Job-Demands-Resources-Model

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The Job Demands-Resources model (German work activity requirements Resource Model ) describes the relationship between characteristics of the task , the situation at work and the well-being of employees. It tries to predict how certain characteristics of the work positive or negative influences on well-being and motivationof employees have. The aim is to identify possible factors that affect the employees and the organization in the respective work context. The factors are divided into resources and requirements. Resources have a positive effect on employees and the organization, requirements have a negative and unhealthy effect. These can be collected flexibly in any work context in order to predict work performance and workloads. Since its development, the model has also been expanded to include the category of human resources, which encompass the psychological characteristics of the individual employee, but the precise role of which in connection with the job-demands-resources model has not yet been clarified.

The model was developed by several psychologists who published it in 2001 under the title The Job Demands-Resources Model of Burnout . Originally it was used to identify possible causes of burnout . In the meantime, the model can also be used to predict other factors that are important in the work context, such as work performance. It is one of the most popular models of organizational psychology . However, the model is intended solely as a theoretical framework model that serves to ascertain the resources and requirements in the respective work context and to evaluate the impact on the organization and the employee. There is no information about the psychological mechanisms behind these processes.

background

The job demands resources model was developed by the psychologists Evangelia Demerouti , Arnold Bakker , Friedhelm Nachreiner and Wilmar Schaufeli. These members of the research group are internationally recognized in the field of work and organizational psychology and deal primarily with the issues of stress and well-being in the work context. Evangelia Demerouti is Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the Technical University of Eindhoven and co-editor of the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology and the European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. Arnold Bakker is also Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at Erasmus University Rotterdam and former President of the European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology . Friedhelm Nachreiner also teaches in this area at the University of Oldenburg and is on the board of the Society for Work, Economic and Organizational Psychological Research. Wilmar Schaufeli is a professor in the field of occupational health psychology at the University of Utrecht .

As a starting point for developing the model, the researchers criticize the earlier assumption that burnout can only occur in the social sector, where people work with people. Instead, they assumed that burnout can occur in any work context regardless of this. As a basis for this assumption, they cited empirical research results from which it emerges that burnout can be found not only among employees in the social sector, but also in other work contexts. Based on this, they developed the first draft of the Job-Demands-Resources-Model, which states that burn-out arises from a conflict between high demands and limited resources in the workplace. The first scientific article on the model was published in 2001 in the Journal of Applied Psychology. As part of this article, the researchers also carried out an initial study that showed that the job-demands-resource model is very robust in predicting burnout.

The model was later expanded as the authors found further criticisms in the current research on stress and well-being in the workplace and wanted to improve them. It has long been known in work and organizational research that specific properties of the work task or situations at the workplace have an influence on the working individual. The aim of the research is to determine predictors that have an impact on employee wellbeing and engagement. Previous studies have attempted to predict employee wellbeing by listing workplace conditions that might have an impact on employee wellbeing. However, these lists often lacked theoretical justification. Other studies used the job-demand-control model or the effort-reward-imbalance model to predict . These models are limited to a theoretically justified list of factors with which the well-being and performance of the working individual are to be predicted: According to the job-demand-control model, stress in the workplace is caused by the combination of high demands (e.g. high workload and time pressure) and lower control over one's own work. The effort-reward-imbalance model, on the other hand, assumes that an imbalance between reward (e.g. salary, career opportunities) and subjective effort leads to increased stress. However, these specific predictors do not have to apply to all jobs. Therefore, the theoretically founded models mentioned have a static character and cannot be extended by other predictors. You are not flexible.

The job-demands-resources model also addresses this weak point by attempting to combine traditional stress research with traditional motivation research . This should make it possible to predict the well-being and motivation of a working individual and to adapt this flexibly to the conditions of the specific company.

The job-demands-resources model was originally developed to identify possible causes of burnout . However, empirical evidence has shown that the model can also predict work engagement , consequences for the entire organization ( e.g. intentions to give notice or sick leave ), work-family conflicts and work performance .

Job-Demands-Resources-Model

The main assumption of the job-demands-resources model is that there are no general risk factors that apply to every area of ​​work. Every company has specific risk factors that can induce stress and feelings of strain in the working individual. These factors can be divided into two main categories, requirements and resources . Requirements are physical, psychological, social or organizational factors that arise from the task or the situation at the workplace and that have a negative impact on the individual. These lead to the fact that an individual has to put in more physical or psychological effort. Psychological effort is understood to mean cognitive and emotional effort, while physical effort is understood to mean physical effort. Possible examples of demands in the workplace are high work pressure, a high workload or poor workplace conditions.

Resources are physical, psychological, social or organizational factors of work that have a positive effect on the working individual. These can be important to accomplish the work tasks. In addition, resources can reduce the requirements and the resulting psychological and physical costs. Personal growth, learning and personal development can be promoted through resources. Resources can also functionally contribute to the achievement of performance, they can also reduce job-related requirements and / or stimulate personal development. Resources in the workplace can be generated at the organizational level. These include, for example, salary, career opportunities and job security. But they can also be generated on an interpersonal level. This includes interpersonal and social relationships, support from the supervisor and the team atmosphere, the specific work position (e.g. participation in decisions) or characteristics of one's own tasks (e.g. variation in tasks, autonomy , importance of the task). With this long list of possible influencing factors, the narrow focus on control over one's own activity is avoided, although this also represents a resource in the sense of the model; however, the arbitrariness of the selection of resources in the context of empirical studies is also increasing.

flexibility

The two main categories, resources and requirements, can be used for all areas of work and for each company individually as predictors of well-being in the workplace and work motivation. It is assumed that there are some resources and requirements that apply to each work context. Therefore, the Job-Demands-Resources model is said to be a relatively flexible model.

Other resources and requirements, however, can only occur in specific companies. Scientists have different requirements and resources at their workplace than construction workers on a construction site or employees in sales. Construction workers are more likely to be exposed to physical demands such as noise or physical exertion. Instead, scientists have more to do with cognitive demands, salespeople with sales pressure and pressure from dissatisfied customers. These specific resources can also be collected for the respective occupational group and inserted into the model, which should enable an individual prediction.

Methodical determination of requirements and resources

Bakker's team worked with scales that had mostly previously been developed by other authors for other purposes. The requirements were measured with the help of three scales ( workload , emotional demands, conflicts with the domestic environment) with three or four items each, the resources also with three scales (autonomy, professional development opportunities, social support). To measure burnout, the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory from Demerouti et al. used. The performance (willingness) was measured with two scales on two (as it later turned out, strongly correlated, but not in the same way dependent on the available resources) dimensions: in-role performance in one's own narrower areas of responsibility and extra-role performance , for example the willingness to support other employees counts.

Today, requirements and resources are often factor-analytically derived from a large number of characteristics of equal rank, which were collected with the help of questionnaires, or deductively directly from the job description. On this basis, scales are then subsequently constructed and tested, which enable a comparative analysis of different activities, jobs and industries.

A study from South Africa to evaluate one of the commonly used scales produced reliable results across several industries and showed a high construct validity and a clear separation of requirements and resources. The latter is also an indication of the independence of the two processes . Among the included as particularly burdensome requirements perceived overuse ( overload ) and job insecurity. The most important resources were development opportunities and opportunities for advancement. Only the role of organizational support as a resource was less uniform in the industry comparison. Overall, jobs at universities performed particularly well, while those in the insurance industry performed rather poorly. While the resources of related occupational groups are often the same, the requirements often vary so widely depending on the occupational group that job-related scales are used.

Two processes

The Job Demands Resources model based on Bakker and Demerouti, 2007

Another assumption of the job-demands-resources model is that the emergence of stress and motivation can be explained by two independent processes, each of which is based on different psychological mechanisms. These processes are empirically well documented on the basis of both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies - mostly using structural equation models. According to the first process, demand accumulation is the most important predictor of stress in the workplace. A high workload or time pressure can lead to the exhaustion of mental or physical resources , for example the energy reserves of an individual. As a result, stress can lead to high individual demands. These include symptoms of exhaustion, psychosomatic symptoms, and health problems. The affected individuals use strategies to maintain their performance despite the stress, for example by activating the sympathetic nervous system or through increased subjective effort (compensation). However, the more the sympathetic nervous system is activated and the subjective effort is increased, the more resources the individual consumes. This does not result in a direct drop in performance when completing the primary tasks of the working individual, but rather in an indirect reduction in performance due to the compensatory strategies. This includes that attention is narrowed, the tasks are selected more and the requirements are redefined. On the other hand, this indirect reduction in performance occurs through one's own behavior under fatigue. As a result, the working individual will increasingly make risky decisions and feel strong subjective fatigue. Over a long period of time, requirements and the resulting stress and individually perceived stress can lead to health problems up to burn-out or negative consequences for the organization (e.g. sick leave, increased intentions to leave). A study of call center employees showed that work requirements such as work pressure, computer problems and rapidly changing tasks led to health problems and, as a result, to longer sick leave. Another study showed that interns' work demands such as intellectual and emotional demands, the amount of work and time pressure were related to burnout.

The second process describes a motivational mechanism. It is believed that resources generated in the workplace increase the motivation of the working individual. This leads to higher work engagement and better performance. Resources can either have an intrinsically or extrinsically motivating effect. Resources that promote the growth, learning and development of employees have an intrinsically motivating effect. This can be achieved by fulfilling basic human needs for autonomy, social contacts, own competencies or solidarity or belonging. The working individual can learn through positive feedback and thereby expand his or her skills. This has a positive impact on the entire organization. However, resources can also have an extrinsically motivating effect if they offer additional external incentives to perform the tasks set. This increases the will of the working individual to use his skills and competencies to solve the tasks as well as possible. In the case of employees in the call center, it was shown that resources such as social support, feedback on completed tasks and coaching led to more engagement and organizational commitment . In addition, the employees expressed less intention to resign.

From the point of view of possible interventions, additional resources could both avoid burnout and increase motivation, while the lowering of requirements with unchanged resources does not help to increase work commitment.

Interaction of requirements and resources

In addition to these two processes, the job-demands-resources model assumes that there is an interaction between requirements and resources that is important for the development of feelings of subjective stress and motivation. It is assumed that existing resources can dampen the negative effects of requirements and thereby reduce the stress arising from them. Which specific resources can dampen which negative effects of requirements depends on the individual factors of a company or a work area.

The more recent coping hypothesis assumes that resources primarily influence motivation or work commitment when the requirements are high. In view of the very high demands in the workplace, resources can be perceived more consciously and as useful by the working individual. Then they help the individual to cope with the high demands.

Expansion of human resources

The job-demands-resources model was later expanded to include the category of human resources. Personal resources are psychological properties of the self that are associated with the ability to control and influence one's own environment. Examples of these skills are self-efficacy , self-awareness, and optimism . Since human resources, in addition to work-related resources, have an influence on the achievement of the goals, they were included in the job-demands-resources model. It is assumed that human resources have a direct influence on well-being. Since they are associated with resilience and control over one's own environment, they could reduce the likelihood of burnout and increase work engagement. Studies have found that both workplace resources and human resources can predict individual work engagement. It turned out, however, that the personal resources self-efficacy, optimism and self-esteem could not compensate for the connection between high demands and exhaustion. However, they do, in part, affect the relationship between resources and engagement. It is assumed that existing resources in the workplace promote the development of human resources. In addition, human resources can influence the way in which the working individual perceives his work environment and reacts to it. The human resource hardiness or the resilience of a person also has an influence on work commitment within the framework of the job demands resources model. One study found that teachers with high resilience could make better use of work resources and were more engaged. It also showed that people with high resistance experience less burnout.

Recent research suggests that human resources could take on a much more complex role in the model by modifying the influence of the work environment in terms of positive or negative consequences. In addition, these cognitive processes could help to better understand the assumed paths of the Job Demands-Resources model. However, there is still insufficient empirical evidence to support this. It is therefore still unclear what role human resources actually play in the job-demands-resources model.

In addition to human resources, the personality factors recorded in the Big Five model also have an influence on the processes in the Job Demands Resources model. The positive influence of conscientiousness on work performance appears to be the greatest, while the influence of openness to (new) experiences in monotonous and routine activities tends to be negative. These and other studies also show that neuroticism is directly related to both stress and perceived demands. It is assumed that people with a high neuroticism score are more likely to perceive situations and demands at work as threatening and thus perceive the stress as greater. Also extraversion is directly related with work engagement and work-related resources. People with a high degree of extraversion perceive requirements as positively challenging, which means that they show more commitment.

Between the relatively constant, stable and enduring personality traits, such as the Big Five , whose influence on performance behavior has been relatively well researched, and purely job-specific and situation-specific behaviors and resources, there are job-related values, motives, attitudes and interests such as those in the RIASEC model to be discribed. Herzberg and Roth describe these as “characteristic adaptations” to occupational fields. They differ in a few ways from enduring personality traits. They are an indicator of the so-called person-environment-fit and guide a career choice that is appropriate to one's own interests and the professional environment. In doing so, they play a decisive role in staying in the job or company for a longer period of time and moderate the influence of the Big Five on the perception of work-related demands and stresses.

criticism

The developers of the Job-Demands-Resources model state that the model they developed has some weaknesses. The flexibility or, more critically, the arbitrariness with which resources and requirements can be inserted into the model depending on the individual work context can also be seen as a weakness, since the generalizability of the model suffers. In turn, poor generalizability means that not all relationships that are found in one work context between the requirements, resources and the defined variables also occur in the same way in another organizational setting. Therefore, additional theoretical framework models are often required to explain how certain resources interact with certain requirements. The job demands resources model is therefore more of a descriptive concept that specifies possible relationships between resources, requirements and the defined target variables such as a low burnout rate or high work commitment, but cannot provide an additional explanation of the psychological processes behind them . With regard to the prognostic relevance, it is found that the model allows cross-sectional comparisons between different workplaces or organizations, but is not able to successfully model the interaction effects of requirements and resources nor the reverse of a high burnout rate or high performance motivation to existing or non-existent requirements and resources allowed. Other authors also complain that the model says nothing about the direction of the causalities. Zapf , Dormann and Frese cite numerous examples of the opposite direction of influence between stress and demands.

The model allows statements about which combination of work-related resources and requirements can lead to which consequences, but not why this is so. The integration of human resources into the model turns out to be difficult, as there are various assumptions as to how these are related to the non-human resources, requirements and the examined consequences. So there is no clear solution as to how human resources should be integrated into the job-demands-resources model: They could be used as moderator , mediator or third party variable, as a prerequisite for the effectiveness of resources and requirements, or in the form of a combination thereof Model can be used, which requires a different theoretical framework. All of these weak points result from the heuristic character of the job-demands-resources model. This means that it can be used pragmatically in the organizational setting. But it remains unclear whether and how it works not only on the individual, but also on the team level. If one also wants to explain the state of health of an individual apart from the organizational setting on the basis of existing resources and requirements, the demand resource model should be used.

Methodological problems also arise from the fact that when investigating burnout or professional performance one is always dependent on self-reports from the persons examined about the demands placed on them and their own resources, quite apart from the fact that a real burnout prognosis is impossible for ethical reasons is. With valid scales, practically only personality traits or subjective stressors can be recorded. The operationalization of the requirements is not carried out uniformly. Among other things, Bakker and his co-authors ask about role conflicts with the home environment, but attribute them to the work demands: “How often do you find it difficult to meet your domestic obligations because you are constantly thinking about your work?” (“How often do you find it difficult to fulfill your domestic obligations because you are constantly thinking about work? ") Here it can be argued whether this is a work requirement. In the same article, the authors find only a weak correlation between performance at work and exhaustion or burnout, which leads them to the assumption that resources only have a small buffer function in view of very high requirements. Employees react to a lack of resources with demotivation rather than exhaustion. The role of physical work is similarly unclear, as an occupational medical study shows: on the one hand, it represents a challenge, on the other hand, it moderates the negative influence of other requirements and acts as a buffer against burnout, which in turn depends on its intensity.

In other theoretical models, the role of the scope for decision-making is emphasized as the most important buffer, which is just as unsound empirically as the theoretical question of whether a large scope for action is more of an (extra-functional) work requirement or a resource. This also suggests that it is more a conceptual framework for finding empirical relationships, i.e. a heuristic, than a theoretical model of the development of burnout. Bakker's team sees intra- and extra-role conflicts primarily responsible for this, i.e. interaction effects that, like other interactions, have no fixed location in their model due to the dualism of requirements and resources.

Another group of researchers criticized the fact that, although mainly negative relationships were found between work demands and work commitment, the partially positive relationships between specific work demands and work commitment were largely ignored. She therefore suggests differentiating between obstacles and challenges when considering work-related requirements. As a reason, they cite that requirements have a negative effect on the individual if they feel they are not up to them. On the other hand, other requirements that can be overcome can have a motivating effect. The first evidence of this has also been found.

In an international comparison, another problem arises due to different context and moderator variables on a national level that cannot be influenced by the company. Many studies confirm that job security is an important resource for the provision of services. However, the negative impact of a lack of individual job security on performance can be partially offset by a national social system that provides protection in the event of layoffs.

The psychologists Thomas Hoege and Tatjana Schnell express more fundamental criticism of the “one-sided focus on personal and task-related resources regardless of the subjective evaluation of work content, results and effects against the background of one's own values, needs, motives and goals” allow only a limited view of the conditions in which work engagement occurs. They point out that this requires a cognitive evaluation of the work as meaningful, which goes beyond the classic resources related to pure task management (which, however, in some cases - such as the importance of the task, and to a lesser extent also the autonomy on Workplace - correlate with the feeling of meaningfulness). The implication of the model that sufficient resources can lead to increased engagement for any job content is wrong. The strongest meaningful motivator is "generativity". Overall, the job-demand-resources model shows “ clear deficits in terms of the clarity of its definitions of requirements, burdens and resources in comparison to concepts of action regulation theory (e.g. Moldaschl, 1991, 2005; Austria, Leitner & Resch, 2000)”. In summary, it is criticized that the use of the job-demands-resources model, although methodologically dependent on the subjective recording of work-related characteristics, does not provide for a psychological evaluation of the individual. The work requirements resulted in “direct (without psychological 'detours') stress and the work resources also resulted in direct motivation” or performance. "The psychological processes that play a role in the development of stress or motivation are summarized in a large black box that hovers over the model like a thought bubble, but is never mentioned."

Practical use

The Job Demands Resources model is designed as a flexible model that can be applied to any company context and work area. So it can serve as a tool for human resources . By using qualitative (e.g. interviews) and quantitative (e.g. questionnaires) research methods, the specific resources and requirements of a person at the respective workplace can be determined. Companies can use this knowledge to plan customized interventions. Resources are to be strengthened and requirements minimized in order to avoid negative consequences that affect the individual (such as burnout) or the entire company (such as intent to terminate, sick leave).

Interventions can take place at the organizational level, for example through the implementation of fair processes, group work or increased feedback mechanisms. At the individual level, training courses can be held in which the individual learns how to change his work environment himself, or gets to know his strengths and how to use them.

In addition, employees of a company can fill out an online questionnaire based on the job-demands-resources model and receive direct feedback on the requirements at their workplace and their individual resources. In addition to a graphic evaluation in the form of histograms , the person also receives values ​​that they can compare with a sample, as well as a written explanation of this information. This can be used as a basis for employee appraisals or to plan interventions. In fact, the model has so far been tested primarily in the field of medical and other client-related service professions, in which the requirements are largely of an emotional nature and can therefore only be measured subjectively. The main aim is to determine predictors of burnout.

In addition to the online questionnaire, a validated questionnaire instrument based on the Job Demands Resources model was developed by Eva-Maria Schulte, Britta Wittner and Simone Kauffeld in 2021. It is used to record resources and requirements around the workplace in order to be able to plan interventions based on them.

The model has become more widespread in sales , where on the one hand burnout problems accumulate and on the other hand the effect of monetary and non-monetary resources (i.e. above all subtly differentiated incentive systems) on sales success is relatively well researched. However, studies based on the model show that research into customer requirements has so far been neglected in favor of internal requirements. The requirements include, above all, (intra-) role conflicts and interaction effects (between customer and employer, back office and field service or different customer requests; furthermore the temptation to hide the customer about certain properties or defects of the product; a stronger own or company preference for sales either older or new products, etc.). The resources in the sale of new types of products generally include sufficient training and time for familiarization (especially in industries with a high rate of innovation such as the IT industry) as well as your own conviction that the product will benefit the customer. However, the requirements for the sale of new products are individually viewed very differently by sales staff, sometimes as burdensome, sometimes as positively challenging, which has not been adequately researched. Selling one and the same innovative product can promote burnout in some employees, but improve performance in others. On the basis of the empirical studies, there is no doubt that more subjective engagement promotes sales success.

During the COVID-19 pandemic , researchers from the University of Salzburg used the Job-Demands-Resources model as a theoretical framework to study the effects of teleworking . They came to the conclusion that teleworking can lead to more work resources, more self-determination and greater autonomy, which in turn has a positive effect on work performance. However, teleworking eliminates other work resources that are available in the organization, such as social support for colleagues in the workplace. This creates new stresses that have a negative effect on work performance and well-being. Building on these results, the head of the Department of Economic and Organizational Psychology at the University of Salzburg emphasizes the need for interventions to protect employees from the demands of teleworking and to prevent stress. Another article emphasizes that in times of globalization and demographic change, companies are faced with major challenges and that the commitment of employees plays an important role in maintaining competitiveness. The authors therefore deal with the question of how employee engagement can be specifically promoted in practice. They cite job-crafting behavior as one of the most important factors influencing engagement . Employees can design their own workplace so that it better matches their personal skills, needs and preferences. The job-demands-resources model serves as the theoretical basis for the job-crafting approach. It is assumed that the inhibiting requirements are reduced, the challenging requirements and the resources are to be increased in order to increase the commitment of the employees. On this basis, the authors of the article list possible fields of action: They propose, for example, to expand the scope of action of the employees so that requirements can be better mastered and resources generated.

Inclusion of stress theory and theories of self-regulation

The strict dualism of requirements and resources blocks the view for the individual handling of both. The more or less successful attempts to create a balance between requirements and resources have so far remained the subject of stress and coping research. The Swedish psychologists Wanja Astvik and Marika Melin have tried to supplement the job-demand-resources approach with the aspect of individual options for action and empirically investigated such coping strategies among social workers. Bakker also took up Richard Lazarus' stress and coping concept in 2021 and tried to expand the job-demand-resources approach, which was criticized as too static, by including mechanisms of self-regulation and thereby improve its applicability. Lazarus assumes that requirements of any kind are evaluated by the individual in a two-stage process according to whether they are harmful or challenging and whether their own resources are sufficient to cope with them. He differentiates more precisely between internal and external resources. Accordingly, employees often react to objective requirements (stressors) with inappropriate and inflexible (“maladaptive”) coping strategies, which only increases subjective stress. One of the most important inappropriate reactions (and burnout triggers) is overcommitment , i.e. the overestimation and over-spending of one's own resources to compensate for failures. Permanent organizational precautions against exhaustion and burnout, including appropriate management methods, are all the more important.

Based on the job demands resources model and this transactional stress model from Lazarus as a theoretical background, a concept for stress prevention was designed in Germany, which includes courses and training to develop "adaptive" coping strategies, i.e. to better deal with stress at work to be able to. The costs for these scientifically evaluated and certified courses are covered by the statutory health insurance companies. In addition to courses for individuals, courses for the entire company are also offered.

International reception

In an overview article on the current state of research regarding the job-demands-resources model, Rattrie and Kittler examined in 2014 whether it can actually be used universally and internationally. They concentrated on studies that examined the originally assumed relationships between requirements and resources with burnout and work commitment. They summarized 62 studies on the job-demands-resources model. These examined different work contexts, with the subjects coming from 16 different countries. Supporting documents were found for all assumptions of the job-demands-resources model. This summary of the current state of research was able to show that the model can predict burnout and work commitment in an international comparison of work contexts.

In an international comparison, however, a problem arises due to different context and moderator variables at the national level that cannot be influenced by the company. Many studies confirm that job security is an important resource for the provision of services. However, the negative impact of a lack of individual job security on performance can be partially offset by a national social system that provides protection in the event of layoffs.

An overview paper from 2019 dealt with the question of whether the job-demands-resources model can also predict the well-being of employees in different organizational contexts in the long term. A total of 74 studies that correspond to a high quality standard and were carried out in different work-related as well as cultural contexts were summarized. The assumptions of the job-demands-resources model that high requirements and low resources lead to burnout and existing resources lead to more work commitment could also be confirmed here. The authors of the above survey work emphasized that further research is necessary in order to expand and further develop the model. In both papers, however, they came to the conclusion that the job-demands-resources model is a good theoretical but also empirically confirmed model for predicting the well-being of employees and the risk of burnouts. Other researchers are trying to differentiate the model further in order to enable better predictions by differentiating between stressful and challenging workplace characteristics.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b c Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti: The Job Demands-Resources model: state of the art . In: Journal of Managerial Psychology . tape 22 , no. 3 , April 3, 2007, ISSN  0268-3946 , p. 309-328, here pp. 309-310 , doi : 10.1108 / 02683940710733115 .
  2. ↑ a b c Tinolesen, Burkhard Gusy, Christine Wolter: The job demands-resources model: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies . In: Work & Stress . tape 33 , no. 1 , January 2, 2019, ISSN  0267-8373 , p. 76-103, here pp. 76-79 , doi : 10.1080 / 02678373.2018.1529065 .
  3. ↑ Evangelia Demerouti, Arnold B. Bakker, Friedhelm Nachreiner, Wilmar B. Schaufeli: The Job Demands-Resources Model of Burnout ( full text pdf ) . Ed .: Journal of Applied Psychology. tape 86 , no. 3 , 2001, p. 499-512, here p. 499 f ., doi : 10.1037 / 0021-9010.86.3.499 .
  4. ↑ Evangelia Demerouti. Retrieved May 26, 2021 .
  5. ^ Arnold Bakker. Retrieved May 26, 2021 .
  6. ↑ GAWO Prof. Dr. Nachreiner. Retrieved May 26, 2021 .
  7. ^ Wilmar Schaufeli - Personal website of Wilmar Schaufeli. Retrieved May 26, 2021 (American English).
  8. ↑ Evangelia Demerouti, Arnold B. Bakker, Friedhelm Nachreiner, Wilmar B. Schaufeli: The job demands-resources model of burnout. In: Journal of Applied Psychology . tape 86 , no. 3 , 2001, ISSN  1939-1854 , pp. 499-512, here pp. 499-502 , doi : 10.1037 / 0021-9010.86.3.499 .
  9. ^ A b Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti: The Job Demands-Resources model: state of the art . In: Journal of Managerial Psychology . tape 22 , no. 3 , April 3, 2007, ISSN  0268-3946 , p. 309-328, here pp. 310-312 , doi : 10.1108 / 02683940710733115 .
  10. ^ Robert A. Karasek: Job Demands, Job Decision Latitude, and Mental Strain: Implications for Job Redesign . In: Administrative Science Quarterly . tape 24 , no. 2 , June 1979, ISSN  0001-8392 , pp. 285 , doi : 10.2307 / 2392498 .
  11. ↑ Evangelia Demerouti, Arnold B. Bakker: The Job Demands-Resources model: Challenges for future research . In: SA Journal of Industrial Psychology . tape 37 , no. 2 , May 23, 2011, ISSN  2071-0763 , p. 1 , doi : 10.4102 / sajip.v37i2.974 .
  12. ^ Tinolesen, Burkhard Gusy, Christine Wolter: The job demands-resources model: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies . In: Work & Stress . tape 33 , no. 1 , January 2, 2019, ISSN  0267-8373 , p. 76-103, here p. 76 , doi : 10.1080 / 02678373.2018.1529065 .
  13. ^ A b c d Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Ana Isabel Sanz-Vergel: Burnout and Work Engagement: The JD – R Approach . In: Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior . tape 1 , no. 1 , March 21, 2014, ISSN  2327-0608 , p. 389-411, here p. 399 f ., doi : 10.1146 / annurev-orgpsych-031413-091235 .
  14. ↑ a b c d Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti: The Job Demands-Resources model: state of the art . In: Journal of Managerial Psychology . tape 22 , no. 3 , April 3, 2007, ISSN  0268-3946 , p. 309-328, here pp. 315-316 , doi : 10.1108 / 02683940710733115 .
  15. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Lieke L. ten Brummelhuis, Jelle T. Prins, Frank MMA van der Heijden: Applying the job demands-resources model to the work-home interface: A study among medical residents and their partners . In: Journal of Vocational Behavior . tape 79 , no. 1 , August 2011, p. 170–180, here pp. 173–177 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jvb.2010.12.004 .
  16. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti: The Job Demands-Resources model: state of the art . In: Journal of Managerial Psychology . tape 22 , no. 3 , April 3, 2007, ISSN  0268-3946 , p. 309–328, here p. 312 , doi : 10.1108 / 02683940710733115 .
  17. ^ A b Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti: The Job Demands-Resources model: state of the art . In: Journal of Managerial Psychology . tape 22 , no. 3 , April 3, 2007, ISSN  0268-3946 , p. 309–328, here p. 312 , doi : 10.1108 / 02683940710733115 .
  18. ↑ a b Evangelia Demerouti, Arnold B. Bakker: The Job Demands-Resources model: Challenges for future research . In: SA Journal of Industrial Psychology . tape 37 , no. 2 , May 23, 2011, ISSN  2071-0763 , p. 1-2 , doi : 10.4102 / sajip.v37i2.974 .
  19. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Villem Verbeke: Using the Job Demands - Resources Model to Predict Burnout and Performance . In: Human Resource Management . tape 43 , no. 1 , 2004, p. 83-104 , doi : 10.1002 / hrm.20004 .
  20. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Ana Isabel Sanz-Vergel: Burnout and Work Engagement: The JD – R Approach . In: Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior . tape 1 , no. 1 , March 21, 2014, ISSN  2327-0608 , p. 389-411, here p. 399 , doi : 10.1146 / annurev-orgpsych-031413-091235 .
  21. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Villem Verbeke: Using the Job Demands - Resources Model to Predict Burnout and Performance . In: Human Resource Management . tape 43 , no. 1 , 2004, p. 83-104, here pp. 90-92 , doi : 10.1002 / hrm.20004 .
  22. ↑ Sebastian Rothmann, Karin Mostert, Madelyn Geldenhuys: A psychometric evaluation of the job demand resources scale in South Africa . In: South African Journal of Industrial Psychology . tape 32 , no. 4 , 2006, doi : 10.4102 / sajip.v3214.239 .
  23. ↑ An example of two related care professions can be found in Barbara Curbow, Kai Spratt, Antoinette Ungaretti, Karen McDonnell, Steven Breckler: Development of the Child Care Worker Job Stress Inventory . In: Early Childhood Research Quarterly . tape 15 , no. 4 , 2000, ISSN  0885-2006 , p. 515-536 .
  24. ↑ a b c d Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti: The Job Demands-Resources model: state of the art . In: Journal of Managerial Psychology . tape 22 , no. 3 , April 3, 2007, ISSN  0268-3946 , p. 309–328, here p. 313 f ., doi : 10.1108 / 02683940710733115 .
  25. ^ Tinolesen, Burkhard Gusy, Christine Wolter: The job demands-resources model: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies . In: Work & Stress . tape 33 , no. 1 , January 2, 2019, ISSN  0267-8373 , p. 76-103, here pp. 91-93 , doi : 10.1080 / 02678373.2018.1529065 .
  26. ↑ Evangelia Demerouti, Arnold B. Bakker, Friedhelm Nachreiner, Wilmar B. Schaufeli: The job demands-resources model of burnout. In: Journal of Applied Psychology . tape 86 , no. 3 , 2001, ISSN  1939-1854 , pp. 499-512, here p. 501 f ., doi : 10.1037 / 0021-9010.86.3.499 .
  27. ↑ GRJ Hockey: Cognitive-energetical control mechanisms in the management of work demands and psychological health . In: A. Baddeley, L. Weiskrantz (Eds.): Attention: Selection, Awareness, and Control . Clarendon Press, Oxford 1993, pp. 328-345 .
  28. ↑ Evangelia Demerouti, Arnold B. Bakker, Friedhelm Nachreiner, Wilmar B. Schaufeli: The job demands-resources model of burnout . In: Journal of Applied Psychology . tape 86 , no. 3 , 2001, ISSN  1939-1854 , pp. 499-512, here p. 501 , doi : 10.1037 / 0021-9010.86.3.499 .
  29. ↑ Arnold Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Wilmar Schaufeli: Dual processes at work in a call center: An application of the job demands - resources model . In: European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology . tape 12 , no. 4 , December 2003, ISSN  1359-432X , p. 393-417, here p. 396 f ., doi : 10.1080 / 13594320344000165 .
  30. ↑ Arnold Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Wilmar Schaufeli: Dual processes at work in a call center: An application of the job demands - resources model . In: European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology . tape 12 , no. 4 , December 2003, ISSN  1359-432X , p. 393-417, here pp. 409-411 , doi : 10.1080 / 13594320344000165 .
  31. ↑ Panagiotis Zis, Fotios Anagnostopoulos, Panagiota Sykioti: Burnout in Medical Residents: A Study Based on the Job Demands-Resources Model . In: The Scientific World Journal . tape 2014 , 2014, ISSN  2356-6140 , p. 1–10, here p. 7 f ., doi : 10.1155 / 2014/673279 .
  32. ↑ Arnold Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Wilmar Schaufeli: Dual processes at work in a call center: An application of the job demands - resources model . In: European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology . tape 12 , no. 4 , December 2003, ISSN  1359-432X , p. 393-417, here p. 408 f ., doi : 10.1080 / 13594320344000165 .
  33. ↑ Wilmar Schaufeli: Applying the Job Demands-Resources model: A 'how to' guide to measuring and tackling work engagement and burnout . In: Organizational Dynamics . tape 46 , 2017, ISSN  1359-432X , p. 120–132, here p. 120 .
  34. ^ A b Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Ana Isabel Sanz-Vergel: Burnout and Work Engagement: The JD – R Approach . In: Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior . tape 1 , no. 1 , March 21, 2014, ISSN  2327-0608 , p. 389-411, here p. 400 f ., doi : 10.1146 / annurev-orgpsych-031413-091235 .
  35. ↑ Evangelia Demerouti, Arnold B. Bakker: The Job Demands-Resources model: Challenges for future research . In: SA Journal of Industrial Psychology . tape 37 , no. 2 , May 23, 2011, ISSN  2071-0763 , p. 2-3 , doi : 10.4102 / sajip.v37i2.974 .
  36. ↑ Evangelia Demerouti, Arnold B. Bakker: The Job Demands-Resources model: Challenges for future research . In: SA Journal of Industrial Psychology . tape 37 , no. 2 , May 23, 2011, ISSN  2071-0763 , p. 3 , doi : 10.4102 / sajip.v37i2.974 .
  37. ^ A b Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti: The Job Demands-Resources model: state of the art . In: Journal of Managerial Psychology . tape 22 , no. 3 , April 3, 2007, ISSN  0268-3946 , p. 309-328, here p. 323 , doi : 10.1108 / 02683940710733115 .
  38. ↑ Wilmar B. Schaufeli, Toon W. Taris: A Critical Review of the Job Demands-Resources Model: Implications for Improving Work and Health . In: Bridging Occupational, Organizational and Public Health . Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht 2014, ISBN 978-94-007-5639-7 , pp. 43–68, here p. 49 ( wilmarschaufeli.nl [PDF]).
  39. ↑ a b Wilmar B. Schaufeli, Toon W. Taris: A Critical Review of the Job Demands-Resources Model: Implications for Improving Work and Health . In: Bridging Occupational, Organizational and Public Health . Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht 2014, ISBN 978-94-007-5639-7 , pp. 43–68, here pp. 48–51 ( wilmarschaufeli.nl [PDF]).
  40. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Ana Isabel Sanz-Vergel: Burnout and Work Engagement: The JD – R Approach . In: Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior . tape 1 , no. 1 , March 21, 2014, ISSN  2327-0608 , p. 389-411, here p. 401 , doi : 10.1146 / annurev-orgpsych-031413-091235 .
  41. ↑ Sandra Corso-de-Zúñiga, Bernardo Moreno-Jiménez, Eva Garrosa, Luis Manuel Blanco-Donoso, Isabel Carmona-Cobo: Personal resources and personal vulnerability factors at work: An application of the Job Demands-Resources model among teachers at private schools in Peru . In: Current Psychology . tape 39 , no. 1 , February 2020, ISSN  1046-1310 , p. 325–336, here pp. 332–334 , doi : 10.1007 / s12144-017-9766-6 .
  42. ↑ Evangelia Demerouti, Arnold B. Bakker: The Job Demands-Resources model: Challenges for future research . In: SA Journal of Industrial Psychology . tape 37 , no. 2 , May 23, 2011, ISSN  2071-0763 , p. 3-4 , doi : 10.4102 / sajip.v37i2.974 .
  43. ↑ Wilmar B. Schaufeli, Toon W. Taris: A Critical Review of the Job Demands-Resources Model: Implications for Improving Work and Health . In: Bridging Occupational, Organizational and Public Health . Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht 2014, ISBN 978-94-007-5639-7 , pp. 43–68, here p. 51 ( wilmarschaufeli.nl [PDF]).
  44. ↑ MK Mount, MR Barrick: The Big Five personality dimensions: Implications for research and practice in human resources management . In: Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management . tape 13 , 1995, p. 153-200 .
  45. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Carolyn M. Boyd, Maureen Dollard, Nicole Gillespie, Anthony H. Winefield: The role of personality in the job demands-resources model: A study of Australian academic staff . In: Career Development International . tape 15 , no. 7 , November 30, 2010, ISSN  1362-0436 , p. 622-636, here p. 632 f ., doi : 10.1108 / 13620431011094050 .
  46. ^ Robert P. Tett, Dawn D. Burnett: A Personality Trait-Based Interactionist Model of Job Performance . In: Journal of Applied Psychology . tape 88 , no. 3 , 2003, p. 500-517 , doi : 10.1037 / 0021-9010.88.3.500 .
  47. ^ Philipp Yorck Herzberg, Marcus Roth: Personality Psychology. Springer, 2014, pp. 75-100.
  48. ↑ a b Wilmar B. Schaufeli, Toon W. Taris: A Critical Review of the Job Demands-Resources Model: Implications for Improving Work and Health . In: Bridging Occupational, Organizational and Public Health . Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht 2014, ISBN 978-94-007-5639-7 , pp. 43-68, here p. 48; 54–58 ( wilmarschaufeli.nl [PDF]).
  49. ^ D. Zapf, C. Dormann, M. Frese: Longitudinal studies in organizational stress research: A review of the literature with reference to methodological issues. In: Journal of Occupational Health Psychology , 1996, 1, pp. 145-169. doi: 10.1037 // 1076-8998.1.2.145.
  50. ↑ Toni Faltermaier, Inga-Marie Huebner: Requirement-Resource-Model in the Dorsch Lexicon of Psychology . 2021 ( hogrefe.com [accessed May 29, 2021]).
  51. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Villem Verbeke: Using the Job Demands - Resources Model to Predict Burnout and Performance . In: Human Resource Management . tape 43 , no. 1 , 2004, p. 83-104, here p. 90 , doi : 10.1002 / hrm.20004 .
  52. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Villem Verbeke: Using the Job Demands - Resources Model to Predict Burnout and Performance . In: Human Resource Management . tape 43 , no. 1 , 2004, p. 83-104, here p. 98 , doi : 10.1002 / hrm.20004 .
  53. ↑ Daniel P. Fodor1, Anne Pohrt1, Babette S. Gekeler, Nina Knoll3, Silke Heuse: Intensity Matters: The Role of Physical Activity in the Job Demands-Resources Model . In: Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology . tape 36 , no. 3 , December 2020, p. 223-229 , doi : 10.5093 / jwop2020a21 .
  54. ↑ Margot van der Doef, Stan Maes: The Job Demand-Control (-Support) Model and psychological well-being: A review of 20 years of empirical research . In: Work & Stress . tape 13 , no. 1 , 1999, p. 87-114 .
  55. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Villem Verbeke: Using the Job Demands - Resources Model to Predict Burnout and Performance . In: Human Resource Management . tape 43 , no. 1 , 2004, p. 83-104, here p. 97 , doi : 10.1002 / hrm.20004 .
  56. ↑ a b Anja Van den Broeck, Nele De Cuyper, Hans De Witte, Maarten Vansteenkiste: Not all job demands are equal: Differentiating job hindrances and job challenges in the Job Demands – Resources model . In: European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology . tape 19 , no. 6 , December 2010, ISSN  1359-432X , p. 735-759, here pp. 738-740 , doi : 10.1080 / 13594320903223839 .
  57. ↑ Maike E. Debus, Tahira M. Probst, Cornelius J. König, Martin Kleinmann: Catch me if I fall! Enacted uncertainty avoidance and the social safety net as country-level moderators in the job insecurity-job attitudes link . In: Journal of Applied Psychology . tape 97 , no. 3 , 2012, p. 690 .
  58. ↑ Thomas Hoege, Tatjana Schnell: No work commitment without meaningfulness. A study on the relationship between work commitment, meaningfulness and job characteristics . In: Business Psychology . No. 1 , 2012, p. 91–99, here p. 92 .
  59. ↑ Manfred Moldaschl : workload and its costs
  60. ↑ Thomas Hoege, Tatjana Schnell: No work commitment without meaningfulness. A study on the relationship between work commitment, meaningfulness and job characteristics . In: Business Psychology . No. 1 , 2012, p. 91–99, here p. 97 .
  61. ↑ Nicole Mylene Bunte: The Influence of Work Requirements, Requirements Assessment and Work Resources on Stress and Work Engagement of Employees in the IT Industry. Dissertation , University of Paderborn 2015, p. 64.
  62. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti, Ana Isabel Sanz-Vergel: Burnout and Work Engagement: The JD – R Approach . In: Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior . tape 1 , no. 1 , March 21, 2014, ISSN  2327-0608 , p. 389-411, here p. 402 f ., doi : 10.1146 / annurev-orgpsych-031413-091235 .
  63. ^ Arnold B. Bakker, Evangelia Demerouti: The Job Demands-Resources model: state of the art . In: Journal of Managerial Psychology . tape 22 , no. 3 , April 3, 2007, ISSN  0268-3946 , p. 309-328, here p. 323 f ., doi : 10.1108 / 02683940710733115 .
  64. ↑ See for example Sunhee Kim, Jahsun Wang: The Role of Job Demands-Resources (JDR) between Service Workers' Emotional Labor and Burnout: New Directions for Labor Policy at Local Government. In: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 15 (2018) no.12, p. 2894. DOI: 10.3390 / ijerph15122894; Muhammad Shahnawaz, Adil, Mayra, Baig: Impact of job demands-resources model on burnout and employee's well-being: Evidence from the pharmaceutical organizations of Karachi. In: IIMB Management Review , 30 (2018) no. 2, pp. 119-133. doi: 10.1016 / j.iimb.2018.01.004
  65. ↑ Maria Schulte, Britta Wittner and Simone Kauffeld: Resources and Requirements (ReA) in the world of work: Development and first validation of a questionnaire . In: group. Interaction. Organization. Journal of Applied Organizational Psychology (GIO), Springer, 2021.
  66. ↑ Burnout risk in sales is increasing on marketing-boerse.de, July 9, 2020.
  67. ↑ See the overview in Alex Zablah inter alia: A Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Perspective on New Product Selling: A Framework for Future Research . In: Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management . tape 32 , no. 1 , July 2011, doi : 10.2307 / 23483343 ( researchgate.net ).
  68. ↑ PressReader.com - Newspapers from around the world. Retrieved May 27, 2021 .
  69. ↑ Sophia Zimmermann, Florian Kunze: Employee engagement in times of organizational change - a key to success? Ed .: PERSONALquarterly. tape 3 , 2020.
  70. ↑ Wanka Astvik, Marika Melin: Coping with the imbalance between job demands and resources: A study of different coping patterns and implications for health and quality in human service work . In: Journal of Social Work . tape 13 , 2013, p. 337-360 , doi : 10.1177 / 1468017311434682 .
  71. ↑ Arnold B. Bakker, Juriena D. de Vries: Job Demands-Resources theory and self-regulation: new Explanations and remedies for job burnout . In: Anxiety, Stress & Coping . tape 34 , no. 1 , 2021, p. 1–21 , doi : 10.1080 / 10615806.2020.1797695 .
  72. ↑ Simply less stress - five steps to more serenity. Retrieved May 27, 2021 .
  73. ↑ a b Lucy TB Rattrie, Markus G. Kittler: The job demands-resources model and the international work context - a systematic review . In: Journal of Global Mobility . tape 2 , no. 3 , December 2, 2014, ISSN  2049-8799 , p. 260-279, here pp. 268-270 , doi : 10.1108 / JGM-06-2014-0018 .
  74. ↑ Maike E. Debus, Tahira M. Probst, Cornelius J. König, Martin Kleinmann: Catch me if I fall! Enacted uncertainty avoidance and the social safety net as country-level moderators in the job insecurity-job attitudes link . In: Journal of Applied Psychology . tape 97 , no. 3 , 2012, p. 690 .
  75. ↑ a b Tinolesen, Burkhard Gusy, Christine Wolter: The job demands-resources model: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies . In: Work & Stress . tape 33 , no. 1 , January 2, 2019, ISSN  0267-8373 , p. 76-103, here pp. 91-93 , doi : 10.1080 / 02678373.2018.1529065 .