in Madhya Pradesh (6 million), where they make up the majority of the population in the Jhabua and Dhar districts .

The following list compares social indicators from 9 resident Bhil tribal communities in 6 states - also, 1222 Bhils are recognized as 3 individual Scheduled Tribes in Chhattisgarh and Tripura (not shown here):

  • Federal state: Bhil members recognized and counted as Scheduled Tribes (ST) at the national level (see comparative list of Indian states )
  • Population of the state
  • Bhil: a total of 17.1 million with all subgroups
  • Population development from 2001: India-wide growth of 34.5% (from 12.7 million) - partly also due to new state allocations
  • Share of the respective population - the Bhil make up 1.4% of the population of India (1,210,855,000)
  • rural areas - only 6% of all Bhil live in cities (India-wide: 31%)
  • Gender distribution : number of female to 1000 male persons (balanced would be 1000: 1000) - with 980 the Bhil are well above the Indian average (943 women per 1000 men)
  • under 7: children from 0 to 6 years and their gender distribution from girls to 1000 boys - here too the Bhil is 951 higher than India (919: 1000)
  • Reading ability (from 7 years), also for men (♂) and women (♀), as well as the gap between the two - the Bhil with 49% alphabets are far below the values ​​of India (74%; 82% ♂ and 65% ♀ = 17% gap)
  • ST (Scheduled Tribes): the registration as a “tribal community” is only valid for the residents of a state (see ST list ) - the 12 ST of the Bhil represent 16.4% of the 705 ST in India (104 million), before the Gond with 12.7% (compare the 33 largest indigenous peoples of India )
State Residents Bhil From 2001 onwards proportion of rural Female under 7 Female read ♂ ♀ gap ST proportion of
36 IndiaIndia India 1,210.9 million 17,071,049 + 34.5  % 1.41  % 94.16  % 980  : 1000 19.45  % 951  : 1000 48.9  % 59.0  % 38.7  % 20.3  % 12 16.37  %
1 Madhya Pradesh 72.6 million 5,996,165 + 29.8% 8.26% 94.23% 987: 1000 20.31% 951: 1000 42.2% 50.3% 34.1% 16.2% 2 35.12%
2 Gujarat 60.4 million 4,270,037 + 24.1% 7.07% 91.97% 976: 1000 18.35% 953: 1000 59.9% 70.1% 49.4% 20.7% 2 25.01%
3 Rajasthan 68.5 million 4,205,657 +49.3% 6.13% 96.40% 975: 1000 20.38% 945: 1000 44.8% 58.6% 30.9% 27.7% 2 24.64%
4th Maharashtra 112.4 million 2,588,659 + 42.3% 2.30% 94.07% 981: 1000 17.81% 960: 1000 52.6% 61.1% 44.0% 17.1% 1 15.16%
5 Karnataka 61.1 million 6,204 + 279.9% 0.01% 53.48% 978: 1000 17.99% 938: 1000 60.7% 70.2% 51.1% 19.1% 1 0.04%
6th Tripura 3.7 million 3,105 + 32.9% 0.08% 98.84% 930: 1000 17.36% 932: 1000 87.3% 91.0% 83.3% 07.7% 1 0.02%

The Christian missionary Joshua Project lists the Bhil at the beginning of 2019 with a total of 17,269,000 members, 457,000 of them in Pakistan , mainly in the province of Sindh .

In 2001 the number of Bhils had almost doubled to 12,690,000 since 1991, in Madhya Pradesh to 4,621,300, in Gujarat to 3,442,000, in Rajasthan to 2,806,100 and in Maharashtra to 1,829,000. The Bhil made up about 1.1% of the Indian population (1,029 million) and 15% of the 460 Scheduled Tribes (84 million: 8.1% of the population).

In 1971 their number in India was just under 5.2 million, of which 1.6 million in Madhya Pradesh, almost all of them in the Malwa region. A little under 1.5 million each lived in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

In 1901 a total of 1.199 million Bhil were determined; it was estimated that their numbers had decreased by 43% in the previous famine decade. In 1881 the Bhils still resisted the census by the British colonial rulers, until 1901 they were only inaccurately recorded in censuses.

language

The language of the Bhil, the Bhili , comes from Gujarati , an Indo-Aryan language . For 2011, 10,413,600 speakers of the many dialects were counted, in addition to the 3,206,500 speakers of the Bhili / Bhilodi the larger group of 3,394,000 Wagdi speakers, as well as 991,300 Barel speakers, 753,500 Bhilali speakers, 416,800 speakers of the Kokna / Kokni / Kukna and 13 other dialects.

Settlements

Colonial anthropologists distinguished three types of bhil:

  • living in the villages
  • arable farmers in the plains (kothul)
  • the “savages” in the mountains and in the jungle among their own chiefs (naik) , who live semi-nomadically and often practice slash - and- burn farming (shifting cultivation) ; they do not marry in the other two groups

Pure Bhil settlements consist of scattered individual farms. The head (jadvi) of a village is influential. Where the Bil live in villages with other groups, they keep themselves separate in their own hamlets . Within the caste system , they belonged to the lowest class. A person “born twice” does not accept water from their lotha . The dead are cremated and some remaining bones are thrown into the river, with the confluence of the Mahi and Som at Banswara considered particularly sacred.

economy

Since the tribe was pushed to the periphery, the Bhil have mostly cultivated land that is not very productive. Wherever they live in places with other ethnic groups, they rarely belong to the landowners, but have to hire themselves out as farm workers. In the traditional way of life, the Bhils also fed on hunting and river fishing (with nets, dams or poison). Fertilization and irrigation were hardly common in the traditional way of life. The fields were tilled by hoeing, rarely on the plain by plowing. With the increased integration into the colonial system of exploitation, which since around 1880 required the payment of (land) taxes in cash and therefore the cultivation of cash crops , pauperization often began, in which the moneylenders represented in the Indian village, mostly parse, began who at the same time held the local liquor license, are significantly involved through usury rates.

The Kabadis formed a separate class of raftsmen on the Nambada. The Barela, who live mainly in the Khargone district , work as far-flung firewood traders when the meager arable land they cultivate is insufficient for a year's livelihood.

Social organization

marriage

The selection of spouses, previously usually by the parents, takes place in compliance with caste rules. Child marriages were rare. The further south you get, the more the bride's wishes are taken into account. Some of the 40 or so clans differ in whether they are endogamous, then often a cousin, or exogamous, with incest taboos of 2-7 generations on the maternal side.

For the engagement, doused with Daru, a small bride fee is paid. In the week before the wedding, certain rites are performed. On the wedding day, which is determined on the basis of favorable astrological omen, the bride's father receives another bride price (dapa) , often in kind . It is not uncommon for lovers to run away together. After a few days you return and the parents agree on the bride price as usual. Divorces and remarriages of the woman, who, unlike elsewhere in India, can be older than her husband, are possible. Widows are often married to the younger brother of the deceased, should the woman not agree, a (different) new husband in the family of the first has to pay her a severance payment (zagda) . Among the Tadvi living on the southern slopes of the Satpura chain are numerous Muslims whose families are patrilineal; Weddings with cousins ​​and occasional polygyny are common.

religion

According to the 2011 census in India , 98.5% of the 17 million Bhils are Hindus ( India: 80% ), 0.5% Muslim (India: 14%) and around 0.7% Christian ( Christians in India : 2, 3%). In 1901 1.2 million Bhil were counted, of which around 482,000 were Hindus, 78,000 " animists " and 10,000 Muslims in the Bombay presidency .

The list calculates the shares of the Bhil who belong to one of the six major religions in India or under "Other religions and beliefs" (Other Religions and Persuasions) specified - the ethnic religions Addi Bassi (5,411 followers) Tadvi (1570) Bhil (894) and others (1,239) can only be found in a few Bhil groups (compare the largest ethnic religions in India ), but the 5,772 atheists (do not believe in divinity) in Maharashtra make up 17% of the 33,034  atheists in India :

2011
Indian census 		0000Bhil 17,071,0490000
 Madhya Pradesh
5,996,165 		00 Gujarat 4,270,03700
   Rajasthan  
4,205,657 		  Maharashtra  
2,588,659 		  Karnataka  
6,204 		00 Tripura 3,10500
religion 100% 35% 25% 25% 15% 0.04% 0.02%
1. Hindus 98.491%0 98.891%0 98.851%0 99.210%0 95.821%0 92.473%0 97.585%0
2. Muslims 0.532% 0.189% 0.165% 0.136% 2.572% 3.014% 0.129%
3. Christians 0.681% 0.840% 0.855% 0.541% 0.250% 1.015% 2.190%
4th Sikhs 0.010% 0.008% 0.011% 0.006% 0.019%
5. Buddhists 0.018% 0.005% 0.009% 0.006% 0.079%
6th Jainas 0.006% 0.004% 0.006% 0.005% 0.009%
7th Other R. u. Ü. 0.092% 0.017% 0.039% 0.029% 0.456% 0% 0%
7.1 Atheists 0.034% 0.223%
7.2 "Addi Bassi" 0.032% 0.007% 0.027% 0.021% 0.115%
7.3 "Tadvi" 0.009% 0.061%
7.4 "Bhil" 0.005% 0.003% 0.002% 0.002% 0.022%
7.5 …Further… 0.007% 0.002% 0.005% 0.004% 0.028%
7.9 unclassified 0.004% 0.002% 0.005% 0.003% 0.007%
8th. Without specification 0.169% 0.045% 0.063% 0.065% 0.796% 3.433% 0.032%
Real numbers of religious followers  
2011          alle Bhil:  MadhyaPr. Gujarat  Rajasthan Maharash. Karnat. Tripu. Chhat. AndhraP
Bhil:          17071049 = 5996165 + 4270037 + 4205657 + 2588659 + 6204 + 3105 +   618 +  604
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Hindus      16813497 = 5929685 + 4220989 + 4172450 + 2480490 + 5737 + 3030 +   535 +  581
2. Muslims        90885 =   11359 +    7051 +    5704 +   66578 +  187 +    4 +     0 +    2
3. Christians    116309 =   50346 +   36508 +   22760 +    6467 +   63 +   68 +    83 +   14
4. Sikhs           1725 =     491 +     476 +     269 +     487 +    2 +    0 +     0 +    0
5. Buddhists       3004 =     299 +     383 +     267 +    2053 +    0 +    2 +     0 +    0
6. Jains           1002 =     258 +     268 +     230 +     244 +    2 +    0 +     0 +    0
7. Other R & P    15739 =    1043 +    1679 +    1224 +   11793 +    0 +    0 +     0 +    0
8. Not Stated     28888 =    2684 +    2683 +    2753 +   20547 +  213 +    1 +     0 +    7

„7. Other Religions and Persuasions“ (15739 von 17,1 Mio. = 0,09 %):
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Atheist            5772 =       0 +       0 +       0 +    5772
Addi Bassi         5411 =     399 +    1159 +     866 +    2987
Tadvi              1570 =       0 +       0 +       0 +    1570
Bhil                894 =     174 +      86 +      75 +     559
A.C.                654 =       0 +     229 +       0 +     425
Hindai              371 =     196 +       0 +      95 +      80
Babadev             128 =     128 +       0 +       0 +       0
A.Jamati            123 =       0 +       0 +       0 +     123
sangat nahi         100 =       0 +       0 +       0 +     100
Sarna                59 =       0 +       0 +      59 +       0
Other unclassified  657 =     146 +     205 +     129 +     177

The Christian missionary Joshua Project lists the allegedly 16,812,000 Bhil in India as 98.4% Hindus, 0.5% Muslim and 0.8% Christian; the allegedly 457,000 Bhil in Pakistan : around 9% Hindus, 91% Muslim and 0.6% Christian.

Ethnic religion

Many Bhil follow their own ethnic religion in everyday life and folk beliefs , the bases of which are animism (the soul of nature ) and ancestor worship . At the center of their religious belief in spirits are the barwo , who function as magicians and medicine men . There are also male and female pando who are appointed to their office by a guru . Guardian spirits are mediators between people and the high god Bhagwan (compare Bhagvan ). Ghosts can turn into animals. The barwo is a healer and performs sacred ceremonies, including (animal) sacrifices as part of life cycles and ancestor worship. In the past, cats were seen as witches and were not tolerated in houses. Women, mostly older widows, who had been "recognized" as witches, were often tied upside down to a tree and "rocked" to death.

The belief in rebirth ( reincarnation ) is not very widespread . It can be traced back to the missionary movement founded by Lasodia in the late 19th century to worship the reborn god Rama that the Bhils around Dungarpur live as vegetarians and do not consume alcohol. A similar movement, called Nathpanthi , which had its origin in the devastating famine of 1900-1902, was led by Vinda, who from 1909 called himself Govindgiri . In 1911 he withdrew with his supporters to the Mangarh Mountains and terrorized the area. The British put down this uprising the following year, Govindgiri was exiled for life, but pardoned after eight years. He died a few years later, but his movement continues today. In the further course of the 20th century, the reform movements led by Gulia , Visvanath Maharaj and Mavaji ( Beneshwar-na-bhagat , increasingly from 1980), which all have in common the prohibition of meat and alcohol consumption, contributed to the progressive Hinduization of the Bhil.

Culture

dress

There were two traditional styles of clothing for men, on the one hand with a hip scarf, a short smock (or shirt) and a turban, the style and color of which - mostly red or white - indicate social status. Others, especially in the mountains, had only a loincloth and a scarf on their heads. Women usually wear sari with a short underskirt and a simple bodice.

alcohol

The Bhil are very good to drink, alongside palm wine ( toddy ) , schnapps (country liquor) is popular. This self- distilled (daru) made from Mahuwa blossoms of the Dornmelde Madhuca longifolia , also Indian butter tree, initially has 7 to 10% alcohol and is usually distilled up to 15 to 30%. They were particularly affected by the introduction of the taxation of palm trees for wine production (toddy) and the successive establishment of an alcohol monopoly after 1878 (the Bombay Abkari Act of 1878, repeatedly tightened up to the Bombay Prohibition Act 1949). Traditional alcohol consumption, however, was mostly limited to toddy in the food-poor period before the first harvest. Toddy was an important (free) source of calories. Furthermore, in contrast to the wells, which often had brackish water in the dry season, it was sterile. Daru was mostly enjoyed during the two-month heyday, family celebrations and the major Hindu festivals such as Holi , Dashahara and Diwali , but then excessively.

history

Myths of origin

There are different legends of their origin. The most frequently told traces the origin of the people back to the god Mahadeo , who had numerous children with a woman he met in the forest. A vicious ugly boy named Nishad killed his father's bull and was banished to the woods for it; his descendants form the tribe. Another legend, especially widespread around Dungarpur, tells of the strict king Raja Vadra, who forced his people to worship him. Rishis (mythical wise men) horrified at this killed the Raja by reciting mantras , whereupon chaos broke out in the land. The Rishis then created two sons from the body of the dead, who became the progenitors.

displacement

The original residential area of ​​the non-Aryan, dark-skinned and physically small Bhils was all of what is now southern and western Rajastan and parts of Gujarat. They were driven into inaccessible, wooded areas by the immigrating Rajputs . As far as they practiced arable farming, they were left with little productive land. One of the consequences of pushing into marginal areas was that the protective mechanism was aggressive towards outsiders. To secure their livelihood, especially in years of lack of monsoon rain , they were forced to steal cattle and raids into the surrounding area. Especially through the skillful use of bows and arrows, often shot lying on their backs, they earned the reputation of stubborn opponents.

After the death of the last Hindu king Prithviraj III. Chauhan of Delhi (1192) about 200,000 Chauhan-Rajputs fled Muizz ud-Din to Mewar ( Udaipur ). When these areas around Chittor ( Chittorgarh ) were conquered by Ala ud-Din in 1303 , many Rajputs withdrew to the Vindhya Mountains . If they mingled with local Bhils, they lost their caste affiliation. Their descendants form the subgroups of Patelia and Bhilala.

Marathas

The troops of the Peshwa from Maratha (a state in central India 1674-1818) advancing into the residential areas of the Bhil did not succeed in subjugating the locals militarily in the 18th century. The method of betrayal was used. Thousands of Bhil were assassinated at a celebration of the peace treaty. In the years that followed, Bhils seized by Maratha officials were put to death for no cause whatsoever using the most exquisite torture. There were regular hunts, and captured Bhils were whipped to death. The famine 1802–1803 that followed another Maratha invasion led to a further increase in attacks and road robberies among the Bhils, whose existence in the forested mountains was threatened. This situation persisted even after the British defeated the Peshwa in 1817.

Colonial times

To pacify the area, the first Bhil Corps was set up and Bhil Agencies were founded around 1825. Individual chiefs were made responsible for the safety of the roads in their areas in return for payment. Theft of cattle and raids never completely stopped for the next hundred years. The main settlement areas were in the south of the Rewa Kantha Agency , the particularly backward Dangs in the Khandesh district of the Bombay presidency . The Bhil did not take part in the Sepoy uprising , but took advantage of the opportunities to plunder extensively. In the Dangs, a special criminal law continued to apply to Bhils, who could be sentenced to fines and flogging by the site commanders in an express trial. Some of the princely states such as Dungarpur , Kota , Deolia , Banswara and especially Jhabua were considered Bhil states, even if their rulers came from a higher caste. As part of the rite, the Raja was anointed with the blood of a Bhil at enthronement.

The demand of the colonial rulers that taxes, levies and fees for forest use should be paid in cash, forced many Bhil, who could hardly make a living from agriculture, to continue thefts and robberies, so that they were labeled "savages" and "criminals". to be discribed. Inevitably, their economic exploitation and thus debt bondage increased. One of the first political organizations that aimed to improve the economic situation was the Bhil Seva Mandal , founded in 1923 by Amritlal Thakkar (* 1869) .

As early as 1905 there was a movement in the Mewar against excessive taxes, forced labor and levies. When the burdens from the war-related inflation 1918–1920 and the drought years 1920–1923 became even more oppressive, agitators also tried to integrate the Bhil into the peasant movement. The Bijolia movement of the 1920s presented the Raja of Udaipur with a catalog of demands that not only called for an end to the British monopoly on opium, but also called for the abolition of all compulsory service and arbitrary police force . After some concessions, there were individual riots and a tax boycott as part of the Satyagraha in December 1921 . Under the leadership of the spice trader Motilal Tejawat , the strike continued in Sirohi state until June . As early as April, seizures began by troops who had moved in. There was a massacre in one village. The unrest smoldered for a few years. Motilal had been wanted since 1925; He was arrested in Indore in 1929 and only released on bail in 1936. His stay was limited to Mewar until 1947.

From 1947

Like all tribals , the Bhil continue to be disadvantaged. Their level of education is still generally low. They belong to the poorest part of the population. The Lal Nishan Party (LNP) and its affiliated unions began to represent the interests of the tribals in 1967 ( they reject the Hindi expression Adivasi as discriminatory). The increasing mechanization in the context of the green revolution led to a further deterioration of their situation because job opportunities as farm laborers disappeared. Although the Indian central government has been less authoritarian since the death of Indira Gandhi , the possessing classes still show little consideration for minorities. In the 1980s there were several massacres of tribals who tried to claim their guaranteed minority rights.

The fundamental development problems are not solved ecologically either. For example, in the last decade of the 20th century, numerous tribals for the Sardar-Sarovar Dam on the Narmada River and for the Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary south of it were distributed.

Ethnological research

The ethnological research on the Bhil is extensive, it begins around 1900: The first detailed descriptions can be found in the evaluations of censuses (first reliable for 1901) and the gazetteers of the British colonial era. The literature that appeared during the colonial period and is permeated by the zeitgeist of Victorian Puritanism describes the Bhil consistently as individualistic and honest but drunk, unwilling to learn and lazy, without the slightest sense of thrift. The attempt at a first Bhili grammar comes from the missionary CS Thompson in 1895. Egon von Eickstedt classified the tribe in 1931 in his now outdated racial theory as belonging to the Weddids ( Old Europeans ).

More extensive works appeared after World War II, with TB Naik (1956) and Wilhelm Koppers (1948) being particularly influential. The attempt of the latter to construct the origin of the Bhil from a few Sanskrit words in the language has been criticized by other scholars. Further studies, often on individual aspects of Bhil, were carried out from the 1980s by the Anthropological Survey of India (Ministry of Human Resource Development) under the direction of Lok Nath Soni .

literature

  • 1954: Morris Carstairs: The Bhils of Kotra Bhomat. In: Eastern Anthropologist. Volume 3, March-August 1954, pp. 169-181 ( scan text on archive.org).
  • 1980: Robert Deliège: Division and hierarchy among Bhil. In: Man in India. Volume 60, No. 1/2, 1980, pp. 38-50.
  • 1985: Robert Deliège: The Bhils of Western India: some empirical and theoretical issues in anthropology in India. National, New Delhi 1985.
  • 1970: Jainendra Kumar Doshi: Social structure & cultural change in a Bhil village. Doctoral thesis Saugar 1970. New Delhi 1974.
  • Gazetteers:
    • 1880: Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Volume 6. Bombay 1880, p. 26.
    • 1880: Government of India: Rewa Kantha District Gazetteer. Bombay 1880.
    • 1908: WW Hunter (Ed.): Imperial Gazetteer of India. Volume 8: Berhampore to Bombay. New edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1908, pp. 101-104 ( full text on archive.org).
  • 1987: David Hardiman: The Bhils and Shahukars of Eastern Gujarat. In: R. Guha: Subaltern Studies. Volume 5: Writings on South Asian history and society. Oxford University Press, New Delhi 1987, ISBN 0-19-563535-3 , pp. 1-54 ( PDF: 4 MB, 54 scans on dspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in).
  • 1987: David Hardiman: The coming of the Devi: Adivasi assertion in western India. New Delhi & a. 1987, ISBN 0-19-561957-9 .
  • 2002: M. Haque: The Bhil and the Garasia of South Rajasthan: An anthropometric study (= Anthropological Survey of India: Memoir. Volume 104). Calcutta 2002, ISBN 81-85579-61-X .
  • 1963: Josef Haekel : Some Aspects of the Social Life of the Bhilala in Central India. In: Ethnology. Volume 2, No. 2, April 1963, pp. 190-206.
  • 1946: Wilhelm Koppers, Leonhardt Jungblut: Betrothal Rites among the Bhil of North-Western Central India. In: Artibus Asiae. Volume 9, No. 1/2/3, 1946, pp. 5-33.
  • 1948: Wilhelm Koppers: The Bhil in Central India. In: Viennese contributions to cultural history and linguistics. Volume 7. 1948.
  • 1997: Bachchan Kumar: The Bhils: an ethno-historic analysis. New Delhi 1997, ISBN 81-85616-47-7 .
  • 1909: CE Luard: The Jungle Tribes of Malwa. Lucknow 1909.
  • 1949: PC Mahalanobis, DN Majumdar, MWM Yeatts, C. Radhakrishna Rao: Anthropometric Survey of the United Provinces, 1941: A Statistical Study. In: Sankhyā: Indian Journal of Statistics. Volume 9, 1949, No. 2/3, pp. 89-324.
  • 2010: Anita Srivastava Majhi: Tribal culture, continuity, and change: A study of Bhils in Rajasthan. Doctoral thesis, New Delhi 2010, ISBN 978-81-8324-298-1 .
  • 1996: Angelito Palma: Bhil. HRAF Press, New Haven CT, USA 1996 (detailed description, part of the HRAF research project; full text on encyclopedia.com).
  • 1993: Lok Nath Soni: Bhil sub-groups in caste milieu (= Anthropological Survey of India: Memoir. Volume 90). Calcutta 1993.
  • 1978: SC Varma: The Bhil Kills. New Delhi 1978.
  • 2009: Barbara A. West: Bhils (Bheel). In: Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-8160-7109-8 , pp. 104-107 (short description; full text in the Google book search).

Web links

Commons : Bhil  - collection of images and media files
  • HRAF research project: Publications on the Bhil.
  • Angelito Palma: Bhil. In: Encyclopedia.com. HRAF-Text, 1996 (English; detailed ethnography).
  • DO Lodrick: Bhils. In: Encyclopedia.com. Cengage Learning, 2009 (English; detailed ethnography).

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Statistics Division: Statistical Profile of Scheduled Tribes in India 2013. Government of India, New Delhi 2013, pp. 141 and 146–158viii (English; PDF: 18.1 MB, 448 pages on tribal.nic.in).
  2. ^ The Bhil of 9 Scheduled Tribes in 6 States (2011): Census of India 2011: A-11: Individual Scheduled Tribe Primary Census Abstract Data. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner India, New Delhi 2019 (English; download overview );
    → 6 national Excel tables (each around 50 kB): Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tripura.
  3. ↑ a b 12,689,952 Bhil in the 2001 census: Ministry of Tribal Affairs: Report of the High Level Committee on Socio-Economic, Health and Educational Status of Tribal Communities Of India. Government of India, New Delhi May 2014, p. 47 (English; extensive evaluation; PDF: 5.0 MB, 431 pages on indiaenvironmentportal.org.in); Quote: "As per the 2001 census, the tribe with the largest population is the Bhil (12689952) followed by the Gond (10859422), the Santal (5838016) and the Mina (3800002)."
    → Numbers of the individual Bhil-ST each State (2001): Census of India 2001: ST-14: Scheduled Tribe Population by Religious Community (for each tribe separately). The Registrar General & Census Commissioner India, New Delhi 2014 (English);
    → 11 national Excel tables: Census Digital Library. Instructions: First, select the census year "2001", then on the screen where Tabulations plan of Census Year - 2011 below the point Special Tables for Scheduled Tribes (ST Series) click, from ST 9 to ST-16 Select then ST-14: Click     Scheduled tribe population by religious community and select the desired state from the long list that appears or from the pull-down menu: Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tripura - there are the members of the individual Scheduled Tribes for each state Listed alphabetically in detailed XLS Excel tables, including the Gond; However, only "ST.htm" is offered as a download name - this name must be changed to "ST state name .xls" each time before saving in order to be able to load it as an Excel table and avoid overwriting.
  4. ↑ a b Compare the Joshua Project entry for ethnic group number 16414 "Bhil" on joshuaproject.net.
  5. ↑ a b c AD Bannermann (Ed.): Census of India 1901. Volume 25: Rajputana, Part I: Report. Lucknow 1902, pp. I, 111 and 142-144 (English).
  6. ↑ Bhili Spokesman (10.413.637): Census of India 2011: Paper 1 of 2018: Language - India, States and Union Territories (Table C-16). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner India, New Delhi 2018, p. 8: Table Statement 1, Part-B: Languages ​​not Specified in the Eighth Schedule (Non-Scheduled Languages) (English; PDF: 945 kB, 52 pages on censusindia.gov.in).
  7. ↑ a b c All religious followers of the Scheduled Tribes as individual downloads per state / territory:
    Cenus of India 2011: ST-14: Scheduled Tribe Population by Religious Community. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner India, New Delhi 2019, accessed February 5, 2019;
    Appendix to “Other Religions and Beliefs”: ST-14 A: Details Of Religions Shown Under 'Other Religions and Persuasions' in Main Table (for each tribe separately). ( Download overview );
    → Madhya Pradesh (State No. 23): ST-14: Main Religions. + ST-14 Appendix: Other Religions.
    → Gujarat (State No. 24): ST-14: Main Religions. + ST-14 Appendix: Other Religions.
    → Rajasthan (State No. 08): ST-14: Main Religions. + ST-14 Appendix: Other Religions.
    → Maharashtra (State No. 27): ST-14: Main Religions. + ST-14 Appendix: Other Religions (State 24).
    → Karnataka (State No. 29): ST-14: Main Religions. + 0 "other religions and beliefs".
    → Tripura (State No. 16): ST-14: Main Religions. + 0 "other religions and beliefs".
  8. ↑ Mihály Hoppál : The Book of Shamans. Europe and Asia. Econ Ullstein List, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-550-07557-X , p. 423.
  9. ↑ 小西公大 : 「トライブ」に関するヒストリオグラフィーのポリティクス:ゴーヴィンドギリのバガット運動を事例として. In: Shien. Volume 66, No. 2, 2006, pp. 58-81.
  10. ↑ Stephen Fuchs: Messianic Movements in Primitive India. In: Asian Folklore Studies. Volume 24, No. 1, 1965, pp. 11-62 (English; JSTOR 1177596 ).
  11. ↑ David Hardiman (Ed.): Histories for the subordinated. Macmillan, London 2007, ISBN 978-1-905422-37-1 , pp. ?? (English).
  12. ↑ Etymology: from bitle "contaminated." Soni (1993), p. 8
  13. ↑ described in detail in: Syed Siraj ul Hassan: The castes and tribes of HEH the Nizam's dominions. Bombay 1920, S 68-70 ( full text )
  14. ^ N. Benjamin, BB Mohanty: Imperial Solution of a Colonial Problem: Bhils of Khandesh up to c. 1850. In: Modern Asian Studies. Volume 41, No. 2, 2007, pp. 343-367.
  15. ↑ CSK Singh: Bhils' Participation in Politics in Rajasthan in the 1920's. In: Social Scientist. Volume 13, No. 4, April 1985, pp. 31-43 (English).
  16. ↑ A Forgotten Massacre: Motilal Tejawat and his Movement amongst the Bhils. In: David Hardiman (Ed.): Histories for the Subordinated. Macmillan, London 2007, ISBN 978-1-905422-37-1 , pp. ?? (English).
  17. ^ Editor: The Bhil Movement in Dhulia. In: Economic and Political Weekly. Volume 7, No. 5/6/7, February 1972, pp. 205-207 (English; JSTOR 4360995 ).
  18. ↑ Rahul: Reasserting Ecological Ethics: Bhils' Struggles in Alirajpur. In: Economic and Political Weekly. Volume 32, No. 3, January 18, 1997, pp. 87-91 (English; JSTOR 4404986 ).
  19. ↑ Judy Whitehead: repopulating the Landscape: Space Place against the Narmada Valley. In: Economic and Political Weekly. Volume 37, No. 14, 6-12. April 2002, pp. 1363-1369 (English; JSTOR 4411962 ).
  20. ↑ Compare also Asad Bin Saif: Eviction of Landless Tribals in Ahmadnagar. In: Economic and Political Weekly. Volume 38, No. 36, 6. – 12. September 2003, pp. 3759-3762 (English; JSTOR 4413988 ).
  21. ^ Rudiments of the Bhil Language. Ahmedabad 1895
  22. ↑ The Central Deccan and the Racial Organization of India. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, Vol. VIII (1931), pp. 89-103
  23. ↑ Dorothy Spencer, in: American Anthropologist, Vo. 51, No. 3, p. 477.
  24. ^ W. Eberhard, in: Oriens, Vol. 2 (1949) p. 163-5