Islamic State (theory)

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The Islamic State ( Arabic الدولة الإسلامية, DMG ad-daula al-islāmīya ) is a theocratic concept that has played a major role in Islamic political thought, especially Islamism , since the mid-20th century .

Many current states that claim to be an Islamic State refer to themselves as the Islamic Republic . However, there is no specific Islamic form of government . In Islamic republics, Islam is enshrined in the constitution as the state religion , and Sharia is applied in part or as a whole in legislation - this in contrast to states in which Muslims form the majority and which are shaped by Islamic culture , but nonetheless are under secular - nationalist leadership. This distinction is not consistently observed; The Organization for Islamic Cooperation , for example, calls all of its members “Islamic states”.

Ideological foundations

Muslims who strive to establish an Islamic state or are committed to maintaining one are often referred to as Islamists ( islāmīyūn ). In their political thinking, they refer to the fact that the Prophet Mohammed himself founded an Islamic state (→ Municipal Code of Medina ). Sharia is at the center of their state model . The standard-setting sources for this , the Koran and the hadiths about the conduct of the Prophet ( Sunna ), only provide fairly general instructions for regulating political life. Their thinking, which according to Islamic notion is to be directed towards devotion to God ( al-Ichlās ) and the ʿAqīda as the basis of a “godly” way of life , prohibits the introduction of “innovations” ( Bidʿa ), which contradict tradition, Limits. The latter is particularly true of the conservative Salafist movement .

Many Islamist fundamentalists see the state as part of the areas of life strictly regulated by Islam (→ integralism ). God ( Allah ) is the holder of absolute sovereignty ( hākimiyya ) and through the Koran and the Prophet has already finally revealed and bindingly specified a legal framework for the conduct of life of all people in the form of the Sharia (→ rigorism ). The will of God, which is inscrutable for the human mind, is expressed in the Sharia (→ Providence in Islam , Qadar ). At best, they attribute a “relative, derived sovereignty” to the people or rulers. They deny the people and rulers the authority to legislate as soon as and to the extent that they create law which, in their eyes, contradicts the Islamic foundation of faith as divine law . State and rulers have the task of the "legal rights of Allah" (for them ḥuqūqu'llāh to preserve) by acting as " trustee act of God" and enforce the Sharia, such as religious police , by Hisbah and hadd punishments . Despite the Qur'anic dictum there is no compulsion in religion , fundamentalist concepts of an Islamic state provide for non-Muslims ( Kuffār ) special treatment ( Siyar ): As “protected” they are either subject to the Dhimma regime and pay a special tax ( Jizya ) or they have obtained temporary protection status as a Musta'min ; other non-Muslims are not protected and may be killed, enslaved or driven out, including professing Muslims who are considered non-Muslims ( takfīr ). According to Islamic law, an apostate (Murtadd) faces the death penalty.

In addition, fundamentalists count the spread of Islam ( futūḥ ) among the tasks of the state. To this end, the Islamic State should in particular enable and promote the Islamic mission ( Daʿwa ) of the Dāʿiya , while the practice and mission of other religions should be forbidden or restricted. The Islamization of public life also serves that irreligion or a worldview which the followers of the Islamic state classify as pagan , the classification of a corresponding person as kāfir and consequently restrictions and persecution up to the death penalty. In Jihad , a militant flow of Islamism, is relying on the Islamic concept of jihad represent the position that the Islamic state by force of arms and terror was to be built and expanded. Actors who perish in the process honor jihadists - underlined by eschatological ideas of Islam (→ Janna , Huris ) - as martyrs ( Shahid ) as well as the fighters ( Mujahideen ) who died during the Islamic expansion in the heyday of Islam . They believe to get legitimation for their claim to absoluteness in particular from sura 3, verse 110, of the Koran. Accordingly, it is the task of the Muslims as the "best community that has emerged among the people" to command the right and forbid the reprehensible . As confessors of the Tawheed, they alone have the characteristic of monotheism and thus orthodoxy . A concept of freedom and the principle of equality , such as those contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , are far from Islamic fundamentalism.

The holistic maxim of the “unity of religion and state in Islam” (al-Islām dīn wa-daula) has been used to justify the concepts of an Islamic state . This ideological postulate , which propagates the fiction of an agreement between the religious community and the state in territorial, legal and cultural terms, did not remain undisputed, nor did it result in a uniform Islamic theory of the state , nor in a uniform Islamic economic theory . In processes of re-Islamization , Islamist ideas about rule and the form of government are often related to history and see themselves as a continuation of a claim to political power, which in the past was embodied in the existence of Muslim empires and especially in the form of the caliphate . The state organization of the caliphate in early Islam can be seen, for example, from the measures taken by ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb in the 7th century AD .

history

Early developments

On the question of the representative of God (ḫalīfat Allah) and the successor of the divine Messenger Mohammed (ḫalīfat rasūl Allāh), who died on June 8th, 632, the already tense Islamic community ( Umma ) split into different followers, from which eventually different faiths of Islam emerged: the Sunnis , the Shiites and the later almost completely extinct Kharijites . Inner-Islamic conflicts ( Fitan , literally: difficult times ), which in the course of Islamic history were repeatedly sparked by the question of the legal representative and successor, the caliph , led to Islamic tradition developing in different directions, including the Sharia and Islamic legal doctrine ( Fiqh ) were affected. While in Sunni Islam legal teaching was institutionalized by the development of "schools" in the sense of fiqh ( madhabib ) teaching directions up to the 10th century , the Shiites in most parts of the Islamic world initially did not practice political practice for a long time Power and institution building; the schools of the Schia developed accordingly with a time lag. The task of the competing schools with regard to the state order was, for example, to clarify numerous legal questions in connection with the legitimacy and the exercise of rule, such as questions of the extent of power in the region and the creation of a uniform code of law, which was hardly ever created, but one Casuistic collection of individual legal considerations.

In the book The Principles of the Views of the Residents of the Excellent City (Mabādiʾ ārāʾ ahl al-madīna al-fāḍila), the philosopher Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Farabi (c. 872–950) dealt with the characteristics of an ideal community. In it individuals came together to obtain justice, mercy, good governance and ultimately happiness. Al-Farabi described this ideal state using metaphors of the human body. Its head needs the approval of the Islamic community. Further approaches to an Islamic state-theoretical thought can be found at the beginning of the second millennium of Christian calendar. During this time, the Shafiite legal scholar Abū l-Hasan al-Māwardī (972-1058) wrote The Rulebook of Government (al-Aḥkām as-sulṭāniyya). In it he gave fundamental reflections on the state model of the caliphate ( imamate ). The Ashʿarite scholar Abū l-Maʿālī ʿAbd al-Malik ibn ʿAbdallāh al-Juwainī (1028-1085) also commented on the caliphate. He moved away from the prevailing view that a caliph must descend from the Quraish , the tribe of Muhammad, and emerge through learning. Rather, he took the position that a ruler who seizes power and promotes Islamic expansion is already fit for the office of caliph. The Hanbali scholar Ibn Taimīya (1263-1328) developed the idea that the right to be based on statements of the Koran and the prophetic tradition (Sunna) and that a state has to guarantee the enforcement of Sharia law. He rejected the Taqlid and teachings of other schools as inadmissible innovations (Bidʿa).

Developments from the 19th to the 20th century

As a result of colonialism and imperialism, the 19th century was marked by a strong contact between the Islamic world and European politics, culture and civilization. The model of the western national and constitutional state was seen by many as a model. An Islamic model of the state that offered answers to contemporary problems of organizing political rule was not available. Since 1883 Ernest Renan's thesis has been in the room that Islam and traditional Islamic thinking and feeling stand in the way of modernity and progress (→ Renan's correspondence with al-Afghani ). At the end of the 19th century, Islamic thinkers only began to derive a political theory about the modern state from Islam, such as Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh , who thought in the direction of pan-Arab and pan-Islamic concepts (→ Nahda ) and - with a view to a danger of westernization they saw - looked for answers to political questions of the time in a return to the way of life of the Islamic ancestors ( Salafism ). Both referred in particular to the legal theory and the understanding of the state of the Hanbalite Ibn Taimīya. The currents that emerged from their approaches and aimed at reforming Islamic society and political rule are referred to as "reform Islam" or "Islamic reformism". Her attempt to interpret the Qur'an in a targeted manner and to select the hadiths to be considered “valid” met with resistance from established Islamic scholars, who saw their position as sole trustee of Sharia law being undermined. The influential writings of Sayyid Ahmad Khan also show an examination of ideas from the West and an attempt to reinterpret Islamic foundations . A comparable reform movement that established itself in the Russian Empire at this time was jadidism .

The Ottoman Empire began in 1839 with a far-reaching policy of “reorganization” ( Tanzimat ), an attempt to modernize according to Western models. As a constitutional component of this modernization, it introduced the Ottoman constitution in 1876 . The aim was to solve the economic and social problems that had worsened when goods from the industrialized European countries successfully prevailed after the opening of the Ottoman markets at the expense of local products and producers. One element of modernization was the reform of the Sharia law-based Millet system , which was later completely abolished. In 1922, the Young Turks , who were of the opinion that Islam and adherence to Islamic principles were responsible for the backwardness of Muslims, under their leader Mustafa Kemal Pascha, replaced the entire state system of the Ottoman Empire with the secular state of Turkey . The old law based on Islamic traditions and the sultanate were abolished. The last Ottoman caliph Abdülmecid II , who was elected by the Turkish National Assembly on November 19, 1922, only had a religious function to hold in the new Kemalist order.

In this situation of upheaval, the Islamic theologian Raschīd Ridā propagated the idea adopted from ʿAbd ar-Rahmān al-Kawākibī that ideally the Arab caliph is the leading scholar of all Muslims. Ridā published his "Kaliphatschrift" in 1922 under the title The Caliphate or the Greatest Imamate (al-Ḫilāfa au al-imāma al-ʿuẓmā). On 5th / 6th On March 3rd , 1924, the Hashimit Hussein ibn Ali was proclaimed the new caliph at the instigation of his son Abdallah , after the Turkish National Assembly had deposed the last Ottoman caliph Abdülmecid II on March 3, 1924. The proclamation of Hussein as the new caliph was an idea that had been brought into play by British military officials, including Lord Kitchener , since 1914 . The right to rule over all Muslims inherent in this title, however, was not universally recognized and was subsequently the subject of much discussion in the Muslim world. The majority of Indian, Egyptian, North African, and Southeast Asian scholars viewed the Hussein Caliphate as a usurpation based on British machinations .

The Muslim Brotherhood , however, adopted the concept of an Arab caliphate and expanded the idea to include the idea that Muslims must live in a caliphate and according to the Sharia, because Islam is religion and state, because as a comprehensive concept it regulates all areas of life ( → Hasan al-Bannā , Sayyid Qutb , Daʿwa in the 20th century ). This idea was disputed by the scholar ʿAlī ʿAbd ar-Rāziq in 1925 with the text Islam and the foundations of government (al-Islām wa-uṣūl al-ḥukm), in which the separation of state and religion was postulated. The core statements of his secularism were the theses that Mohammed was a prophet and not a statesman , Islam was a religion and not a state. The Islamic scholar Gamal al-Banna has recently focused these thoughts on the thesis that a “civil state” cannot be based on Islam as a frame of reference. If one made Islam the basis of the legislation , one would be sitting - as a result of a large number of interpretations and religious views on various issues - like "in a whirlpool ".

Realized state models of the 20th century

Map of the " Islamic World " (2013): Islamic states with full or partial integration of Sharia law in the state legal system (dark green), other states with Islam as the state religion (light green), secular states (blue), others (orange)

The models of an Islamic state that emerged in the course of the 20th century are different. A model of an Islamic state represents the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia . Its essential characteristic is the principle binding of the exercise of power to the Islamic school of thought of the Wahhābīya and to Islamic law, which, interpreted by the Wahhabi ulama , was laid down as a kind of constitution in the "basic instructions" of 1926 . An early and influential protagonist of the idea of ​​an Islamic state in a republican form was Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi , who founded the Jamaat-e-Islami party in British India in 1941 with the initial aim of creating an Islamic state in the entire territory of the as yet undivided India To establish state. After the partition of India , he had a strong influence on the constitution of Pakistan , which was promulgated on March 23, 1956 , the first “Islamic republic” in the world. Maududi and Fazlollah Nuri inspired Ruhollah Khomeini to his concept of an Islamic state and the Islamic Revolution of 1979. As early as 1936 Khomeini expressed his thoughts on an “Islamic government” as follows:

“The Islamic government is a legal government. In such a government, sovereignty belongs only to God, and the law is an instruction and an edict from God. Islamic law or the instruction of God applies to all people and to the Islamic government. All people - from the noble prophet to his successors (caliphs) as well as all other people are forever subject to this law, which was revealed by the gracious and almighty God and proclaimed in the language of the Koran and the noble prophet. If the noble prophet was entrusted with the office of vicar, it was by the will of God. The merciful and almighty God has appointed the prophet as a representative: as 'God's representative on earth', so that no one forms a government at their own discretion and wants to be head of the Muslims ... Also, God the Almighty, after the possibility existed that differences of opinion in appear in the congregation - because they had not turned to Islam for a long time and committed themselves to it only a short time ago - and instructed the prophet through revelation to immediately give instructions there in the middle of the desert to form a successor office. According to this, the noble prophet appointed the ruler of the believers [what is meant here is ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib ] as his successor (caliph) according to instructions and in compliance with the divine law . He did not do this because it was his son-in-law or because he had performed special services, but because he was empowered by the divine law, subordinated himself to him and carried out the divine instructions. It follows that the government in Islam consists in obeying the law. Only the law has authority over the community. It follows from this that the established powers that were given to the noble prophet and ruler come from God ... "

Since the Twelve Shiites assume is that the current representative of God and Caliph Muhammad ibn Hasan al-Mahdi since the year 941 completely hides developed Khomeini, the concept of governorship of the scholars to the Islamic society to govern (→ Politics of Iran ). The Islamic Republic of Iran officially declares its statehood as the "crystallization of the political ideal of a people who are like-minded in religion and way of thinking, who organize themselves in order to pave the way to their ultimate goal - the path to God - in the intellectual and ideological development process ."

Further developments

During the 20th century there was a lively discourse about the Islamic State. Developed since the 1940s Mahmud Muhammad Taha one the socialism related interpretation of Islam, he derived from the demand for "freedom as a natural right," the "commonality of ownership" and the "perfect equality between men and women." Some authors worked out their ideas on drafts of an Islamic state. While the concept of the caliphate was in the foreground in some state drafts, for example in Taqī ad-Dīn an-Nabhānī , in Salafist circles based on Ibn Taimiya , the use of Sharia law in politics became the measure of the Islamic nature of the state made, for example by Muhammad Abd al-Salam Faraj and Hasan at-Turabi . Since the 1970s, on the one hand, concepts such as consultation , democracy and pluralism have played a more important role, on the other hand, the concept of jihadism , according to which the Islamic state is prepared and enforced by means of terrorism and military force , has matured since then should. An early representative of the "armed jihad " was the Muslim Brother Abdallah Yusuf Azzam , who inspired Abu Musab al- Zarqawi , Nadmah al-Din Faraj Ahmad and the young Osama bin Laden .

criticism

Numerous critics of Islam rejected the ideas that had arisen about an Islamic state, made comparisons with fascism and coined the term Islam fascism as a political catchphrase . The political scientist Armin Pfahl-Traughber does not consider the classification of Islamism and its striving for an Islamic state as "green fascism" to be convincing. Instead, he emphasizes the different styles of action of the Islamists, from party politics to social work and terrorism . Overall, he assesses their striving, one of the main characteristics of which he counts as the “absolute establishment of Islam as an order of life and state”, as a form of religious extremism , a phenomenon of political fundamentalism and a variant of ideological totalitarianism . The German political scientist Bassam Tibi commented on the recent striving of Muslim fundamentalists for a theocratic state model as follows:

“Certainly the belief of Islamic fundamentalism is inadequate to view the application of the Sharia and the establishment of the God of God as a solution for overcoming the Islamic misery. On the contrary, the application of Sharia has led to clerical fascism . If the fundamentalists, as representatives of political Islam, believe that only God can rule and only divine law, the Sharia , equips Muslims with exemplary rules according to which they have to orient their lives in submission, then they are thereby prescribing a totalitarian form of rule . Without democracy and secularity there can be neither development nor peace. "

See also

Web links

literature

  • Roswitha Badry : The contemporary discussion about the Islamic idea of ​​counseling (šūrā) under the special aspect of continuities and discontinuities in the history of ideas . Steiner, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-515-07048-6 .
  • Gudrun Krämer : God's state as a republic. Reflections by contemporary Muslims on Islam, human rights and democracy . Nomos, Baden-Baden 1999, ISBN 3-7890-6416-5 .
  • Tilman Nagel : State and Faith Community in Islam, Volume 1: From the Beginnings to the 13th Century, Volume 2: From the Late Middle Ages to the Modern Age . Artemis, Zurich 1981, ISBN 3-7608-4531-2 .
  • Suha Taji-Faruqi: A fundamental quest: Hizb al-Tahrir and the search for the Islamic Caliphate . Gray Seal, London 1996, ISBN 1-85640-039-5 .
  • Malin Wimelius: On Islamism and modernity. Analyzing Islamist ideas on and visions of the Islamic state. Umeå University, Stockholm, 2003.

Individual evidence

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  47. ↑ Annette Oevermann: The "Republican Brothers" in Sudan. An Islamic Reform Movement in the Twentieth Century . (= Heidelberg studies on the history and culture of the modern Middle East. Volume 24). Verlag Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main 1993, ISBN 3-631-45453-8 .
  48. ↑ Taqī ad-Dīn an-Nabhānī: Niẓām al-islām. Jerusalem 1953; further publications in the same year
  49. ↑ So already in the draft of ʿAbd-al-Wahhāb Ibn-ʿAbd-al-Wāḥid Ḫallāf: as-Siyāsa aš-šarʿīya au niẓām ad-daula al-islāmīā fī š-šuʾūn ad-dastūr-waīya wa-lri -mālīya. Cairo 1930.
  50. ^ Gudrun Krämer: The Islamic Democracy . Article from February 27, 2011 in the zeit.de portal , accessed on October 4, 2014.
  51. ^ Rauf Ceylan : Fundamentalism, Islamism and Jihadism as anti-modernist counter-designs. In: Osnabrück Yearbook Peace and Science. 19/2012, Universitätsverlag Osnabrück / V & R unipress, ISBN 978-3-8471-0061-4 , p. 188 ( online, PDF ( Memento of the original from October 6, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and still not checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. ) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / repositorium.uni-osnabrueck.de
  52. ↑ Bassam Tibi : The Fundamentalist Challenge. Islam and world politics. 4th edition. Verlag CH Beck, Munich 1992, 2003, ISBN 3-406-49459-5 , p. 236 (online)