gallant
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In everyday German usage, gallant is the courteous behavior of a man towards a woman. In the 1920s and 1930s, this was even more clearly used to describe male behavior that won over women. Beyond this usage, the galante is a fashion - and style ideal - that emerged in Europe in the second half of the 17th century , closely linked to a simultaneous fashion of everything European, which internationalized French culture in particular under the umbrella of a common taste for diversity. It belonged to the gallant in this second sense that it should evade any pedantic determination, with tastewas recognized, was not to be grasped with rules: The “certain something”, the “ Je ne sais quoi (don't know what)” that made a person or a thing attractive became the quintessence, a new naturalness and freedom, especially in dealing of the sexes with each other. Christian Thomasius speaks of the Galante in this form of refusal to define and of interest in the effect to be achieved:
“But speaking of what is gallant and a gallant person? In truth, this should do us more harm than anything before, especially since this word has been so vulgarly and so abused by us Germans that it is used by dogs and cats, by slippers, by table and benches, by pen and diners, and I know finally not, whether it is not often said of Aepffel and Birn. It also seems as if the French themselves disagree on what the true gallantry actually consists of. Mademoiselle Scudery describes the same […] as if it were a hidden natural trait by which one would be compelled, as it were, against one's will to be favorable and well-balanced for a person, of what quality the gallantry and the je ne sçay quoy […] were all. But I think that it is something mixed, so from the je ne sçay quoy, from the good way of doing something, from the manner of living that is common at court, out of understanding, erudition, a good judicio , courtesy , and cheerfulness will be put together. "
The opponents of the gallant spoke early on of moral frivolity, irresponsibility is still said of the ideal of behavior in the 17th century, without a new fashion being comparable to one term. Only the sensibilité , the sensibility , the fashion of the sensibility , the tenderness , the tenderness created an opposing position in the middle of the 18th century.
In addition to the Galante Conduite , the specifically gallant behavior, the gallant also has its own style in the belles lettres (the French label for the elegant market for objects of knowledge, which still lives on today with the German word "fiction", became itself in the early 18th century mostly translated as "gallant sciences"), gallant poetry , gallant novels , an art of gallant conversation and gallant music . The styles in the various areas were partially modified in the course of the 18th and 19th centuries. In particular, gallant music experienced a conceptual shift. Music of the early 18th century, which was considered “gallant” in its time, is today largely assigned to the baroque. Music criticism narrowed the term to a mid-18th century transitional style that reevaluated the gallant.
etymology
The word gallant is older than the fashion of the gallant that emerged among adherents of refined behavior in the 17th century. Galant was originally present participle of the verb galer and stood for young men looking for pleasure. It can still be found in this meaning in 1460, for example, from François Villon . At the end of the 16th century the verb died out. Only the adjective "gallant" survives. Because of his numerous love affairs , King Henry IV is nicknamed le vert galant (the green galan, that is, the galan with good juice). Derived nouns added: gallantry for dealing with the opposite sex, from the late 17th century in an extended meaning for a small amenity, such as a short passage in a piece of music and special consumer goods, haberdashery and Galan , disparaging since the 19th century more for secret lover.
Political framework
French fashions gained influence in large parts of Europe since the Middle Ages - in the miniature poetry as well as in court culture, which France repeatedly exported. With the 17th century, there was a tendency to build national identities. France itself competed with Italy, Spain and Portugal as a supplier of fashion. Italy gained rank over the Catholic Counter-Reformation with an Italian style of music and architecture. Spain determined courtly ceremonies after the Iberian Peninsula gained importance with the exploitation of Latin America. In the field of fiction production, the novels of Spain and Portugal set the tone in the 16th century and as late as the early 17th century. In the Netherlands, England, Sweden, Russia and the German-speaking areas, which gained in importance in the course of the 17th and 18th centuries, the open commitment to French fashions was broken until the middle of the 17th century. England was in civil war between 1640 and 1660 . The English court went into exile in France. In return, France was perceived as a threat by supporters of the revolution in England, while parts of the aristocracy wanted a theater and music business of European standards back - France stood for it. The German-speaking areas were affected by the Thirty Years' War between 1618 and 1648 . Until the 1670s, German intellectuals pleaded for a reflection on allegedly old German values and against any further influence from Europe. A national self- reflection was demanded by the German- speaking societies up to the 1680s and created a counterculture in which the commitment to French fashions became attractive but could not be articulated more clearly. The Central European Wars touched Scandinavia and the Eastern European countries: Sweden directly as a participant in the Thirty Years War, today's Poland as part of the Baltic region, which was drawn into the war. Here the nobility oriented itself towards international culture in a clear separation from popular culture.
The rise of French fashions in the 1660s
Between 1660 and 1690, the political situation in Europe changed in favor of French cultural influence: France became a major European power that asserted claims to power in a chain of international conflicts and gained European publicity with both official propaganda and internationally marketed criticism of the regime by French authors .
In 1660 the English Civil War ended. Charles II returned to London. French court culture thus became fashionable in London; the city itself developed a commercial cultural life with a fixed range of theater and music performances. In confrontations with urban morality, Charles II established himself (and his Maitressen) in public life in a self-presentation that in the 1670s bore the mark of gallant conduite.
With France's attacks on the Spanish Netherlands and the Republic of the United Netherlands (what is now Belgium and what is now the Netherlands), Louis XIV gained importance as an aggressor. A striving for the "universal monarchy" was said of him in Europe. The centralistic absolutism of the power doctrine it developed found recognition throughout Europe as a future-oriented model of state organization.
The tightening of press censorship in France led to a restructuring of the French press landscape in the 1660s. Criticism of the regime shifted to the international market. Dutch printers and French exiles who opened publishers in Amsterdam, The Hague and Rotterdam brought out what could no longer be safely printed in the country outside of France. They also brought largely all the fashionable titles on the market in reprints that are currently published in Paris, Lyon and the remaining major cities of the French book market, thus Europeanizing French-language production.
The result was a doubly attractive cultural offering of French-language criticism of the regime and French propaganda in the 1660s and 1670s that spread fashions and eradicated opposition to them. France exported court culture (Hof = court , see also Courtoisie ) visible in the architecture of court facilities for which Versailles was the model. At the same time, France exported an exile press that was perceived across Europe as modern, scandalous and incomparably critical.
In the scandalous excerpt, this book production can be traced in its phases with the titles that appear to have been imposed on the publisher Pierre Marteau , who allegedly operates from Cologne, from 1660 onwards. Publishers to be searched for in the Netherlands established the pseudonym in a political joke, before German publishers also ascribed goods to the exile publisher and his sons, who allegedly printed in Cologne, in the 1680s. Marteau's German-language production clearly shows the framework dates 1689 and 1721, which mark the core phase of international French journalism critical of the regime. 1689 , 1704 and 1714 are the years of great production under the influence of political and military events.
Great alliance and European fashion 1689–1721
The years 1689–1721 become years of their own European fashion. This is largely thanks to the French exile press in the Netherlands, which between 1689 and 1710 strengthened the " Great Alliance " against France across Europe and maintained an interest in Europe until the beginning of the 1720s, the late phase of the Great Northern War . France's regime-critical intellectuals rely on the support of the European public. This defends freedom in France with its sympathy. Louis XIV uses the same international press and the same pro-European sentiment to market his own politics in Europe. The diversity of European fashions is celebrated in French factories and has become a success item on the European market. Europe subscribes to this market, which is more critical than any other, and which at the same time makes it possible to embrace French fashions without being suspected of a lack of patriotism. Love for French authors is by no means supporting the French regime.
The political and military conflicts of the next 30 years offer the events for which the new pan-European reporting with its fashion of a European civilizational and taste-based consensus despite all dissent is tailored. In 1683 the Turks were defeated outside Vienna . The gradual expulsion of the Turks from south-eastern Europe spanned the next three decades. France is showing interest in Turkey as a possible alliance partner. Sweden's Charles XII. goes into Turkish protection from 1709 to 1713 after defeats in the Great Northern War. Eastern and Southeastern Europe are becoming interesting in European reporting. In 1685, with the repeal of the Edict of Nantes, the mass exodus of an estimated 200,000 French Huguenots began ; they sensitized Europe's public to France's domestic policy; at the same time they are exporting a bourgeois variant of French culture to all of the host countries.
In 1688/89, British domestic politics were reorganized. With the Glorious Revolution comes Wilhelm III. from Orange to power. The regent of the Netherlands consolidates the position of the Whigs , under whom London receives freedom of the press on the Dutch model. The London book and magazine market is now open to European reporting. In the same year France attacks the Palatinate, the beginning of the Nine Years War , with which the Great Alliance of the Netherlands, Great Britain and England against France comes about, which is reissued in the War of the Spanish Succession 1702–1713. From this point on, the German Reich is dependent on Europe and at the same time the greatest beneficiary of the Western European alliance against France. The import of the Dutch and English news situation through German print media is largely unfiltered under this political starting point.
Scandinavia and Eastern Central Europe are aligning themselves with the Western European news situation: The Dutch French-language newspapers, supplied with news from London, Paris and Vienna, become the central medium of European political communication, especially in those countries that do not have comparable press structures.
Europe's intellectuals and artists can confess to French fashions after years of a difficult situation: in view of the controversial and pluralistic offerings of the international French-speaking press, in response to the attractive and critically threatening exercise of power by France, with both admiration and sympathy for France's domestic policy for the political dissidents and religious refugees leaving France.
A second, more private, more local one corresponds with the international news market. Private forms of publication are emerging. The novel finds more private subjects. The journal is temporarily a fashion genre, published almost entirely by individual authors who do not handle their identity more openly and who, as in the internet blog , offer regular, mostly monthly reasoning about new books or current news. A characteristic of public reporting as well as of the new, more private use of the press that spread in Paris, The Hague, London, Hamburg and Leipzig in the 1690s is a lack of critical public reflection. Europe's nations are sensitized to the power of religious political controversy. They react comparatively unprepared to the emergence of a scandal press that publishes the private lives of politicians in "gallant", "curieusen" investigations. Private novels of love intrigues written by authors who identify themselves as under 30 and anonymously use the press for the more urban scandal business are perceived as gallant in the first batch. It was not until around 1710 that a public began to develop towards them that sought to reposition the private in public.
In the news market between 1680 and 1720, the galante had the qualities of crossing the boundaries of class. Civilization, the refinement of morals, rationality in the exercise of power, the display of splendor in art are attractive moments of French absolutism. At the same time, through the ideal of the gallant, he differs essentially from the art of British imperialism of the 19th century or the fascist demonstration of power of the 20th century: Galant is precisely the renunciation of great rhetoric , weighty style and rigid, pathetic gestures. The gallant itself is primarily a personal conduite and private "politics", as it should develop between men and women in intimate dealings, an ideal for which objectives such as lightness, informality, naturalness, freedom, civilization and policewoman, urban politeness stand for the interest in the scandalous, the intimate, the private.
At the same time, in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Europe, which came to terms with fashions and the idea of civilization, perceived itself to be more closed to the surrounding world. At the end of the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was militarily and politically subject to Europe. A Turkish fashion is the result. China and India are portrayed by Europe's authors as high civilizations, but at the same time, in the interest of mission and colonization, they are portrayed in such a way that Europe perceives itself as more than technologically superior in return. Here, too, the superiority corresponds to a consumer culture in which imported goods such as Chinese porcelain deliver the cute, charming, gallant, curious luxury items ( see in more detail: Chinoiserie ). André Campra's Galantem Europe of 1697 stands at the end, 1735, against the Galante India of Jean-Philippe Rameau in a friendly adaptation of the foreigner, who ultimately has to share all the principles of human civilization with Europe.
French court culture and international diversity as consumer goods
The gallant spreads in Europe under a special condition that makes the commitment to French fashions temporarily unproblematic: Gallant writings, music and architecture are critical of France or friendly to France, depending on the choice, and at the same time usually more of one European fashion as characterized by a clear French nationalism. France wins here as a nation that appreciates the variety of styles, the surprising of the new and the foreign.
Fashion applies to both courtly forms of behavior as well as objects in a commercial bourgeois market with an urban focus: The Galante spreads in fashion magazines such as the Mercure Galant , in gallant novels that focus on bourgeois customers, in a music business where courtly music is played urban and bourgeois consumption is tailored - especially small forms such as compositions for solo instruments are advertised as gallant in the newspapers aimed at private customers.
The bourgeoisisation of the gallant cultural offering in the English-speaking world becomes clear in alternative formulations such as polite and civilized , which give the gallant a metropolitan dimension. In Germany, on the other hand, fashion focuses precisely on the word that encompasses the scandalous, amorous intercourse between the sexes: In the early 18th century, students elevated the gallant to the concept of their own current fashion. German observers note a special national development in which the word gains considerably more meaning than in neighboring countries, but precisely one with which the nation is aligning itself with Europe.
A counter-movement towards more national publics gradually set in in Europe in the first decades of the 18th century. In Germany it shows in the new national societies that gain increasing cultural influence in the 1720s. In France it is exemplified by the renaming of the Mercure Galant to Mercure de France in 1724; the magazine continues to this day as a national voice. In Great Britain, the Hanoverians are gradually establishing their position with British imperialism. After 1713, the Netherlands lost its central position on Europe's news market, a direct result of the Peace of Utrecht. Behind the rise of more national publics, which began in 1713 and which was more noticeable in the 1720s and 1730s, are political disillusions. In 1713 the Peace of Utrecht eased the political situation. In 1714 the English succession to the throne is settled. The Whigs, who return to power and maintain it stable over the next few decades of the Walpole era, have been deprived of the victory of their policies in the War of Spanish Succession by the brief interlude of the Tories. Louis XIV of France dies in 1715; the previous great power aspirations put it back. The Great Northern War ended disastrously for Sweden in 1721 and with the beginning of an ascent for Russia. In Germany in particular, calls for a stronger national orientation of the public increased in the course of the 1720s: For three decades they relied on Europe's support and ultimately failed in the claim to Spain's crown in a change of power that took place in London in 1709/1710 and the four Years later it was meaningless again. The search for an independent German poetry that began again in the 1720s and 1730s goes hand in hand with the fading out of the gallant and the decidedly European orientation of the public in the late 17th and early 18th centuries into the 20th century.
Judgment structures of the 17th and early 18th centuries
Gallant conduite
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Nobles on a European tour, self-deprecating reflection on an old ideal in the Memoirs of the Life of Count de Grammont (1714).
With those Thoughts they begun their Journey, not unlike AMADIS , or DON GALOR, after they had been dubb'd Knights, in quest of Adventures, whether amorous or warlike, and Inchantments. Nor were they less worthy than those two Brothers: For tho 'they were not much used to splintering Giants in twain, hamstringing harness'd palfreys; and carrying behind them (On Horseback) fair Damsels, without saying any thing to them: They had, however, skill at Cards and Dice, in which the other two were Meer Ignoramuses. They arrived at Turin , were kindly entertain'd and received with Distinction at Court. How could it be otherwise? Since they were young and handsome; had Wit at command; and spent high. What Country is there in the World where a Man does not shine with such Advantages? Turin being, at that time, the Seat of Love and Gallantry, two Foreigners like our Adventurers, who were sworn Enemies to Melancholy and Dullness, could not but please the Court-Ladies. |
In the middle of the 17th century, the galante became an expandable concept of style as the fashion of the conduite, of learned behavior, in France. Even at this point, the word had a self-deprecating undertone. In the novels of the Middle Ages the erring knights had behaved gallantly towards the high women they adored. Knightly combat readiness was demonstrated in gallant acts, in the Acts of Gallantry . In the context of courtly, strictly regulated and politically oriented behavior, both are traditional behavior patterns in the middle of the 17th century. One can only refer to the ideal of the Amadis novels in artistic transcriptions . The Amadis with the publication of Cervantes Don Quixote been demoted (1605/1615) to the pattern of the antiquated adventurous novel, a folly that can now experience a playful appreciation.
In courtly flirtatiousness, the gallant is bound up with an obligation to barely redeemable aristocratic propriety. The term goes hand in hand with a shift in the culture of conversation : women are becoming the focus of gallant communication. The court has to provide her with the right places. Opera performances and assemblies gain importance here as events in which both sexes are present. The politically wise behavior opens up freer possibilities in the relocation of communication: One stays at court for the love of gallant conversation, not for political reasons. Gallantry proves itself in politeness, in taste, in respect and thus on a playfully mastered surface of courtly culture. Politics on this surface seems to be subordinate to private interests.
In the political exchange of blows, the gallant conduite replaces the “stiff” Spanish ceremonial with new demands for liveliness, naturalness and freedom. Here as there, the control of affect is an important factor: in the ideal of the stoic courtier, which was associated with the Spanish ceremonial, it was a matter of bitter blows of fate. The gallant Conduite, on the other hand, is about the freedom with which you can keep a “tidy Humeur” even in adversity. The Conduite is elegant and impresses women with its freedom, self-assurance and lightness. Instructions on gallant conduits and heroes of novels, who prove gallant conduite, play with the demand for gallant merriment that takes pleasure in trifles and is satisfied with moments of pleasant human interaction.
In dealings between the sexes, gallantry is openly playful and at the same time scandalous: In compliments , the man can make confessions of love to the addressed woman without risk. She cleverly rejects them. Further room for maneuver opens up in the coquetry of rejection and in the seriousness of the counterattack. The position of women is redefined in the gallant conduite. She is an equal counterpart. In France, unlike in Italy and Spain, the husband does not withdraw it from the public eye, but instead feeds it to her without jealousy. It is their job to resist gallant attacks just as gallantly. In English comedies of the 1670s such as William Wycherley's The Country Wife (1675), the ideal and the new gender relationship is found to be exhausted for the stage. Novels and dramas from around 1700 regularly feature heroines who are even superior to men in all respects.
The Galante moved into the circle of Madeleine de Scudéry in the middle of the 17th century as an ideal that was handled freely and, if necessary, without consequences . With her novels, which published the lives of her environment in encrypted form , the Galante became a style defining European style in the second half of the 17th century. This has in particular to do with the trivialization and politicization that French fashion experienced through printed products on the international market in the Netherlands from the 1660s onwards.
In the context of political representation, the galante gains importance especially in the self-portrayals of European rulers and military strategists. Between 1689 and 1721 the leading warlords of Europe demonstrated gallant conduite in the public propaganda of the print media to the extent that they prevented a relapse into the modalities of warfare that devastated Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. The new wars claim 20,000 victims in individual battles within a day. Nevertheless, they remain “civilized” insofar as looting of the areas crossed by the armies is avoided, also insofar as prisoners are now ideally treated gallantly and with staged respect.
In addition to the propaganda in print, which is noted in the conduite of those involved, the new warfare includes stagings such as the one in which the French king exposes a besieged city to a gallant siege after the unofficial surrender: an " Amazon army " is officially allowed to take the enemy city. Actions like this show the European press that they are superior: their organizers can degrade the war to a staged gallant game. At the same time, the special gallant siege in the middle of the military campaign offers a place to maintain political contact with invited guests. Although these are rare forms of action, they are characteristic, as they are hardly repeated in a comparable manner in later wars.
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In the 1670s, the Galante reached the bourgeois public in Europe's larger cities as a behavioral ideal, which it promised to participate in European fashion, in courtly style and in the urban cultural scene. Parks, gardens, magnificent urban avenues, opera houses become the central places of gallant conduite: public places where it is good manners to appear gallant, to demonstrate conversation with the opposite sex under conduite designed for art.
A consumer culture of its own is associated with the gallant. In the word haberdashery , it lived on until the early 20th century. Original gallant items are all small accessories that can be used to prove fashion and that can be gallantly given away, but also expensive items such as Chinese porcelain. The pure courtesy on display, the lack of utility, the object of exclusive taste is gallant here in the 17th century, like everything small, nice, accidentally pleasing.
The bourgeois expression of gallantry that detects the German-speaking world in the early 18th century, especially in student novels written, usually by students celebrated. Clothing, leisure activities, living space in the middle class are gaining importance as areas of gallant lifestyle. Sarcander's Amor on Universities (Cöln, 1710) offers one of the typical summaries of gallant conduite on this level:
“But as soon as I got out of my cousin's house through a quarrel, my whole conduite turned. So I had worn myself badly in clothes [plain], nor made any other big depressions , but as soon as I got into another room, I began to behave differently. I dressed politically when my studies required it, went to the Dantz floor and excercised the music, had strong companies with my compatriots, and was always funny. Dabey now, also enclose love in turn. My host had a daughter of good shape and otherwise gallant disposition, and because she did not need to take care of herself in the house, she had enough time to lie down in gallantries. She played a beautiful harp, spoke French, danced well, had otherwise acquired various [sic] Romaines through reading, such a good conversation that it was a pleasure to deal with her. "
Behind the bourgeois fashion, focus on Europe remains decisive. Christian Thomasius addressed it in his first German lecture in 1687. His subject is the imitation of the French, especially as a pre-stressed subject of all authors who warned of the decline of “old German honesty”. The Galante simply offers the refined European behavior of the present, civilization, freedom, style.
Behavioral guides circulate in the same market with instructions in gallant conduits , in which the consumption of operas and novels is advised, modern education, reading newspapers, "politically intelligent" behavior, with which one is successful in private affairs like at court. Topics here are the skillful conduct of a conversation, the range of topics to be mastered, the reaction to attacks in the conversation, the behavior towards those who are superior and inferior, as well as in larger societies. The Galante makes recommendations for dealing with moods and dispositions in society. The gallant person can always change the situation according to his interests, win favor without playing himself in the foreground.
In the early 18th century, the Galante allowed the student public to focus on a career at court or an administrative position. The broad significance that sexual permissiveness gains as a sign of gallant conduite, and the public staging that the gallant calls for, were among the decisive points of criticism in the 1720s and 1730s.
Gallant style
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The gallant joke poem with which Christian Friedrich Hunold returned the favor to a lady who , when responding to the address "Your servant" , disparaged him: Politeness brings little in |
It is true that the word gallant was applied to almost all objects from novels to furniture in the late 17th century. However, a gallant art theory can only be sketched in individual motif structures. Gallant objects are pleasant, delightful, nice, charming, elegant. In these associations, the word gains distinctions from everything that should please according to the rules of art, that has pedantic traits. Especially the slight irregularity, the casually handled but not unpleasant asymmetry, the violation of what is to be expected, which pleasantly surprises but does not disturb, are gallant. Opposite terms can be found repeatedly: the gallant strives for no "originality", the gallant artist himself must not be "singular" (lonely). “Polite”, striving for “civilité”, like his work, he is agreeable, agreeable. The goal is the work that you can't immediately tell why you like it. Courage and a readiness for scandal are part of the gallant. The skillfully mastered duel is like the compliment and its gallant defense and the lewd, personal joke that is risked in front of society, gallant. The gallant hero is particularly pleasing when he does not aim to please, when he risks the affront and when he wins over the observer with his courage.
Gallant poems, pictures and music are characterized by competitive moments. The artist risks the competition. The aim is to outperform competitors by mastering with ease what they can only do with difficulty. In a recapitulation by Benjamin Neukirch, Johann Leonhard Rost combines the aspects with a view of the naturalness that one has to acquire in the mastery of art to achieve maximum effect in the audience. At the same time, naturalness becomes the result of maximum artistic mastery:
“A gallant person must be natural in everything he does, and no matter how natural he is, he must also have something special in all things. If he dances, he must do it without affecting art, but with the amazement of all the spectators: If he sings, he must please, if he speaks, he must amuse, if he makes verses, they must penetrate, and he finally writes letters so he must examine his thoughts before he takes them to paper: but when they are written, they must appear as if he had written them without effort. "
What is formulated here is a strategic area of tension between judgment structures, with which one can separate objects from the crowd that one could condemn at the same moment if they did not gain this special convenience. Speaking of “je ne sçay quoy” ultimately hits this structure of options precisely.
Art history of the 20th century usually notes the judgment structures behind the conflicting options as a step from baroque to rococo . In the formal language of ornamentation, the increasingly asymmetrical, geometric unity, loosing lightness and openness of the rocailles, one can understand a specific play with the effect of the slight breach of rules, with the irregularity and define it as style-defining.
The orientation of Europe to non-European civilization and to the competing fashions within Europe is gallant. The larger roof, which offers space for diversity, becomes more European and French. Lacquer furniture and porcelain from China and Japan are gallant imported goods, the translation of Arabic novellas that were gallant at the same time in the early 18th century with the French editions of the stories from the Arabian Nights . Lovers of the gallant are looking for diversity, surprising but not unpleasant changes in style, ease of breaking rules that remain within harmonic limits, dissonances can be gallantly resolved in music. In musical compositions, the national dance movements are gallant. Europe as a whole is celebrated in André Campra's L'Europe Galante (1697). The line of development runs here up to Jean Philippe Rameau's Les Indes galantes (1735). Diversity is celebrated and, at the same time, a worldwide consensus that is most perfectly established in the refined interaction between the sexes. The whole world is gallant.
A loosening of the typeface is noticeable in gallant texts. French foreign words are increasing and are particularly emphasized in Fraktur texts by italics. Novels are interspersed with poems, letters, and historical insets. The monotonous storyline is avoided. The novella , varied history collections compete with large novels. Great novels, on the other hand, say goodbye to series of adventures. Plots of intrigue in novels become essential. Short novels became the European fashion in the 1670s, introducing the new word “novel” in English and Spanish for short, contemporary-oriented novels.
Permissiveness and a turn to scandalous reporting characterize the gallant novel of the late 17th century. Generic encroachments, exposure to journalism, letter collections and pseudomemoires are becoming modern and style-defining for a production which, at the turn of the 18th century, gains in European political private subjects.
Own production of gallant poetry flourished in the late 17th and early 18th centuries in refusals of great works. Gallant poems are usually judged on whether they can be sung, preferably to the lute, and whether they develop charm in the lecture situation or an artful suggestion in the text. The collections of poetry that made the stylistic guidelines in German in the 1690s are also filled with casual poetry , event-oriented commercial production that is circulated for celebrations such as weddings, anniversaries, and funerals.
In architecture and design, light and bright pastel-colored surfaces, the spread of light garlands over free surfaces in the stucco, play a special role. An understatement, in building construction becomes gallant. The gallant remains "nice", even in size. Freedom of movement in the built-up area is characteristic of French-style court facilities. Gravity becomes a swear word for outdated style, “simple” or “bad” stands for unadorned and repulsive, “graceful” on the other hand for artful and gallant, whereby “bombast” is again to be avoided; so are the limitations that make the fashions of the early 18th century appear playful and artificial.
aftermath
Discrediting and reevaluating the gallant
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Paul Verlaine , Fêtes galantes (1869)
mandolin Les donneurs de sérénades Et c'est Damis qui pour mainte Tourbillonnent dans l'extase |
The gallant flourished on its triumphal march - as in Christian Thomasen's speech on imitation of the French in 1687 - in a considerable dispute about what should be gallant. The points of criticism that emerged in the 18th century - orientation to France's fashions, moral recklessness, loss of one's own style claim (in the gallant plea for the "acceptable" mixture, the desired "divertissement") - already had the charm of the 17th century Outsider position and the attack on any aesthetic set rules.
The sexual charge of the term appears precarious in the first critical impulse. It led to sexual permissiveness. The Ladies Library , presumably written by Richard Steele himself , had its author railed against the gallants who went under the guise of "politeness" in 1714:
“The gallant Writers have distinguish'd themselves as much as any by their Politeness. The Poyson in them is conceal'd as much as possible, and 'tis insensibly that they would lead the Heart to Love: Let them therefore be avoided with Care; for there are elegant Writers enough on Moral and Divine Subjects, and the Danger of reading soft and wanton Writings, which warm and corrupt the Imagination, is so great, that one cannot be too careful in the Choice of our Authors. Too much of this will be found among the Works of Poetry and Eloquence, with which none but Ladies of good Taste and solid Judgment should be trusted.
The like cautions are necessary with respect to music and painting; the Fancy is often too quick in them, and the Soul too much affected by the Senses. "
In English, the galante is quickly assigned to the past and to the court of Charles II . To this day it is simply recorded there as the result of the Stuart restoration . Distancing is more complex in German. The representatives of the gallant among student novelists are radicalizing themselves with Celander , Sarcander , and Le Content , while the big names among them, who have disclosed their pseudonyms in their own hand, are distancing themselves from their gallant novels at the moment as they are pursuing civil careers. Christian Friedrich Hunold , Menantes, does this in 1713; Johann Leonhard Rost , Meletaon, ostentatiously follows him in 1714. Selamintes exchanges words and in 1713 prefers to address “the young world” than the gallant one. In 1715, L'Indifferent offers the open invective against the gallant in a novel that is currently following Thomasius' modern and courageous plea against the last witch trials . For the first time, the gallant is criticized not only as a problem of morality, but also as a commercial phenomenon :
“The Frantzosen don't have a single concept. Yet the cleverest describe perfection itself for them, so to speak, and only call such a man gallant who has happiness, a penetrating understanding, an extraordinary intellect, an immense ability to judge a thing thoroughly and astutely, a perfect and unaffected politesse , and the like to have acceptable properties. But among us few will, when they use this word, develop such an idea. We do nothing but lots of gallantry and gallant people. Hurerey and the art of seducing another woman is a gallantry, yes, such a plague, which is abhorrent to all the world, even wants to dress up with this title. That of old junk-wives are negotiated Bagatelles, want to allbereit under this Fürniß verkauffen and the allerthörichsten weaknesses, the bey a geschossener Amant begehet his Amour hot par force Galante Ries. A monsieur can only wear a snuff box , a watch, a ring and the like on and with himself, and then learn a few compliments by heart according to the fashion, he is already gallant: he can only say mortbleu, Jarny, and the like, Sing a French song, or otherwise just act a little foolishly, this character will not be easily disputed with him if he only has a nicely powdered Peruque ; so he can go in pairs with the most gallant; yes, the neglect itself is called gallant by us. Summa, do everything and we are called gallantly, because what does the German not do for money. "
On the international market, in the course of the 18th century, authors like Giacomo Casanova turned the Galante into an international culture of intellectual libertinage , whose representatives ultimately set the new bourgeois culture as the enemy. In the same developments, the galante becomes an object of connoisseurship and aristocratic art of living. At the end of the 18th century it stands for the ancien régime that perished in the French Revolution and for a whole culture of the 18th century that was discredited in the bourgeois 19th.
The valuation of the gallant in music history is slightly delayed. Here, among German composers of the mid-18th century, a theorization takes place under which the gallant style of the new definition is opposed to the compositional culture of the late early 18th century. Essential objectives: cantability, new simplicity in style, natural flow, but just retained, this is the logic behind the continuation of the term. The development here takes place with a shift in emphasis: in the course of the 18th century music theorists increasingly demand freedom of sentiment - a demand for gallant composition since the 17th century, which gradually gains new meaning with sensitivity and romanticism . New demands for originality and breaches of tradition are added and, in the course of the 18th century, reduce the period of the gallant to the transitional field of the 1730s to 1760s, in which the conventions of the 17th century were dissolved and the classical music of the modern age began.
In the nineteenth century, the galante developed in retrospect, transfigured and freed from aspects of the conduite such as style specifications, into a secret form of protest against the new bourgeois cultural scene. Aestheticists like Paul Verlaine discovered the now seemingly alien past and wrote poetry cycles like the Fêtes galantes . In England “ Annists ” meet to pay homage to the late 18th century in clothes and fashions from Queen Anne's reign . No other time had produced such lavish wigs , no such excessive culture, if one thinks of strange moments such as the appearance of castrati in the European opera scene.
In Art Nouveau as among the naturalists , aesthetic appropriations take place in clearly paradoxical dimensions: Art Nouveau opens up to the machine production of design and imitates the naturalness of the early 18th century. Authors like Arno Holz write poetry in the gallant fashion.
In the early 20th century, the term galante was reactivated in Germany. It now increasingly stands for publications of sexual freedom that are suspicious of censorship. The subversive renaissance of the gallant gains little influence on the conceptual foundation that literary studies are now pushing for. The rediscovery of the gallant among artists does not lead to an appreciation of German novels of the early 18th century.
Critical classifications
Today, the Galante is essentially a field of research in musicology and German studies; here as there it stands for the transition between a culture of the 17th and a late 18th century. The devaluation of the production to be located here is linked to the positioning. In contrast, the appreciation happens wherever the gallant is assigned his own epoch-making style, similar to the history of art, in which the rococo was defined in the 20th century for the transition between the baroque and the styles of the late 18th century. In fact, arguments were borrowed here: Herbert Singer's rediscovery of the German gallant novel at the beginning of the 1960s was an open attempt to define it in the history of German literature parallel to the Rococo in art history. The Baroque, which is traditionally set up as a counter-epoch to the Enlightenment, is granted its own deceleration phase with the Rococo, which can be assessed separately, for example with statements such as that the baroque swell was softened here, baroque rigidity was abandoned. Applied to literature, the Baroque is said to have obeyed the rules, while the gallant, on the other hand, has a softening of style. Enlightenment and sensitivity stand in opposition to this as new style-forming epochs.
The formation of epochs in German studies can be traced back to the critical writings of Johann Christoph Gottsched (1700–1766) and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781). It is closely connected with the development of German national literature , which both authors in the 18th century attest to an epochal deficit with regard to France and England. Gottsched criticized the Galante in the 1730s as a phenomenon of decline. At the same time, his criticism of the gallant defines the poles of the Baroque and the Enlightenment as both rule-recognizing phases that find a style of their own, between which the gallant becomes undiscussable and with which it will not experience any further reactivation in the next few decades.
Taste and naturalness are the guiding concepts of the gallant, which remain topical in sensitivity , Sturm und Drang and romanticism ; the successor epochs nevertheless emphasize the epochal break: Characteristic of the gallant are aspects that can no longer be linked: the connection of naturalness and style, elegance, civilization, divertissement, variety, entertainment, artificiality. Here sensitivity and Sturm und Drang place their own ideals of naturalness in a field of tension between nature and culture. From now on, private and individual sensitivity should be natural. She shies away from the public. The public stands in opposition to this as a culturally shaped space in which calculation, calculation and politics rule - here there was no separation in the Galanten Conduite, the private was to be handled politically calculated without restriction. With the changing discussion of the 18th century, the private is called upon to withdraw from the public, which itself is de-scandalized. In most retrospective representations, the galante does not end up being just scandalous, but also affected by a tendency towards trivialization and kitsch. The authors of the Galanten loved the cute, dainty, artificial - terms that are negatively connoted by romanticism at the latest, while originality, solitary size, ruggedness, simplicity have been upgraded in the traditional breaks of the last 250 years.
The Germanistic upgrading of the gallant to an epoch between the Baroque and the Enlightenment was associated with distortions of perception in the early 20th century: Germany is said to have experienced an epoch delay. The Galante proves this as a fashion that emerged in France in the 1640s, but only arrived in Germany in the 1680s and brought about a special cultural development here. It can actually be proven that the gallant in Germany was more clearly traded as a binding fashion at the beginning of the 18th century than in other European nations. The books, music and clothing that are noted as gallant, on the other hand, are the same ones that are being consumed at the same time in Paris, The Hague and London. Gottsched advertised his own work by opening up a view of Europe and making up for the gap between the ages. In the necessary polemics he denied the gallant the same qualities. The German studies of the 19th and 20th centuries trusted Gottsched's self-assessment to the point at which they named the factors for German isolation before 1730. From the first German literary history, which Georg Gottfried Gervinus dedicated to the period in 1835 , to current works in German studies, the remark is repeated that for Germany with the end of the Thirty Years War in 1648 a time of peace dawned in which the culture of the European epochs broke out uncoupled. The belated reception of the gallant is characteristic of this isolation.
Current discussion
German research over the past three decades has experimented with moving the galant from the end of the Baroque to the beginning of the Enlightenment. The period remains the same, in fact the boundary between the great epochs of the Baroque and Enlightenment is being redrawn, so that the Enlightenment begins with the emergence of the gallant ideal in the 1660s, instead of its end in the 1720s. The classification of the gallant in the Enlightenment allows the gallant to be granted future-oriented aspects such as having made a contribution to the development of the civic public. As an alternative, it was discussed to give the period around 1700 its own value as a phase between the epochs. Thomas Borgstedt and Andreas Solbach did this in the conference proceedings, which the gallant considered the “ideal of communication and the threshold of an era”. Alternatively, Sylvia Heudecker, Dirk Niefanger and Jörg Wesche offered the slightly pejorative option of booking the time around 1700 as an orientation phase, as a phase of search and the variety of concepts. The competing classifications were followed by competing analyzes in which the aim was to assign the qualities to texts for the respective classification.
The horizon of problems widened with the work of the last few years. In the 1960s, the central research objective was aimed at analyzing the typical novel and the typical poem of the epoch. In the end, the typical gallant novel should be positioned between the exemplary one of the Baroque and the exemplary one of the Enlightenment and, in return, should explain its time. Today it is rather discussed that qualities of the gallant were attributed to very different materials in a controversial discussion. From this point of view, the new research question is more about when and why contemporaries used the label, with what goals (instead of whether they did it correctly, according to a sense of style that we as researchers have to develop).
The definition of a separate epoch of the gallant reveals considerable problem areas after the last work: The gallant was definitely treated as a style criterion and fashion between 1640 and 1740. It combined with other evaluations such as those of modernity, civilization, elegance, politeness, naturalness, lightness, delicacy. At the same time, it did not achieve comprehensive quality. If you create an epoch of the gallant for the time around 1700, you do so with the result that afterwards the entire cultural production around 1700 is relocated to the gallant: as backward (baroque) or forward-looking (enlightened, sensitive, early classical). A problem at this point is that everything that is produced around 1700 without being “gallant” loses its epoch status. One problem at the same time is that fixed epochs would have to be corrected today: The central baroque composers from Arcangelo Corelli to Johann Sebastian Bach are gallant around 1700, like Christian Thomasius and Anthony Ashley Cooper, the third Earl of Shaftesbury , philosophers who are currently in Demarcation from the baroque of the early enlightenment and the beginning sensitivity. The plea in the last works, for very different reasons, was to examine the Galante as a catchphrase of the time around 1700, but not to define the period 1640–1740 itself via the Galante.
literature
- The gallantomme or the partner as it should be: an instruction to make oneself popular in societies and to gain the favor of the fair sex. A manual for men of all levels. Quedlinburg; Leipzig: Ernst'sche Buchhandlung, 1844. Google Books
- Eilhard Erich Pauls: The end of the gallant time ; Lübeck, 1925
- Paul Hazard : The Crisis of the European Spirit. La Crise de la Conscience Européene. 1680-1715 ; translated Harriet Wegener; Europe Library; ed. from Erich Brandenburg, Erich Rothacker, Friedrich Stieve , I. Tönnies; Hamburg, 1939 (French 1935).
- Else Thurau: "Galant". A contribution to the French history of words and culture ; Frankfurt sources and research 12; Frankfurt am Main, 1936
- Herbert Singer: The gallant novel ; Stuttgart: Metzler, 1961
- Herbert Singer: The German novel between baroque and rococo ; Cologne: Böhlau, 1963
- Andreas Gestrich : Absolutism and the public (= critical studies on historical science . Volume 103). Göttingen, 1994.
- Thomas Borgstedt, Andreas Solbach: The gallant discourse: communication ideal and epoch threshold ; Dresden: Thelem, 2001; ISBN 3-933592-38-0 .
- Olaf Simons: Marteau's Europe or the novel before it became literature: an examination of the German and English book supply from 1710–1720 ; Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001; ISBN 90-420-1226-9 .
- Sylvia Heudecker, Dirk Niefanger, Jörg Wesche: Cultural orientation around 1700: Traditions, programs, conceptual diversity ; Tübingen: Niemeyer, 2004; ISBN 3-484-36593-5 .
- Olaf Simons: On the corpus of “gallant” novels between Bohse and Schnabel, Talander and Gisander ; in: Günter Dammann, Dirk Sangmeister (Ed.): The work of Johann Gottfried Schnabel and the novels and discourses of the early 18th century ; Tübingen: Niemeyer, 2004; ISBN 3-484-81025-4 , pp. 1-34
- Jörn Steigerwald: Gallantry as the formation of cultural identity: French-German cultural transfer under the sign of the Querelles (Dominique Bouhours - Christian Thomasius - Benjamin Neukirch) ; in: Christian Emden, David Midgley (Ed.): German Literature, History and the Nation. Papers from the Conference “The Fragile Tradition” , Volume 2; Cambridge, 2002; Oxford 2004; Pp. 119-141
- Jörn Steigerwald: Galant love ethics: Jean-François Sarasin's Dialogue s'il faut qu'un jeune homme soit amoureux ; in: Dietmar Rieger, Kirsten Dickhaut (eds.): Love and Emergence. New models of affect comprehension in French cultural memory around 1700 ; Tübingen 2006; Pp. 33-54.
- Florian Gelzer: Conversation, gallantry and adventure. Romanesque storytelling between Thomasius and Wieland ; Tübingen: Niemeyer, 2007; ISBN 978-3-484-36625-1
- Alain Viala: La France galante ; Paris 2008
- Jörn Steigerwald: L'appropriation culturelle de la galanterie en Allemagne: Christian Thomasius lecteur de Madeleine de Scudéry ; In: Romance Journal for the History of Literature, Issue 1/2 2008; Pp. 31-46
- Jörn Steigerwald: Gallantry as a crystallization and crossing point around 1700: a sketch of the problem ; in: Daniel Fulda (ed.): Gallantry and early enlightenment ; Small publications of the IZEA 1/2009; Hall 2009; Pp. 51-79
- Jörn Steigerwald: Gallantry. The fabrication of a natural ethic in court society (1650–1710) ; Heidelberg: Winter 2011
- Ruth Florack , Rüdiger Singer (ed.): The art of gallantry. Facets of a behavior model in early modern literature. De Gruyter, Berlin / Boston 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-027879-8 .
Individual evidence
- ↑ So it says in the text that Fritz Rotter wrote to the hit song I kiss your hand, Madame 1929 in the film of the same name with Marlene Dietrich to the music of Ralph Erwin : “I kiss your hand, Madame / and dream it would be your mouth / I am yes so gallant Madame / but there is a reason / I only have your trust, Madame / and your sympathy / if you first build on me, Madame / yes then you will look, Madame / I kiss instead of you Hand, Madame / just her red mouth. "
- ↑ The emphasis on taste over the rules is an essential moment in all debates that are devoted to the “fine arts” in the 17th and 18th centuries, advocates of the gallant stand as defenders of taste against defenders of rule poetics. In the research literature there is a separate section on the rise of the taste debate with works such as: George Dickie, The Century of Taste: The philosophical odyssey of taste in the eighteenth century (Oxford University Press, 1996), Denise Gigante, Taste: a literary history ( Yale University Press, 2005), Jeremy Black, A subject for taste: culture in eighteenth-century England (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2007).
- ↑ Quoted from “Deß Königl. Prussian Mr. Secret Raths, Christiani Thomasii Judicium vom Gracian , pulled out of his little writings ", in: Baltasar Gracians, Homme de Cour, or: Kluger Hof- und Welt-Mann [...] translated into German, by Selintes (Augsburg: P. Kühtz, 1711), p. ** 4 v-5r.
- ↑ Clear, but also satirical, here Johann Michael Moscherosch's “Ala mode Kerhrauß” falls out of the story of Philander von Sittewald, Das ist Straff-Schrifften , 2nd part (Strasbourg: Mülbe, Städel, 1650).
- ↑ See also Christiane Berkvens-Stevelinck, H. Bots, PG Hoftijzer (Ed.): Le Magasin de L'univers: The Dutch Republic as the Center of the European Book Trade: Papers Presented at the International Colloquium, Held at Wassenaar, July 5-7, 1990 ; Leiden, Boston, MA: Brill, 1992.
- ↑ Figures based on Karl Klaus Walther: The German-language publishing house production by Pierre Marteau / Peter Hammer, Cologne (Leipzig, 1983), 2nd edition on the Internet
- ↑ In 1689 the scandal press dealt with the beginning of the Nine Years War and the rumors about the illegitimate birth of Jacob II , who had to leave the country in the Glorious Revolution. With the second battle near Höchstädt, 1704 threatens to be the decisive year of the War of the Spanish Succession; in 1714 the debate about the British succession to the throne is in the room. The events of the Great Northern War and the initially shaky Hanoverian government kept the European scandal press going until the peace of Nystad in 1721.
- ↑ With different perspectives on this in more detail: Paul Hazard : The crisis of the European spirit [1935], trans. Harriet Wegener , Hamburg, 1939, and Olaf Simons: Marteau's Europe or the novel before it became literature ; Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001; Pp. 5-9, 662-690.
- ^ Christian Friedrich Hunold, The European Courts of Love and Heroes History (Hamburg: G. Liebernickel, 1705), photomechanical reprint ed. by Hans Wagener (1978), there also provided with a table of contents, which is also available separately in an html edition .
- ↑ The illustration comes from an internal story in which the European hero brings technological conveniences and marriage on a European scale to the brutalized inhabitants of an island populated by blacks. As can be seen, marriage gives rise to the foundations of civilization, which requires and produces security and responsibility. The internal history is already paradoxically integrated into the story. The European heroes of the younger generation of this story fail symptomatically in their love affairs. German: Liebs-Geschichte des Herr ***, that is, wonderful effect of sympathy or secret instinct for nature. Other part. Translated from the French : Frankfurt am Main, Leipzig: AJ Felßecker, 1715. The French original was published as Les avantures de ***, ou les effets surprenans de la sympathie , 1–5; Amsterdam, 1713/14. For a synopsis and analysis see Olaf Simons, Marteaus Europa, or The Roman Before It Became Literature ; Amsterdam, Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001; Pp. 530-534.
- ↑ See on the delivery of news to the newspapers Andreas Gestrich : Absolutism and the public (= critical studies on historical science . Volume 103). Goettingen 1994.
- ↑ Memoirs of the Life of Count de Grammont […] translated from the French by Mr. Boyer (London: J. Round / W. Taylor / J. Brown / W. Lewis / J. Graves, 1714), p. 32– 33: “With these thoughts they began their journey, not unlike the AMADIS or DON GALOR [two heroes from antiquated chivalric novels], after which they had been knighted, in search of adventures, whether amorous or warlike, and for enchantments [ of castles in which prisoners were to be freed]. Nor were they any more unworthy than these two brothers: for although they were not used to cutting giants in two, mutilating harnessed tents , and dragging beautiful women behind them (on the back of their horses) without anything to them to say - after all, they had a knack for playing cards and throwing the dice, two things in which both of their predecessors were completely ignorant. They arrived in Turin, where they were met politely and received courteously at court. How could it have been otherwise? After all, they were young and handsome; They were witty and spent a lot of money. Is there any country in the world where a man with these qualities doesn't look great? Turin, at that time the seat of love and gallantry, two strangers like our two adventurers, who were sworn enemies of melancholy and dullness, couldn't help but satisfy the ladies at court. "
- ↑ Pierre Daniel Huet offers this analysis in his Traitté de l'origine des Romans (1670), in the English translation by Stephen Lewis, pp. 138–140, quoted in en: Traitté de l'origine des romans : “We owe ( I believe) this Advantage to the Refinement and Politeness of our Gallantry; which proceeds, in my opinion, from the great Liberty which the Men of France allow to the | <139> Ladies. They are in a manner Recluses in Italy and Spain; and separated from Men by so many Obstacles, that they are scarce to be seen, and not to be spoken with at all. Hence the Men have neglected the Art of Engaging the Tender Sex, because the Occasions of it are so rare. All the Study and Business there, is to surmount the Difficulties of Access; when this is effected, they make use of the time, without amusing themselves with forms. But in France, the Ladies go at large upon their Parole; and being under no Custody but that of their own Heart, erect it into a Fort, more strong and secure than | <140> all the Keys, Grates, and Vigilance of the Douegnas. The Men are obliged to make a Regular and Formal Assault against this Fort, to employ so much Industry and Address to reduce it, that they have formed it into an Art scarce known to other Nations. "
- ↑ Galant, for example: Chavigny, La religieuse chevalier (1691), almost feminist: Aphra Behns : Love-Letters between a Nobleman and his Sister , 1684, 1685, 1687; spectacular: Het wonderlijk Leven en de dappere Oorlogsdaaden van de Kloeksnoedige Land- en Zee-Heldin ; Amsterdam: Klaasz, 1682, German: The Dutch Amazon […] from Dutch ; Augspurg: A. Maschenbauer, 1717.
- ↑ Around 25,000 soldiers were killed in the Second Battle of Höchstädt in 1704, and even more in the Battle of Malplaquet (1709), which was probably the most casualty of the 18th century.
- ↑ See The Spanish, German, and Dutch War or: the Marquis von… curieuser Lebens-Lauff , Vol. 1 (1720), pp. 114 ff. And p. 126.
- ↑ The individual German regions formed country teams that preceded the later fraternities.
- ↑ Amor at universities [...] from Sarcandern ; Cologne, 1710; Pp. 12-13.
- ↑ Reproduced in Benjamin Wedel's Secret Messages and Letters from Mr. Menante's Life and Writings Cöln 1731, pp. 12-13.
- ↑ Johann Christian Wächtler commodes manual or hand book (Leipzig: Lanckischens heirs, undated.), Reprinted in: C. Wiemann: (ed.) The gallant style, 1680-1730 ; 1969; Pp. 13–15, lists in the programmatic table of contents everything that is required for a gallant conduite: "Lust and desire for things" (1), "Nothing to get tired of" (2), "To seek reputation" (3) , "To strive for honor and fame" (4), "To tract Altiora", to serve appropriately in the higher rank (5), "Not to follow suit common people" (6), "Not to let anything outwardly notice" (7 ), "Do not imagine anything about honor and fame" (8), "Approaching the people" should mean demonstrating the ability to adapt (12), "accepting respect from the lowly" (13), "allowing Freyen access" (14 ), “To give consolation on request” (15), “To be human, obligeant and submissive” (16), “Not to be morose and oyster, but to be merry and relaxed humers” (17). Not to be “stubborn” (20), “singular” (21), to “force affects” (22). Further instructions apply to behavior in society. It is important to position yourself skilfully: "Bey Assembléen to look at the most gallant person" (53), "To be careful about their actions" (54), "To imitate them" (55), "To read novels" (43), “Read them with attention” (44), “Applying the types of speech from them” (45), “At the end of making Locos Communes”, that is, writing out useful conversational expressions (46) and “Operas to read” (47), the texts of which were printed.
- ↑ On the usability of dancing [...] by Meletaon ; Frankfurt am Main, Leipzig: J. Albrecht, 1713; Pp. 7-9.
- ↑ The connection between gallant court culture and these imports is exemplary in the ensemble of the Nymphenburg Palace in Munich, which has its own “Pagodenburg” in a new style that fits into the garden building ensemble.
- ↑ The Ladies Library […] by a Lady. Published by Mr. Steele , Vol. 1; London: J. Tonson, 1714; P. 25.
- ↑ Compare L'Indifferent, Die Liebe ohne Masque (Leipzig / Rostock: GL Fritsche, 1715), p. 154.
- ^ Compare L'Indifferent, Die Liebe ohne Masque (Leipzig / Rostock: GL Fritsche, 1715), pp. 81–82. For more details on Selamintes' Foolish Cupid (1713) and L'Indifferent's Love without Masque (1715) Olaf Simons: Marteaus Europa (2001), pp. 329-349.
- ^ Graphic from Olaf Simons: Marteaus Europa, or The novel before it became literature ; Amsterdam, Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001; P. 12.
- ^ Herbert Singer: The German novel between baroque and rococo (Cologne: Böhlau, 1963).
- ↑ See for example Gottsched's preface to The Dying Cato from 1731.
- ↑ On the thesis that the negative reception of the gallant by sensitive and enlightened authors of the 18th century took place as part of a de-scandalization of the public, Olaf Simons, Marteau's Europe, or The Novel before it became literature (Amsterdam / Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001 ), Pp. 7-9, 417, 679-690, 713-714.
- ↑ The third volume, edited by Rolf Grimminger, of Hanser's Social History of German Literature , Munich 1983, offers this transfer of the gallant into the early phase of the Enlightenment, see also Griminer's comments on the gallant novel, pp. 655–664.
- ↑ In the room here is the counter thesis that Jürgen Habermas with the structural change of the public. Research on a category of civil society (Neuwied, 1962) presented, according to which the emergence of a critical public is ultimately synonymous with the Enlightenment. According to Habermas, German authors did not come into contact with the critical public in the Netherlands and Great Britain until the middle of the 18th century. The work of Andreas Gestrich offered the first revisions in historical studies.
- ^ Thomas Borgstedt / Andreas Solbach: The gallant discourse: communication ideal and epoch threshold (Dresden: Thelem, 2001).
- ↑ Sylvia Heudecker / Dirk Niefanger / Jörg Wesche: Cultural Orientation in 1700 (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 2004).
- ↑ Herbert Singer's interpretation of Christian Friedrich Hunold's Amiable Adalie (1702) in his The German Novel Between Baroque and Rococo (1963) clearly fulfills this function.
