London Conference (1864)

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The London Conference was an attempt by the signatory states to the London Protocol of 1852 to end the German-Danish War by diplomatic means. The very difficult and controversial negotiations officially began in London on April 25th and ended with no results on June 25th, 1864. They failed mainly because of the stubborn resistance of Denmark, which was determined to revert to the Protocol of 1852, although the November Constitution made the Protocol broke and started the war. With the end of the armistice negotiated during the conference on June 26, 1864 and the resumption of fighting, Denmark was completely defeated by the allied Austrian and Prussian armies a few weeks later .

history

prehistory

Even before the outbreak of the German-Danish War, Great Britain had offered the parties to the conflict mediation. The British government under Prime Minister Palmerston wanted the opening of a congress of the signatories of the London Protocol, which had been signed by representatives from Great Britain, Denmark, France , Austria , Prussia , Russia and Sweden in 1852 . On January 12, 1864, at the instigation of the British, Denmark was suggested to seek a mediating role for the major European powers. The British government itself was divided on how to deal with the crisis. Palmerston, who took a pro-Danish stance, wanted military action if necessary, but the Peace Party, which preferred Great Britain's neutral position, prevailed around Queen Victoria . France's foreign policy engagement in the Schleswig-Holstein question was reluctant, Napoleon III. tried to get closer to Prussia. He had turned down the British proposal for joint armed mediation. Russia also pursued a strikingly neutral, more pro-Prussian policy, as Prussia had supported Russia's actions during the Polish uprising in early 1863, which led to the conclusion of the Alvensleben Convention .

On February 20, 1864, the British government made another attempt to negotiate. The basis of the negotiations should be the proposal to recognize the autonomy and inseparability of the duchies and to place them under the guarantee of the European powers. The fighting could continue during the negotiations. Austria and Prussia agreed in principle and replied with identical notes that Denmark would only have the choice between an armistice with the evacuation of the island of Alsen on the part of Denmark and Jutland on the part of the allies or an armistice on the basis of the uti possidetis . Russia, Sweden and France also accepted the invitation to the conference. France, in turn, spoke out in favor of taking into account not only the London Protocols, but also the will of the German population involved by means of a plebiscite . Denmark postponed the decision to accept the conference, despite repeated and threatened notes from the British Cabinet. It was not until March 18, 1864 that the Danish government announced that the invitation to the conference would be accepted, with the express reservation that the London Protocols formed the basis of the negotiations.

The conference

Since no agreement could be reached on the basis of the negotiations because of the contradicting demands, the British government again invited all participating states to a conference on March 20, 1864 and proposed that the conference should be held without a prior established basis and without cessation of hostilities, but to open with the aim of establishing a lasting peace. By the end of March, approval for the conference was secured by all the powers involved. All states authorized their envoys, accredited at the British court, to attend the conference, which was intended to open on April 12, 1864.

There was a two-week delay because the German Confederation was also invited to the conference with a representative. It was the only time that the German Confederation took part in an international congress. At the end of March, the British envoy , who was accredited in Frankfurt am Main , presented the Federal Presidium with a note containing a formal invitation to the German Confederation to take part in the conference with an authorized representative. The invitation was accepted at a session of the Bundestag on April 14, 1864, with Bavaria , Braunschweig and Oldenburg voting against it. The Saxon State Minister Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust was elected as the representative of the German Confederation at the same meeting . To enable it to appear on the first day of the conference, April 20, 1864 was set as the opening date of the London Conference. All the conference participants gathered that day, but parted again after a short get-together because Beust had not yet arrived.

Opening session

The beginning of the conference was postponed to April 25, 1864. On this day the participants of the London conference were fully assembled for the first time. The authorized representatives were Albrecht von Bernstorff and Hermann Ludwig von Balan for Prussia , Rudolph von Apponyi and Ludwig von Biegeleben for Austria , Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust for the German Confederation and Karl von Hofmann as his companion, and Foreign Minister George Quaade for Denmark, Minister of State Krieger and Chamberlain Ville, for Great Britain John Russell and Lord Clarendon , for France Prince La Tour d'Auvergne, for Russia Philipp von Brunnow and for Sweden Count Wachtmeister. In the first session, Russell was unanimously elected President of the Conference. During this session, he applied for a cessation of hostilities on land and sea until an armistice was concluded. Denmark only agreed to this on the condition that they maintain the blockade of German ports to compensate for the occupation of Jutland. Since the representatives of the German great powers were not authorized to decide this, the proposal was taken ad referendum (for reporting) to obtain instructions from the governments. The Danish plenipotentiaries lacked a direct telegraph line , they had to conduct their correspondence via Saint Petersburg and Stockholm . The circumstance contributed significantly to the delay in the conclusion of the armistice.

Second through eleventh sessions

At the second meeting on May 4, Austria and Prussia did not respond to the further blockade of the German ports demanded by Denmark, while Denmark insisted. The states that were not involved in this war suggested that Denmark agree to an immediate lifting of the blockade and hand over the island of Alsen to the great German powers. Prussia and Austria should evacuate Jutland for this.

On May 9th, in the third session , this proposal was rejected by Denmark. However, the Danish delegates agreed to a ceasefire based on the uti possidetis and the lifting of the blockade. The ceasefire for a month from May 12th was thus decided. The wording of the ceasefire read:

“ There will be a cessation of hostilities at sea and on land, calculated from May 12th, for a period of one month.
On the same day, Denmark will lift the blockade.
Prussia and Austria undertake, during the cessation of hostilities in the parts of Jutland occupied by their army, neither to hinder trade, nor traffic, nor the regular course of administration, nor to levy any war contributions, but on the contrary all deliveries to pay to the German troops, who will only keep their present strategic positions occupied.
The warring powers agree that their military positions on land and sea will be maintained, and they will refrain from reinforcing them during the period of the ceasefire. Official communications of this will be given to the commanders of the warring powers on land and at sea from their resp. Governments are made. "

At the fourth session on May 12th, Russell asked the Prussian and Austrian plenipotentiaries to declare their governments' intentions for the establishment of a lasting peace. Bernstorff replied that the two German great powers no longer felt bound by obligations that existed before the outbreak of war. However, one does not want to rule out the possibility that there could be combinations that make it possible to conclude a peace while preserving acquired rights. The statement met with resistance from the British delegates. They demanded a justification for the unilateral repeal of the London Protocol by Austria and Prussia. The representatives of Russia and Sweden followed the British remarks. France's ambassador noted that new commitments would also be possible without completely repealing the London Protocol of 1852. The Danish delegation stated that the Danish government considered the London Protocol to be still in force, whereupon Beust, the representative of the German Confederation, remarked that the German Confederation had never acceded to the treaty and that it was therefore not valid for him.

In the fifth session on May 17, Russell asked the Prussian representatives to specify the possibilities of a peace treaty discussed at the last session. Bernstorff replied that the peace treaty must give the duchies an absolute guarantee against foreign (i.e. also Danish) oppression and guarantee Germany's security in the north. These guarantees can only be achieved through complete political independence of the duchies and their close ties through common institutions. Since this formulation was too general for the neutral powers, the Austrian Plenipotentiary Apponyi took the floor and stated that the proposal contained the full autonomy of the duchies with common institutions and full independence in their political-administrative relations in order to avoid entanglements, as they are now would take place. The succession remains open since the Bundestag has not resolved a solution to this question and does not deny the King of Denmark his rights. Austria and Prussia were ready, even if the duchies were to have full sovereignty, to accept a personal union with the Danish crown. Beust objected to this because, in his opinion, the German Confederation would not enter into an agreement in which a union, even in loose form, would be established between the duchies and Denmark. The Danish delegation immediately broke off any further discussion, since it considered the proposals of the German plenipotentiary to be entirely inadmissible.

The personal union had failed because of the resistance from Denmark.

Proposals for a division of Schleswig

On May 28th, in the sixth meeting , the representatives of Austria and Prussia specified their proposal from the previous meeting with the demand for a complete separation of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein from the Kingdom of Denmark. Both duchies were to unite into a special state under the sovereignty of the Hereditary Prince Friedrich VIII of Schleswig-Holstein from the Augustenburg line. The Russian plenipotentiary Brunnow refused, pointing out that the Hereditary Prince was not the only one who could assert claims in the event of a separation of the duchies from Denmark. The Grand Duke of Oldenburg also had a right in the dynastic question, and he had a duty to reserve these claims.

In their proposal, Prussia and Austria had avoided any reference to the possible, but in any case questionable, right of inheritance of the Augustenburger, but referred to the public mood in the duchies and throughout Germany.

The Danish delegates stated that the Danish government had considered the previous proposal of the fifth meeting to be inadmissible and that this was all the more true of the present one. Russell then put forward a counter-proposal that had already been discussed with the other neutral states and had in principle been approved by them. Holstein and Lauenburg as well as the southern part of Schleswig were to be separated from Denmark. The border in Schleswig should run from the Schlei and the line of the Danewerk . As a condition for the security of Denmark, Russell declared that the German Confederation was not allowed to build any fortresses or fortified ports in the areas ceded by Denmark . The French representative agreed to the proposal, pointing out that aspects of the defense of Denmark had to be taken into account when drawing the boundaries and that territorial demarcations in favor of the weaker party would have to be made in the case of a mixed population. The Russian plenipotentiary agreed in principle. Sweden's representative added that his government would prefer a border on the Eider but he was empowered to endorse Russell's proposal. Condition is that the border course is not determined more northerly than on the Schlei and Danewerk and that the northern part of Schleswig is completely united with Denmark. The Danish, Austrian and Prussian plenipotentiaries as well as the representative of the German Confederation took note of this and passed the proposals on to their governments.

The seventh meeting on June 2nd was mainly about the future border in Schleswig. The Danish delegation approved the British proposal on behalf of their government. However, Denmark can only cede the Duchy of Lauenburg, which is not directly involved in the current dispute, under special conditions. Denmark had received Lauenburg from Prussia in exchange for Western Pomerania in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna . Bernstorff declared for Prussia that he was not authorized to propose any other border than the Aabenraa - Tondern line . But he and his Austrian colleague are ready to recommend their governments adopt a border from the Flensburg Bay north of Flensburg to Hoyer in the north of Tondern. Beust kept the German Confederation a right of objection to the question of succession to the throne in the duchies. The French ambassador said that his government would not decide on the dynastic question of succession to the throne without the consent and cooperation of the people concerned.

On June 6th, during the eighth session , the first issue was the need to extend the armistice. It was supposed to expire on June 12, 1864. The Danish delegation tried to urge the conference participants to reach a quick agreement on the question of the border drawing in Schleswig. Before that one could not agree to an extension of the armistice.

In the ninth session on June 9th, after long hesitation, Denmark agreed to the decision to extend the armistice for two weeks, which the Austrian and Prussian representatives also agreed, although they had originally requested an extension of several months. The definition of the border line in Schleswig has now become the subject of a controversial debate. The Danish plenipotentiaries initially refused to accept the Schlei-Danewerk border line proposed by Russell and requested a route south of this line from Eckernförde to Friedrichstadt . The Prussian representative Bernstorff initially stuck to the Aabenraa-Tondern route that had already been proposed and later, as a compromise, from a point north of Flensburg to Hoyer. The island of Alsen would have remained with Denmark. The Austrian Plenipotentiary Apponoyi agreed to Prussia's last proposal after consulting his government. However, Denmark showed no willingness to compromise, and therefore only an Aabenraa-Tondern border was an option for Austria. During this meeting it was not possible to bring the differing ideas of both sides to an agreement.

At the tenth session on June 18, Russell made a mediation proposal to both sides. Russell reminded the congress participants of the Paris Congress of 1856 to end the Crimean War , at which it was recommended to seek the mediation of a neutral friendly power before using force. He suggested to the warring parties that in order to determine a boundary line which would have to lie within the line claimed by both sides, the arbitration award of a friendly power should be recognized in advance as binding. The representatives of the warring states did not feel empowered to decide this without instructions from their governments and passed the proposal on.

In the following eleventh session on June 22nd, the plenipotentiaries of Austria and Prussia declared that their governments were quite ready to accept the mediation of a neutral power not participating in the conference, but that they could accept the arbitration of this power as not binding for themselves . Denmark's representative spoke out strongly against this proposal; the Danish government considered the boundary line proposed by Russell at the sixth session on May 28th as an outermost concession. Denmark's delegation stuck to this decision despite all the influence of the representatives of France, Great Britain and Russia. The French representative, La Tour d'Auvergne, made one final proposal. The dispute over the course of the border in areas with a mixed population should be settled by herself through a vote. The troops would have to clear these areas beforehand.

This French proposal, made in coordination with Prussia, caused indignation among British and Austrian representatives: Great Britain expected a result that was very unfavorable for Denmark, Austria feared a precedent for various population groups in its own state. The Danish delegation also immediately and emphatically rejected this proposal.

Closing session

The conference participants saw no more possibility of ending this war peacefully. On June 25, 1864, one day before the end of the extended truce, all plenipotentiaries met one last time, but only to conclude their protocols and to state the futility of the efforts. The Austrian representative Apponyi stated in his closing remarks that it was Denmark that broke the London Protocols of 1852 and brought about the war. The Prussian representative Bernstorff added that Prussia had repeatedly shown its willingness to end the war peacefully at this conference. With the end of the ceasefire on June 26, 1864, fighting resumed immediately.

aftermath

Shortly after the negotiations were over, Russell, the President of the Conference, gave a speech in the House of Lords in the UK that Austria and Prussia were indirectly complicit in the failure of the negotiations. He sharply and polemically attacked the attitude of both states in the negotiations, which caused great consternation in Vienna. At around the same time, however, British Prime Minister Palmerston gave a speech in the House of Commons on the role of Great Britain during the conference, which was more moderate and more objective. Lord Clarendon, one of the UK negotiators at the conference, ruled on the Danish delegation:

“ The Danes were stubborn. They are the toughest people I have dealt with and should do something for. They act like little procurators who have suddenly become ministers and have remained traders. They are afraid of each other and of the Copenhagen mob. Their inability to get their own things in order is terrible and does not bode well for a lasting agreement. "

When a failure of the negotiations in London was foreseeable, Austria and Prussia agreed on the further course of the war in Denmark at a meeting in the Bohemian city ​​of Karlsbad . On June 24, 1864, one day before the end of the London Conference, the agreement known as the Carlsbad Agreement was signed by the Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck and his Austrian counterpart Bernhard von Rechberg . With the seven-point Karlovy Vary Agreement it was agreed, among other things, to occupy the island of Als and all of Jutland as further operational targets. In support of the attack on Alsen, a mock attack against the island of Funen was to be carried out in order to tie up the Danish forces there. An occupation of Funen was refrained from. Jutland was to remain occupied as a pledge for later negotiations and taken over into its own administration. The main goal of the war was now defined as the elimination of the Elbe duchies from the entire Danish state. The offers made at the London conference to partition the Duchy of Schleswig should no longer be binding in future negotiations.

With the end of the first armistice on June 26, the Prussian troops began to occupy the island of Alsen on June 28 and 29, 1864, and on July 10 the allied Austrian and Prussian armies crossed the Limfjord in northern Jutland. After a renewed request from the Danish government, a second armistice came into force on July 18, 1864. Already on August 1 was preliminary peace of Vienna signed and on 30 October 1864 Definitely Peace of Vienna largely confirmed. Denmark ceded the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg in full to Austria and Prussia.

literature

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b Jürgen Angelow : From Vienna to Königgrätz. Oldenbourg, Munich 1996, ISBN 3-486-56143-X , pp. 230-236.
  2. ^ A b c d Friedrich von Fischer : The war in Schleswig and Jutland in 1864. Publishing house of the Austrian military magazine, Vienna 1870, pp. 294–298 + 315–334
  3. ↑ Großer Generalstab (Ed.): The German-Danish War 1864. Volume 2, Mittler, Berlin 1887, p. 750.
  4. ↑ Ludwig Reiners : Bismarck founds the empire . CH Beck, Munich 1957, ISBN 3-423-01574-8 , pp. 47/48 (dtv edition 1980).
  5. ↑ Ludwig Reiners : Bismarck founds the empire . CH Beck, Munich 1957, ISBN 3-423-01574-8 , pp. 53 (dtv edition 1980).
  6. ^ Jan Ganschow, Olaf Haselhorst, Maik without time: The German-Danish War 1864. Prehistory - course - consequences. Ares, Graz 2013, ISBN 978-3-902732-16-3 , p. 141.