History of ceramics
The history of ceramic materials goes back several thousand years.
Beginning or origin
Paleolithic
The oldest ceramic figures, the Upper Paleolithic Venus of Dolní Věstonice and several animal figures (25,000 to 29,000 years old, Gravettian ) were found at a campfire of mammoth hunters in Moravia, “next to a number of roughly shaped lumps” made of clay. The clay lumps are mixed with powdered, charred ivory and bone, which requires moist processing. These lean additives may have served to make the work of carving easier, but they may also have been made for cultic reasons; However, the moist preparation does not necessarily have to have led to the plastic modeling. This clay Venus was found in a fire place with a layer of ash 80 centimeters high.
Animal figures are known from Dolní Věstonice , Pavlov and Krems-Wachtberg .
The discovery of ceramics as pottery made of clay probably occurred independently in several regions.
North asia
The oldest ceramic vessels in the Russian Far East come from the eastern Siberia Amur region and are dated to 15,000 BP by accelerator data for vegetable emaciation . Ceramic vessels are also proven from the Mesolithic Jomon culture of Japan, 12,350 ± 700 BC the first low-fired ceremonial vessels with rich plastic decorations were made. Early ceramics were also widespread in Korea , China and Manchuria , without this being associated with a Neolithic economy.The age of finds from the cave of Xianrendong in Jiangxi Province is estimated to be up to 20,000 years due to their stratigraphic position.
Pointed pots were made by hunters and gatherers in large parts of North Asia. In Europe they can be found in the eastern Baltic Sea region, southern Ukraine, Finland and Karelia ( Sperrings culture ), Scandinavia ( dimpled ceramics ), Denmark ( Ertebölle culture ) and the northern Netherlands ( Swifterbant culture ).
Africa
In Sudan , pottery (Wavy line) was made by semi-sedentary hunters and gatherers . Ceramics were discovered by groups of hunters and gatherers in what is now Mali, West Africa, in the 10th millennium BC. BC ( Ounjougou site ). In the Nile Delta , ceramics first appeared in the 9th – 8th Millennium BC Chr. On.
Neolithic
For a long time, research saw vascular ceramics as a characteristic feature of the Neolithic Revolution , part of the "Neolithic package". In the meantime, however, it has become clear that there was an aceramic phase in the Middle East , which was characterized by sedentarism and cattle breeding ( PPNA , PPNB ). In contrast, in some areas, pottery was also made by hunters and gatherers.
Middle East
The earliest, still unfired clay pots were found from around 7600-6300 BC. In El-Khiam in the Judah desert in the West Bank . Due to their high dry flexural strength, they had survived the millennia. The first lightly fired modeled simple forms were found from 7000 to 6000 in Karim Shahir near Jarmo in the Zagros . Archaic painted ware that was fired at a higher level and painted with a colored strip of finely muddy clay (engobe) was available between 6000 and 5600 in Tell Hassuna in northern Mesopotamia.
In Tappe Sialk in Iran, in the 4th millennium, a dome-shaped stove with a perforated antenna was converted into a horizontal stove by forcing the fire gases to descend and pulling them out through a chimney.
Between 3400 and 2900 vessels began to be turned on a piece of broken glass; that was the slow-moving potter's wheel ( Tournette ). In the Halaf culture there is a three-color painting of the ceramics, for example in Tell Halaf and Arpachiya in northern Syria. Finally it came 3250 ± 250 BC. BC ( Uruk period ) in southern Mesopotamia for the invention of the potter's wheel .
The high level of pottery at this time is demonstrated by the northern Mesopotamian stoneware or metallic ware from the early Dynastic and Akkadian periods , such as those found in Tell Brak and Tell Chuera . They are heavily sintered. They were leaned with coarse-grain lime and so flame-proof that you could put them in an open fire. According to G. Schneider, they imitate metallic forms.
China
In the Yangshao culture on the Yellow River in the 8th millennium BC Most of the time, vessels were made of red clay, rarely of white clay, often decorated with indented cord patterns and incised lines, also black in geometric patterns and even painted with animal representations and human heads on the neck of the vessel. They were made using the hammer-and-anvil process or from clay beads. There was also a black ceramic, which means that reducing firing was known. Earth ovens with an upstream combustion pit and a perforated barn were used (Lung Shan oven since the 8th millennium BC).
Europe
In Europe, pottery had been around since the 7th millennium BC. BC, known since the early Neolithic . The technique was believed to have been introduced by immigrants from Anatolia . Many Neolithic cultures are named after the characteristic ceramics (e.g. linear band ceramics , cardial culture , funnel cup culture , bell cup culture , cord ceramics ). In the Balkans , painted ceramics were already in use in the early Neolithic ( Karanovo I / II). Further to the west, painted vessels are only known sporadically, this may be due to the poorer tradition. The early Neolithic cardial pottery of the Mediterranean area was mainly decorated with shell impressions. The ceramics of the La Hoguette group are also decorated with imprints. In parts of Northern Europe, pointed-bottom vessels were in use in the tradition of the Forest Neolithic (see above).
Antiquity
The potter's wheel had been in use in Crete since Minoan times.
In the early Iron Age, black-figure and Etruscan vessels came to the north and influenced the local pottery of the Latène period . The potter's wheel was known in Central Europe since the Lt period, now the first multi-chamber ceramic kilns can be found.
The production of terracottas (terra cotta, Italian for burnt earth) began in the Paleolithic. From the Neolithic period, numerous human and animal figures have come down to us from Southeastern and Central Europe, mostly between 10 and 20 cm tall. Human and animal statuettes were also made in Minoan Crete.
With dainty and richly painted girl statuettes from the workshop of Tanagra in Boeotia it came in the 4th century BC. BC, based on Attica , during the heyday of Greek terracotta. The Roman Empire also saw a rich terracotta production; partly of high quality, such as the architecturally used Campana reliefs (from the 1st century BC to the middle of the 2nd century AD), which were also painted in color.
Greek potters painted black figures on their clay vases . They used an iron-colored illitic fine clay slip for this . This was a technique in which black and red were obtained by applying different thicknesses of paint and by oxidizing (air-rich) and reducing (air-poor) firing. The Athenians brought the around 700 BC. Black-figure painting, invented in Corinth in BC, at its peak. This was followed around 530 by the red-figure painting (with red-burning clay in the event of reoxidation, red “cut-out” figures and black-covered background) and around 480 by the white-ground painting (with reduced copper-red painting on a white-burning kaolinitic clay to which potash was added). For the first time the ceramic was signed.
In the Greek colonies of Lower Italy and also in Etruria, fine ceramics were produced on a large scale, which, technically and iconographically, are linked to models from Corinth, Athens and Eastern Greece. The 4th century BC Gnathia vases made in Apulia represent a final highlight.
Terra Sigillata has been around since about 30 BC. Manufactured at the main manufacturing site in Arretium in Italy, later also in many Roman provinces. In West Asia Minor it persisted into the 7th century. The special technique was that it was screwed into a clay bowl on the potter's wheel, whereby the depressions pressed into the bowl were molded as raised reliefs. The protruding clay was turned freely as a smooth edge. Due to the drying shrinkage, the ceramic detached itself from the form. After drying to the hardness of leather, it was doused with a fine sludge obtained from illitic clay suspended in rainwater. After the slurry had settled, only the finest was used as a topping. The goods were oxidized at about 950 ° C in Corinthian kilns, the kiln always being positioned so that the west wind blew into the kiln neck. This stove with a perforated antenna, invented in Corinth, was widespread all over Europe and was only replaced by the horizontal stoves used by the Slavs during the Migration Period. The black Terra Nigra could also be produced in them in a reducing fire . The red terra sigillata was produced in large quantities - for such fine ceramics. The manufactory in Rheinzabern ( Tabernae ), for example, owned five ovens, 100 to 150 employees and had an annual production of 35,000 to 70,000 vessels.
Glazes
From 1922 to 1925, the excavator Guy Brunton found “plenty of pearls” in El Badari on the eastern edge of the Nile Valley, including glazed steatite pearls . They came from nomadic cattle herders from around 4000 BC. The production of these pearls is explained by burning them in a pit in which they came into contact with the salt from the evaporation of the groundwater. The sodium transported by the evaporating chlorine onto the quartz-containing stone (steatite is a magnesium silicate) can form a glaze with it at 867 ° C. That was a hundred years earlier than the first ore smelting. This process, known as cementation , is still used today in Qom , south of Tehran, to produce donkey pearls . The sodium salt is water-soluble and, if it is added to a mass of sand, is transported to the surface with the evaporating water when it dries, just as nature does with the salty groundwater. In this efflorescence process, the Egyptian faience was created on the upper Nile in the 3rd millennium . She ruled the New Kingdom in Egypt (1552-1070). Colored blue, yellow, green, red, orange, it even found its place next to gold on the insignia of the pharaohs. 700 years later, around 1700 BC. Chr., The loose sand shards were no longer mixed with soda , but with a soda frit (it was made by melting a mixture of soda and sand and crushed after cooling; as sodium silicate, it was no longer water-soluble). Now nothing could bloom anymore, but the glaze had to be applied on the outside. From this now firmer glassy faience , the frit porcelain was created , the arcanum (alchemical manufacturing secret ) of which was sold by the Persians to Louis XIV in 1752 and which has been manufactured since 1766 in Marieberg and Rörstrand in Sweden . Such a frit porcelain mass is offered today from Lyon .
In the 1st millennium BC, sodium silicate glaze was used. Chr. A new line of development, which was connected with the glass technology. From the cuneiform texts of Nineveh it emerges that the glass was melted in two stages from a mixture of sand and vegetable ash (from the combustion of the saline plants, the halophytes ). This glass was glued to a quartz-rich body with vegetable rubber and melted on. In the whole of the Middle East , this glaze was not spread using soda from the salt lakes, but from the ashes of the salt plants. In Europe these plants are used as silt catchers for land reclamation in the Wadden Sea on the North Sea coast and are called samphire or glass malt. The ashes of this salt plant were also the secret of the Venetian glassmakers. They planted them in different parts of the Mediterranean. The Venetian glass was thus a soda and their secret nothing but the recipe of the Assyrians .
The glaze made of sand and soda or vegetable ash was dependent on the quartz-containing substrate and it had to be fired in two stages, because otherwise the absorbent shards would have sucked away the sodium compound dissolved in the water. The glaze did not hold onto one clay because it had a greater thermal expansion than a pottery shard. With reduced alkali and increased alkaline earth content, it could indeed be burned onto a clay base at around 900 to 1000 ° C, but it had to be rich in lime, which is naturally given in the Middle East, but not in Europe. Such a glaze remained unchanged for thousands of years with tight limits in Iraq and Iran. On quartz frit shards, the alkali glaze reached a technical and artistic level that was far above that of common pottery products.
The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (669 to around 627 BC) had a glass recipe written on a clay tablet in his library in Nineveh and this recipe also led to a glaze.
In the 9th century Hārūn ar-Raschīd in Baghdad received "twenty pieces of imperial porcelain" from China from the governor of Khorasan , which he wanted to have copied. The Iraqi potters understood that nature did not offer them the same opportunities as the Chinese. With their experience with alkaline earth glazes from the Parthian period (250 BC to 226 AD) they created a white glaze on which they painted with cobalt as if "with ink on snow". The whiteness was achieved by tin oxide in the glaze, the whiteness of which is based on the high refractive index. The blue painting was adopted by the Chinese as "Hui-ch'ing = Mohammedan blue" (cobalt ore was imported from the Saxon Ore Mountains ). The cobalt-painted porcelain became the superior export product of the Ming period (1368–1644). The impossibility of imitating Chinese porcelain gave rise to a new invention, faience , and in Ottoman times earthenware à la porcellana was invented. The faience consisted of a natural-colored body, which is covered with an opaque glaze, which was painted in the raw state ("in-glaze painting"). The earthenware, on the other hand, consisted of a white-burning shard that was painted on. A transparent alkali-lead glaze was applied over this, whereby the lead increases the refraction of light and makes the colors shine. The alkali content removes the yellow tinge of the pure lead glaze. Unlike European earthenware, the Ottoman earthenware glaze contained no boron , although there are large deposits of colemanite south of İznik , where the earthenware was invented .
In China, the glaze arose from the observation that the fly ash settled on the ceramic in a wood fire and formed a glaze with the clay base. Since the wood ashes are very rich in lime, it was calcium aluminum silicates that can melt at 1170 ° C. The Chinese invented these glazes in the time of the West Chou cultures , 1122 to 770 BC. As in the Near East, those were the glazes before the application process. At about the same time as the West, in the Han dynasty corresponding to the Roman Empire , the lead glazes appeared, which were colored with copper for green, with ocher for honey yellow, with cobalt for blue and with manganese for violet. They only stopped with the persecution of Buddhists (9th – 14th centuries). While the lead glazes were being applied to the pre-fired shards, from then on the Chinese burned everything using the single-burn method. The stoneware appeared in the Han period and continued in the Tang period with a feldspar glaze at 1260 ° C, which dominated the further development. The iron-colored stoneware was given the name “celadon” in France because it matched the color of the clothes of the shepherd Celadon in Honoré d'Urfé's play based on his shepherd's novel “L'Astrée” in the 17th century. The porcelain was preceded by white stoneware in the Tang period, which was followed by porcelain in the late 8th and early 9th centuries. Some pieces came to Baghdad soon after as diplomatic gifts.
When lead came up because it was produced in large quantities as a waste product from silver extraction, the glaze, which now contains lead, was also suitable for glazing European clays. In Roman times, the operators of the terra sigillata factories apparently had no motivation to get involved with the glaze. Glazed ceramics remained relatively insignificant. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the technology was largely forgotten. Moorish pottery was an exception in Spain since 711, when the Moors came to Granada , and in the 13th century, when pottery flourished under the Nasrids with Persian potters who had fled the Mongols. The Mudejar (= taxpayers) made metal chandeliers (shimmering metallic glazes) and blue-painted ceramics in the Mudejar style in Andalusia from the 11th to the 16th centuries and exported them from Malaga to Italy, Sicily and the Middle East.
Kilns
Ceramic kilns have been archaeologically documented in Southeastern Europe since the Middle Neolithic. In the Uruk period , firing temperatures around 1000–1100 °, sometimes even higher, were reached in Mesopotamia. Already in the 4th millennium BC In the Middle East there were two-chamber furnaces in which fuel and fuel were separated. The stoves were first upright (with the flame rising), then - around 100 AD in northern China, in Europe in the late Middle Ages - lying down in order to make better use of the flames by pulling them through the stove by pulling a chimney. The hard stoneware first appeared with the lying ovens . Until then, all ovens only burned "periodically" (temporarily). In China, dome ovens with firing under the threshing floor and fire puffs in the walls (Shang oven since the 18th century BC), in which one burned at 1050 to 1150 ° C. The lying stove with chimney appeared in China as early as 100 AD (in Japan it was dug into the mountain wall). In the Song era (960–1279) it was provided with a wall of fire ("stand") between the heating and combustion chamber. It was then constructed in the same way as our Kassel oven in the 19th and 20th centuries. Century. Modern industrial ovens, whether for bricks or porcelain, are continuously burning long tunnel ovens with temperature control. Prior to temperature measurement and control by thermocouples, the temperature in ancient times after the precipitation of the flue gases, the color of the fire, then by drawing samples with optical pyrometers and since 1886 with the by Hermann August Seger developed (1839-1893) Seger cones measured that were composed in such a way that they sank at a certain temperature. Similar melting pyrometers: Orton and Staffordshire cones (from Wedgwood) and shrinking (Buller's rings) were developed in England. Cattle and sheep dung, oil (still in primitive ovens in Iraq and Mexico today), wood, coal, gas and electricity served as fuel.
Up to the present day, the usual firing temperature in pottery in the western hemisphere was 900 to 1000 ° C, the stoneware pottery with horizontal ovens was 1250 ° C from around 1300 AD, while the Chinese had this temperature as early as the Tang period ( 618-906). The big differences were due to the fact that in the Middle East, on which Europe depended, no higher temperatures arose, because there all clays melted together to form lumps above 1150 ° C. Tschirnhaus reached a presumably higher temperature in Dresden in 1687 with focal mirrors. And Böttger's 1708 porcelain in Dresden was hard-paste porcelain that was fired higher than the Chinese soft-paste porcelain. Böttger burned in a lying stove, the "Viennese stove", which he improved.
Middle Ages and Modern Times
European ceramics outside the Greco-Roman cultural area did not achieve its technical perfection. After the fall of the Roman Empire, it took a long time for production to be comparable again. The tradition of the turntable continued in the formerly Roman areas. In many places, however, hand-made or reworked ceramics predominated. It was not until the late Middle Ages, when pottery increasingly became an urban handicraft, that wafers became dominant again. The crusaders were amazed at the high level of ceramics in the Orient. The workshop of the Della Robbia family in Florence only emerged in the early Renaissance and was even praised by Leonardo da Vinci. Luca della Robbia used, among other things, tin glaze, and for a long time he was thought to be its inventor. Nevertheless, he was not considered a ceramist, but a sculptor. Ceramics did not even exist as an art, and even painting was only recognized as an art during the Renaissance. Pottery was not involved in the culture determined by religion and spirit. Although salt glaze (in which table salt was thrown into the furnace) on stoneware appeared in Siegburg as early as 1429 , the low fire prevailed, because the clays suitable for the high stoneware fire only occur around the 50th parallel, and the development was from the Near East which only has low-flammability clays. The lead glaze was perfect for this. The first prominent personalities were Bernard Palissy in France, the Bunthafner Paul Preuning in Nuremberg and Cipriano Piccolpasso in Casteldurante , all in the 16th century. Tin glaze had already come to Italy in the 14th century, and the plague brought with it a great need for apothecary vessels. The tin-glazed ceramic was not yet called faience . It was not until the Guelphs under Astorgio Manfredi established a city rule ( Signoria ) in Faenza in 1313 that Faenza rose to become a metropolis of ceramics, and from here the faience, named after the city, spread in after the fall of the Manfredis in 1501 and through escape from the Inquisition Whole europe. Delft and Provence ( Moustiers , Marseille , Toulon ) in the 17th and 18th centuries were outstanding among the almost innumerable faience manufacturers . With the exception of the Muslim majolica in Spain, which came to Florence and other cities via Mallorca and was called majolica, the European faiences, which went back to the Turkish models, were always glazed white and painted in the raw glaze ("inglaze painting").
In 1748 the painter Christian Wilhelm von Löwenfinck deserted "in full gear" and on a stolen horse from Meissen , from where he took overglaze paints with him. In Fulda he used it to paint faience and created the glaze faience (faience à grand feu), which from then on dominated the art of faience. In the 19th century, faience was replaced by earthenware in Europe . It consists of a white-burning clay with a transparent glaze over the painting. The glaze is a lead glaze, which makes the colors shine due to its high refraction. Wedgwood's classicist products , which corresponded to contemporary tastes, contributed to the spread of earthenware in Europe .
Hard-paste porcelain
The invention of hard porcelain by Johann Friedrich Böttger and Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus on January 15, 1708 in Dresden (according to the fire protocol at 5 p.m.), as well as Chinese porcelain, marked the beginning of synthetic ceramics that did not occur (like stoneware) was dependent on a certain tone. The arcanum (the alchemical secret of production) was closely guarded and first spread in 1720 in Vienna , 1740 in Höchst , 1743 in Fürstenberg , 1850 in Berlin and Saint Petersburg , 1755 in Frankenthal , 1758 in Nymphenburg , 1764 in Wallendorf and 1772 in Sèvres and Copenhagen . Since the Renaissance Europe has been gripped by a thirst for knowledge. Almost all European rulers still had a court alchemist in the baroque period. In the seventeenth century, however, with Newton , Leibniz , and Descartes , natural science also appeared.
More inventions
In the race to invent the porcelain, the Italians had a big lead with their leading role in faience and glass art. The results were only pseudo porcelain (e.g. Medici porcelain in Florence around 1575–1620). The French and English played a large part in the technical development. In England in 1748 invented Thomas Frye , the bone china , and Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795) experimented on the replication of agate . He had the outlines of his chinoisen painting printed in Liverpool and colored at home. His typical colored, mostly blue earthenware with garnished reliefs of classic white figures, which he called Jasperware , he invented in 1774. He made Stoke-on-Trent the center of English ceramics production. It was here that Copeland & Garrett succeeded in 1844 with bisque porcelain (also known as “Parian”), which is similar to Parian marble and which is said to have been invented by Jean-Jacques Bachelier in the Vincennes factory in 1753 .
The industrial age
Wedgwood was not only the most successful ceramist of classicism (he had employed John Flaxmann, the main master of English classicism, as a modeller since 1775), but he also installed one of the first steam engines by James Watt and a lathe in his factory. After the death of Frederick II (1786), a steam engine was also installed in Berlin and the first round deck oven was built in 1797. Classicism began here as early as 1767 with the "antique decoration". In Sèvres the pressing process was introduced in 1809 and the casting process in 1816. The compressed air casting process followed in 1912. Machines, ovens, and manufacturing processes were full of new inventions. In 1898 there was the first patent for tunnel kilns in Montereau, and in 1906 the first porcelain tunnel kiln went into operation in Altwasser, Silesia. In 1922, R. H. Staley in the United States received a patent for a vacuum extrusion press, in 1946 Smith & Johnson in England for a plate rolling machine, and in 1964 a fully automatic casting plant was installed in Selb.
In terms of handicrafts and arts, William Morris (1834-1896) and the Arts and Crafts Society founded by Charles-Robert Ashbee (1863-1942) in 1888, and later, in 1907, also the German Werkbund, tried to make handicrafts before the onslaught of the machine save. The influences of the Near East, which had led to the art of faience, lasted on European handicrafts as long as the high firing temperatures were still a rarity. In 1919, Max Laeuger (1864–1952) still considered the Sultan Abad faience from the 12th to 14th centuries, which he got to know in 1910 at the exhibition of Muslim art in Munich, as models. With the further development of electrically heated kilns and the advent of gas firing, the desire for higher firing temperatures increased. So the model switched to the Chinese porcelain from the Song era, which was shown at the great China exhibition in London in 1936. Japanese ceramics were only seen as a model in the second half of the 20th century, supported by Bernard Leach's “Potters Book”, the emerging travel activity and raku, which was enjoying increasing popularity, although it was already in focus in 1867 Europe's guess was when the last shogun of the Tokugawa family exhibited his family treasures in Paris. In 1919, industrial design split off from handicrafts in the Bauhaus founded by Walter Gropius (1883–1969). And in 1952, in a global decision in California, led by Peter Voulkos, art separated from handicrafts and any tradition and followed abstract expressionism. The handicrafts remained under the influence of the Japanese ceramics championed by Bernard Leach. In the general mass movements, the recreational ceramics spread, which was not concerned with financial success, but sought a social reform balance to the industrial world. She found it largely in raku, which does not produce a product, but is a surrogate for closeness to nature with earth and fire.
In the industrial era, the predominance of clay-based ceramics came to an end. The tableware had reached the goal of its development. As in art, in technology, too, a strand devoid of tradition has split off and is of greater importance.
Traditional ceramics are silicate ceramic materials from pottery to porcelain, but also products for technical use: bricks, tiles and components, silicates with low thermal expansion (cordierite and lithium aluminum silicates) or with a certain porosity, steatite and finally porcelain for electrical engineering, sanitary engineering and dentistry.
In use, the refractory materials are also part of the ceramic tradition. In addition, there are also new materials such as ceramic fiber types for thermal insulation and zirconium silicates for the lining of melting tanks in the glass industry and in the steel casting sector.
As technology spread into ever new areas, the variety of materials that are not silicates and no longer correspond to the ceramic tradition, but correspond to its definition, also increased. These can be divided into five groups: oxide ceramics, electro and magneto ceramics, non-oxide ceramics, glass ceramics and special special materials.
In German usage, the term oxide ceramics has become commonplace for materials that mostly consist of an oxide and are produced by sintering: Aluminum oxide is used as a wear-resistant material in mechanical and plant engineering, as a corrosion-resistant material in the chemical industry, as an insulating material in the Electrical engineering and electronics or as a high-temperature material in thermal engineering. Beryllium oxide is used in the electronics industry. Magnesium oxide is a high temperature material and is used as a refractory material and in electrical engineering. Yttrium oxide can be sintered pore-free and is therefore transparent. Its use is currently subject to research. Zirconium oxide is used in the textile industry as a thread guide, in metal production as an extrusion die, for melting certain metals and for measuring instruments in industrial furnaces and engines. Thorium oxide plays a very important role in nuclear technology. It is the highest-melting oxide with a melting point of 3220 ° C.
Electro and magnetoceramics have a versatile field of application. This subheading includes barium titanate ceramics as a dielectric material for capacitors and as PTC thermistors for PTC resistors, lead zirconate titanate as a piezoelectric material for electro-optical applications, zinc varistors with a voltage-dependent resistor to protect devices from overvoltages and thermistors based on aluminum oxide / copper ioxide for Sensor for temperature measurement. Magnetoceramics include soft and permanent magnetic ferrites (made of iron oxide with Mn, Ni, Zn, Co, Cu, Mg or with Ba, Sr, Pb) for wired communications technology or in electromagnetic converters, relays, separators, adhesive systems and transport equipment.
Non-oxidic ceramics include carbides, nitrides, borides, silicides, sulfides and fluorides. The best known of the carbides is silicon carbide. It has high hardness, good thermal conductivity and good temperature resistance. Carbon fibers are made from cellulose, polyacrylonitrile and other long-chain organic compounds and have high elasticity. They are used to manufacture composite materials. Among the nitrides, the boron nitride "Borazon" has the greatest hardness behind the diamond.
Glass ceramics are materials made from lithium and barium silicate glasses. The melted and cooled glass forms are exposed to UV rays, whereby they crystallize. The exposed crystalline phase is dissolved out with dilute hydrofluoric acid, which results in dimensionally accurate breakthroughs that contain grids and screens with up to 50,000 holes per square centimeter (“photo form” process). In this process, “pyroceram” products can also be produced by re-sintering, which are used for rocket tips, cookware, astronomical mirrors and stovetops. In the “Fotoceram” process, the mostly lithium-containing glass crystallizes with titanium dioxide as a nucleating agent, by subjecting the shaped glass piece to a second tempering process, which causes it to crystallize. Finely crystalline miniature components of the highest precision for electronics and electrical engineering are obtained.
Special special materials play an important role in nuclear technology as nuclear fuel, as cladding and structural material and other uses. For fuel elements, the ceramic fuel (uranium dioxide) is filled in the form of cylindrical sintered bodies (“pellets”) into metallic cladding tubes. The uranium dioxide powder is sintered at 1700 ° C under hydrogen. Ceramic materials for medicine are called "bioceramics". They are divided into three groups:
- the inert ceramic materials for implants, especially aluminum oxide for hip joints, pyrolytic carbon for heart valves,
- bioactive ceramics for compatibility with the tissue. This is done using silicate phosphate glasses,
- absorbable calcium phosphate ceramic .
Another group of special materials are ceramic coatings on metals that are applied by flame spraying (with a fuel gas) or plasma spraying (in an electric arc). The high temperatures in the plasma can be up to 40,000 ° C. Oxides of aluminum, titanium, chromium, zirconium, but also spinels, carbides, nitrides, borides and silicides are used as coating materials. On the other hand, suspensions of metal powders in essential oils are used to attach metals to ceramics, which are burned in, sometimes also galvanized. Composite materials made from ceramic and metal are known as cermets . It is produced by sintering or by infiltrating a porous ceramic with a metal melt or by flame spraying . Cermets are used in high-temperature technology and as contact materials in electrical engineering.
literature
- Bryan Sentance: Atlas of Ceramics. Haupt, Bern 2004, ISBN 3-258-06803-8 .
- Rainer Schreg: Ceramics from Southwest Germany. A help for the description, determination and dating of archaeological finds from the Neolithic to modern times . Teaching and working materials on archeology in the Middle Ages and modern times (Tübingen 1998. 3rd edition 2007)
- High medieval ceramics on the Rhine. A source for production and everyday life in the 9th to 12th centuries , 13th conference proceedings of the RGZM, Mainz 2012.
See also
Individual evidence
- ↑ Karol Absolon: "The research of the diluvial mammoth hunter station" by Unter-Wisternitz. 1924 (work report).
- ↑ Miroslav Králík: Ancient ceramics and imprints on their surfaces . In: Jiři Svoboda: Pavlov - Excavations 2007–2011 (= Dolní Věstonice Studies, Volume 18). Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Brno 2011, ISBN 978-80-86023-85-4 , pp. 207–244 (Chapter III.10.)
- ↑ Thomas Einwögerer: The Upper Palaeolithic station on the Wachtberg in Krems, Lower Austria. A reconstruction and scientific presentation of the excavation by J. Bayer from 1930 . In: Communications of the Prehistoric Commission Volume 34. Vienna 2000.
- ^ YV Kuzmin: The earliest centers of pottery origin in the Russian Far East and Siberia: review of chronology for the oldest Neolithic cultures. In: Documenta Praehistorica. 29, 2002, pp. 37-46.
- ^ Jeanette Werning: Earliest broken glass, earliest rice, earliest millet. On the Neolithization in China. In: Jörg Eckert, Ursula Eisenhauer, Andreas Zimmermann (Hrsg.): Archäologische Perspektiven. Analyzes and interpretations in transition. FS Lüning Leidorf, Rahden / Westfalen 2003, pp. 103–129.
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↑ Elisabetta Boarettoa et al. a .: Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and bone collagen associated with early pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China. In: PNAS . 2009, doi: 10.1073 / pnas.0900539106
The first potters lived in China. In: Wissenschaft.de. June 2, 2009, accessed September 9, 2019 . - ^ Pottery 20,000 years old found in a Chinese cave. In: USA Today. June 28, 2012.
- ↑ Bruce Bower: Chinese pottery is oldest known . In: Science News 182/2, 2012, 15. JSTOR 41697713 .
- ↑ Eric Huysecom: When did Africa's Neolithic begin ? In: Spectrum of Science. 8/2008, pp. 62-67.
- ^ Peter Hommel: Ceramic Technology . In: Vicki Cummings, Peter Jordan, Marek Zvelebil (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of the Archeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers . Oxford University Press, Oxford Online Publication, Oct 2013, doi: 10.1093 / oxfordhb / 9780199551224.013.008
- ↑ Seton Lloyd, Fuad Safar, Robert J. Braidwood: Tell Hassuna Excavations by the Iraq Government Directorate General of Antiquities in 1943 and 1944 . In: Journal of Near Eastern Studies , 4/4, 1945, fig. 7.I, JSTOR 542914
- ^ Lindsay Scott: A History of Technology. Volume 1. Oxford 1956
- ↑ Location? Calibrated or uncalibrated?
- ↑ Gerwulf Schneider: A technological Study of North-Mesopotamian Stone Ware . In: World Archeology , 21, No. 1, 1989, pp. 30-50, JSTOR 124483
- ↑ Tim Darvill: Potter's wheel. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archeology . Oxford, Oxford University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-19-172713-9
- ↑ Guy Brunton, Gertrude Caton-Thompson: The Badarian civilization and predynastic remains near Badari. 1928.
- ↑ In her dissertation in 1992, Sabine Wenigwieser examined the salt lakes in Wadi Natrun in northern Egypt . Then it is Na-Cl brine with alternating carbonate and sulfate proportions. The chloride concentrations are 10 to over 50 percent in the individual lakes. Mineralogical investigations on the evaporites and clays of the Wadi el-Natrun . University of Fridericiana in Karlsruhe, 1992.
- ↑ Gerwulf Schneider: A technological Study of North-Mesopotamian Stone Ware . In: World Archeology , 21/1989, p. 42, JSTOR 124483