Martin Frobisher

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Martin Frobisher

Sir Martin Frobisher (* around 1535 in Normanton , Yorkshire , † November 22, 1594 in Plymouth ) was an English navigator . Between 1576 and 1578 he made three trips to the Arctic regions, among other things to locate the Northwest Passage , the northern sea route from Europe to Asia .

Origin and private life

Frobisher came from an old family that had lived in West Yorkshire since the mid-14th century . He grew up as the child of Margaret York and Bernhard Frobisher in Altofts. However, his date of birth is unknown, and even the year of birth is not certain. Frobisher himself gave the year 1539; However, since his name does not appear in any birth register at this time, a birth in 1535 or 1536 is more likely.

Frobisher's father died in August 1542 and his mother died three years later. He was then sent to London to be educated by his uncle Sir John York. At the age of 15, at the behest of this uncle, he began training as a seafarer, which he completed as a captain in 1565 at the age of 23.

On September 30, 1559, Frobisher married a widow from Yorkshire , Isobel Richard, who from her previous marriage to Thomas Riggat von Snaith brought children into the marriage in addition to property. Little is known about her domestic life, but after Frobisher used all of her inheritance to fund his ventures, it appears he has abandoned her and her children. Eventually, Isobel died in a poor house.

In 1590 Frobisher married his second wife Dorothy, daughter of Lord Wentworth and widow of Paul Withypool of Ipswich, whereby he became the owner of several estates in Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire . She had a grown-up daughter. Details of the relationship between Frobisher and Dorothy are not preserved.

Life as a navigator until 1578

Frobisher took part in several trade trips to Guinea during his training .

In 1553, around 17 years old, he sailed with Thomas Wyndham with three ships and 140 men to West Africa . That first English expedition there returned with an abundance of gold and pepper, but over two-thirds of the participants died of heat or illness, including Wyndham itself.

Despite this experience, Frobisher returned to Guinea on an expedition the following year. While there was trade on the coast, Frobisher volunteered to go ashore as a hostage. The Africans then abruptly stopped trading and held their hostage. The expedition left Frobisher there to continue trading elsewhere. Eventually they returned to England with a host of valuable goods, but without Martin Frobisher. The young Frobisher was handed over to the Portuguese, who imprisoned him for about nine months in Fort São Jorge da Mina . The Portuguese authorities then sent him to Lisbon , from where he finally returned to England .

After his return to England he gave up his activity as a trader between 1556 and 1560 and hired himself as a privateer. After an eventful career as a privateer, Frobisher entered the service of the English Queen around 1570 and from then on patrolled legally, especially in the Irish Sea , in order to arrest French and Portuguese ships.

Around 1575 Frobisher began to seek funding in London for an expedition to explore the Northwest Passage. He relied mainly on the research of Sir Humphrey Gilbert (a half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh ), who had propagated the existence of such a passage in his writing Discourse . Frobisher raised enough money for the expedition and set out to sea with three ships in the summer of 1576. On this first trip he discovered the Frobisher Bay named after him . After his return in the fall of 1576, due to investigations on some of the black stones Frobisher had brought with him, rumors that there was gold ore where Frobisher had been, and so within a very short time a second expedition was set up, on the one hand to return to the Northwest Passage , on the other hand, mainly to look for gold.

Both Michael Lok (around 1532-1622) - dealer and head of the Cathay Company - and Frobisher made applications to the Queen in 1577. Lok sought for his company to control trade in the north-west, Frobisher applied for his appointment as "Grand Admiral of all seas and waters" of the north-west seas and governor of all countries he discovered. However, it is not known whether the requests were even heeded or considered by the Queen.

In the spring of 1577 Frobisher set sail again with three ships to the northwest. When he returned from his expedition in autumn with 200 tons of “gold ore” and three Inuit people, everyone was enthusiastic and generous funds were granted for a third trip. In the early summer of 1578, Frobisher set off again with a fleet of 15 ships, this time exclusively with the task of mining “gold ore” and setting up a permanent colony on site . After a largely unsuccessful trip, Frobisher returned to England in autumn 1578, where his “gold ore” had meanwhile been recognized as worthless pyrite .

Travel to the Arctic

First journey

June 7, 1576 to October 9, 1576

Ships: Barge Gabriel (25 tons), barge Michael (25 tons), 1 pinasse (10 tons)

Crew: 39 men in total

Mission objective: Find the Northwest Passage

Course: As early as 1574 Frobisher approached the Privy Council with a request for support for his first expedition to the Arctic , but was referred to the Muscovy Company by them . The company finally gave Frobisher the permission they had hoped for. The financial support, however, was quite small, as the trip involved a high level of risk and no large or imminent profit was to be expected. Frobisher also received no support from the royal family of England.

On June 7th, Frobisher finally set out with a three-ship fleet . From London, Frobisher (on the Gabriel ) sailed over the Orkney Islands towards west northwest.

The expedition reached the Shetland Islands on June 26 , where they stopped to repair a leak in the Michael’s hull and to refill the ships’s water barrels. That same evening the fleet set sail again and sailed north-west for three days until a storm arose that hit them without a break until July 8th. On July 11, 1576, mainland was sighted, which they believed to be the island of Friesland, but is actually the southeastern tip of Greenland .

Up to this point the fleet stayed together. However, when she was crossing Davis Strait , she was hit by another violent storm. Meanwhile the fleet was separated. The Pinasse sank with its four-man crew and the Michael returned to England.

The Gabriel continued the journey alone until she reached the supposed coast of Labrador on July 26th, which was actually part of Baffin Island . Frobisher called the area "Queen Elizabeth's Foreland".

A few days later the ship reached the mouth of what was later to be named Frobisher Bay and since ice and wind prevented further travel north, Frobisher decided to sail up the bay to the west. He believed it was the entrance to the Northwest Passage and called it Frobisher Street. On a sunny August day, Frobisher decided to go ashore and visit the highest point on the island. He hoped to find evidence of a passage there. This is where the English met the Inuit from Baffin Island for the first time.

One began to do business with one another; However, since no one spoke the other language, communication turned out to be difficult and misunderstandings arose. So some English thought that they could win one of the Inuit as a guide through the unknown area and the nearby islands. On August 20th it was supposed to be brought ashore by five sailors. However, neither the men nor the boat used for them were ever seen by the English again. While the seamen assumed that the five missing seamen had been captured and presumably murdered, the Inuit story still tells centuries later of five sailors who were abandoned from their ship. It can be assumed that these could be the five missing men of Frobisher.

In response to this incident, Frobisher kidnapped an Inuit as an exhibit and started the journey home with the remaining 13-man crew. Before that, however, he formally took possession of the land on behalf of the Queen. The ship cast off on August 26 and arrived back in London on October 9.

Among the items that Frobisher had brought was a black stone that one of the men allegedly found on the surface of Baffin Island and mistaken for sea coal. Shortly after his return, Frobisher gave the stone to Michael Lok, in keeping with an earlier promise. He had the ore examined by a few expert examiners who came to the conclusion that it was worthless. However, Lok still believed the stone was of value and took it to an Italian alchemist living in London. He stated that the black stone contained gold.

Second trip

May 26, 1577 to September 23, 1577

Painting of the kidnapped Inuit woman with her child from 1577, created during Frobisher's second expedition

Ships: Aid (200 tons, Kpt. Christopher Hall), Gabriel (25 tons), Michael (25 tons)

Crew: 120 men

Mission objective: Search and collection of "gold ore", overwintering, if no gold was found, return the Aid to London and search for the Northwest Passage by Gabriel and Michael

Course: In 1577 another expedition was equipped. The fleet consisted of the two barges of the first expedition, Michael and Gabriel , and the Aid , a ship of the Queen.

Michael Lok, the director of the Cathay Company, also applied to the Queen for a charter in preparation for this expedition. According to this, the Cathay Company should have the sole right to use the resources of all seas, islands and areas in the west and north of England as well as all other goods and people. Frobisher would only be allocated 1% of the profits. However, this request was ignored, leaving the company an informal organization without royal approval. Instead, the Queen invested £ 1,000 in the expedition, remaining the largest investor.

The fleet left London on May 31, 1577 with a crew of 120 men on three ships. This number of men included a group of convicts who were to be expelled and used as miners in the new lands. Frobisher had exceeded the allotted manning by at least twenty men, perhaps as much as forty men. However, letters from the Privy Council were waiting for him in the city of Harwich , ordering that the surplus be cut. As a result, he sent the convicts and a number of sailors ashore on the last day of May and sailed north.

The fleet anchored in St. Magnus Sound, Orkney Islands on June 7th to recharge water. On July 4, 1577, "Friesland" (Greenland) was sighted for the first time. Hall and Frobisher each tried to reach the mainland on a dinghy , but failed due to poor visibility and the ice that was hidden by the fog. On July 8, Frobisher, having no chance to land, took a course westward. The ships got into violent storms almost instantly and parted. They continued on this route for several days and it was not until the weather cleared on July 17th that the ships were able to make contact again.

A seaman aboard the Aid discovered Hall's Island that same evening, where further samples of the black ore were searched and found the following day. On July 19th, Frobisher and forty of his best men landed on Hall's Island and made their way to the highest point, where they marked possession of the new land and solemnly prayed for the success of their business.

Here they met Inuit again. Relations with the Inuit were bloody and mistrustful this time too. Arguments broke out after Frobisher and Hall attempted to kidnap two men at an Inuit celebration. Frobisher himself got away with a flesh wound and some of his men were injured. In the end, however, they managed to capture three Inuit, an Inuit woman with her child and an Inuit man.

An attempt was made to find the five missing men from the previous trip. However, this turned out to be in vain and so the English began collecting the black stone. On August 23, 1577, 200 tons of “gold ore” were set off for England. During a storm in which the skipper of the Aid was washed overboard, the fleet lost contact. The ships covered the rest of the way alone and arrived in England at different ports at different times. On September 23, 1577, Frobisher reached Milford Haven with the aid .

Frobisher was thanked and rewarded by the Queen for his services. The newly occupied land was called Meta Incognita by the Queen .

Third trip

Report of Frobisher's third voyage in 1578

May 30, 1578 to October 1, 1578

Ships: 15 ships

Crew: 400 men

Mission objective: Extraction of "gold ore" on the islands in and in front of Frobisher Bay, establishment of a permanent colony on site

Process: Believing that the cargo from the last expedition was very valuable, a third expedition was prepared on a larger scale than any previous one. From Harwich Naze the expedition sailed from May 31, 1578 under the direction of Frobisher towards the English Channel. They reached Greenland on June 20, 1578, where they anchored and tried in vain to contact the Inuit. On this occasion, Frobisher took Greenland into possession for his Queen Elizabeth I and gave it the name "West England".

On their way to Frobisher Bay, the ships got into stormy weather and dangerous ice blocked the way. As a result, a barge sank, but the crew was saved. The loss of this ship was particularly painful because it contained the timber for the planned wintering quarters.

A little later, Frobisher lost course during a blizzard and ended up with his fleet in Hudson Street , which was still unknown at the time and which he called "Mistaken Street". In it the fleet sailed more than 60 miles. Frobisher would have been the first to notice they were on the wrong course. Eventually the fleet turned around and reached the open sea again on July 23, 1578.

Some ships were badly damaged in the meantime and a mutiny began to emerge among parts of the crew . However, Frobisher stuck to his goal of recovering the "gold ore", and so the distressed fleet reached the Countess of Warwick Sound in Frobisher Bay on July 30, 1578 .

The mining of the "gold ore" began hastily, but after only a month had to make its way back with only 1000 tons extracted . At the same time, the plan to found a colony was dropped due to the lack of materials to build the shelters and increasing disagreements among the crew.

With the extracted “gold ore” on board, the expedition set out on August 31st to sail back to England. Between September 24, 1578 and October 1, 1578, the scattered fleet reached England. 40 men died on the trip.

The ore was brought to a purpose-built smelter on Powder Mill Lane in Dartford. There efforts have been made to extract gold or silver and further research has been carried out. However, the black stone turned out to be worthless and was eventually used for street metallization. Cathay's company then went bankrupt and Michael Lok was also ruined. This marked the end of Frobisher's attempts to explore the Northwest Passage.

Career after the Arctic voyages

Financially ruined and involved in numerous quarrels with previous business partners and financiers, Frobisher took a position as captain on a royal ship in 1580 and fought the Spaniards, who were supporting the Irish insurgents at the time. In the aftermath of his expeditions he received a number of minor commissions from the Queen, such as the blockade of Smerwick Harbor in 1580.

In 1585 he took part in the Anglo-Spanish War, where he served as Vice-Admiral under Francis Drake and took command of the Primrose . Frobisher probably owed the role of Vice-Admiral to the Queen herself. During this campaign he conquered, among other things, the Spanish fort near Cartagena .

Only 2 years later, Frobisher was given command of a small fleet in the English Channel. He was at sea with this for 80 days until the fleet docked again on October 31. In 1588, in the battle against the Spanish Armada, he was given command of the Triumph , the largest English galleon , with which he sank four Spanish galleys , whereupon he was knighted .

On August 27, 1594, Frobisher set sail for the last time as the Queen's admiral. In November of the same year, Frobisher was wounded while fighting the Spaniards at the head of a storming force at Fort Crozon near Brest . He was brought to Plymouth, where he died two weeks later.

His remains were brought to London, where he was buried in St. Giles Church, Cripplegate. The remains of his third expedition were found by the American explorer Charles Francis Hall during his expedition from 1860–1862.

literature

  • William James Mills: Exploring Polar Frontiers - A Historical Encyclopedia , Vol. 1, ABC-CLIO, 2003, ISBN 1-57607-422-6 (English)
  • Thomas Rundall: Narratives of voyages towards the north-west, in search of a passage to cathay and india, 1496 to 1631 . The Hakluyt Society , London 1848 (English)
  • Becher, AB: The Voyages of Martin Frobisher , in: The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, Volume 12, No. 1, London 1842, pp. 1 - 20 (English)
  • Best, George: A true discourse of the late voyages of discouerie, for the finding of a passage to Cathaya, by the Northvveast, vnder the conduct of Martin Frobisher Generall, London 1578 (English)
  • Churchyard, Thomas: A prayse, and reporte of Maister Martyne Forboishers voyage to Meta Incognita, London 1578 (English)
  • Chylińska, Bożenna: The Mystique of the Northwest Passage. Martin Frobisher's Voyages to the Arctic Wasteland, 1576 - 1578 , Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne 2018, ISBN 978-1-5275-2499-6 (English)
  • Collinson, Richard: The three voyages of Martin Frobisher, in search of a passage to Cathaia and India by the North-West, AD 1576-8, London 1867 (English)
  • Eliot, KM: The First Voyages of Martin Frobisher , in: The English Historical Review, Volume 32, No. 125, Oxford 1917, pp. 89 - 92 (English)
  • Ellis, Thomas: A true report of the third and last voyage into Meta incognita: atchieved by the worthie capsteine, M. Martine Frobisher, esquire, Anno. 1578, London 1578 (English)
  • Hogarth, DD, et al .: Martin Frobisher's northwest venture 1576 - 1581. Mines, minerals & metallurgy , Canadian Museum of Civilization, Quebec 1994, ISBN 0-660-14018-7 (English)
  • Kenyon, Walter Andrew: Tokens of Possession. The Northern Voyages of Martin Frobisher, University of Toronto Press, Toronto 1975, ISBN 0-88854-183-X (English)
  • Kessler, Sabrina: Cartographies of identity and alterity in English travelogues about the new world. 1560 - 1630 (Munich Studies in English, Vol. 42), Peter Lang GmbH, Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-631-66561-9 .
  • Lemercier-Goddard, Sophie: George Best's Arctic Mirrors. A True Discourse of the Late Voyages of Discoverie… of Martin Frobisher (1578) , in: Frédéric Regard (ed.): The Quest for the Northwest Passage (Volume 19), Routledge, London 2013, pp. 55 - 70, ISBN 978 -1-84893-271-5 (English)
  • McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer , Yale University Press, New Haven 2001, ISBN 0-300-08380-7 . (English)
  • McDermott, James: The third voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island 1578 , The Hakluyt Society, London 2001, ISBN 0-904180-69-7 . (English)
  • McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. An Elizabethan Adventure, University of Washington Press, Seattle / London 2001, ISBN 0-7735-2235-2 (English)
  • Settle, Dionyse: Martin Frobisher: Description of the ship type of the Haubtman Martini Forbissher from Engelland in the Lender towards west and northwest in the Jar 1577. Nuremberg 1580.
  • White, John: Sir Martin Frobisher in Nunavut (1576-1578). In: Abdelouahab, Farid (ed.): Entdecker im Ewigen Eis. Five centuries of polar journeys in travel diaries, Robert von Radetzky (RvR) Verlag, Paris 2006, pp. 33 - 36, ISBN 978-3-938265-22-2

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ McDermot, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . Yale University Press, New Haven 2001, pp. 25 .
  2. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 8 .
  3. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 45 .
  4. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 389 f .
  5. ^ A b McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 27 .
  6. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 41 ff .
  7. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 47 ff .
  8. ^ Hogarth, DD, et al .: Martin Frobisher's northwest venture 1576 - 1581. Mines, minerals & metallurgy . Quebec 1994, ISBN 0-660-14018-7 , pp. 149 .
  9. ↑ Kessler, Sabrina: cartographies of identity and alterity in English travelogues about the new world. 1560-1630 . Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-631-66561-9 , pp. 108 .
  10. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 100-103 .
  11. ↑ Lemercier-Goddard, Sophie: George Best's Arctic Mirrors. A True Discourse of the Late Voyages of Discoverie ... of Martin Frobisher (1578) . In: Frédéric Regard (ed.): The Quest for the Northwest Passage . London 2013, ISBN 978-1-84893-271-5 , pp. 55 .
  12. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 46 f .
  13. ↑ McDermott, James: The third voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island 1578 . London 2001, p. 4 .
  14. ↑ Kessler, Sabrina: cartographies of identity and alterity in English travelogues about the new world. 1560-1630 . Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-631-66561-9 , pp. 135 .
  15. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 160 .
  16. ↑ Becher, AB: The Voyages of Martin Frobisher . In: The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London . London 1842, p. 6 .
  17. ^ Hogarth, DD, et al .: Martin Frobisher's northwest venture 1576 - 1581. Mines, minerals & metallurgy . Quebec 1994, ISBN 0-660-14018-7 , pp. 35 .
  18. ↑ Becher, AB: The Voyages of Martin Frobisher . In: The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London . London 1842, p. 8 .
  19. ↑ Kessler, Sabrina: cartographies of identity and alterity in English travelogues about the new world. 1560-1630 . Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-631-66561-9 , pp. 155 .
  20. ↑ a b c d e f g White, John: Sir Martin Frobisher in Nunavut (1576-1578) . In: Abdelouahab, Farid (ed.):: Discoverers in the eternal ice. Five centuries of polar journeys in travel diaries . Paris 2006, p. 34 .
  21. ^ William James Mills: Exploring Polar Frontiers - A Historical Encyclopedia , p. 248 f.
  22. ↑ Becher, AB: The Voyages of Martin Frobisher . In: The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London . London 1842, p. 2 .
  23. ^ A b McDermott, James: The third voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island 1578 . London 2001, p. 1 .
  24. ↑ Kessler, Sabrina: cartographies of identity and alterity in English travelogues about the new world. 1560-1630 . Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-631-66561-9 , pp. 108 .
  25. ↑ Lemercier-Goddard, Sophie: George Best's Arctic Mirrors. A True Discourse of the Late Voyages of Discoverie ... of Martin Frobisher (1578) . In: Frédéric Regard (ed.): The Quest for the Northwest Passage . London 2013, ISBN 978-1-84893-271-5 , pp. 55 .
  26. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 135 f .
  27. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 137 .
  28. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 43 .
  29. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 137 ff .
  30. ↑ Kenyon, Walter Andrew: Tokens of Possession. The Northern Voyages of Martin Frobisher . Toronto 1975, p. 25 .
  31. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 46 f .
  32. ↑ Chylińska, Bożenna: The Mystique of the North West Passage. Martin Frobisher's Voyages to the Arctic Wasteland, 1576-1578 . Newcastle upon Tyne 2018, ISBN 978-1-5275-2499-6 , pp. 113 .
  33. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 53 .
  34. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 54 ff .
  35. ↑ Chylińska, Bożenna: The Mystique of the North West Passage. Martin Frobisher's Voyages to the Arctic Wasteland, 1576-1578 . Newcastle upon Tyne 2018, ISBN 978-1-5275-2499-6 , pp. 115 f .
  36. ^ Hogarth, DD, et al .: Martin Frobisher's northwest venture 1576 - 1581. Mines, minerals & metallurgy . Quebec 1994, ISBN 0-660-14018-7 , pp. 3 .
  37. ↑ McDermott, James: The third voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island 1578 . London 2001, p. 4 .
  38. ↑ Chylińska, Bożenna: The Mystique of the North West Passage. Martin Frobisher's Voyages to the Arctic Wasteland, 1576-1578 . Newcastle upon Tyne 2018, ISBN 978-1-5275-2499-6 , pp. 123 ff .
  39. ↑ Becher, AB: The Voyages of Martin Frobisher . In: The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London . London 1842, p. 6 .
  40. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 172 .
  41. ↑ Kessler, Sabrina: cartographies of identity and alterity in English travelogues about the new world. 1560-1630 . Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-631-66561-9 , pp. 135 .
  42. ↑ Becher, AB: The Voyages of Martin Frobisher . In: The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London . London, London 1842, pp. 6 .
  43. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 59 .
  44. ^ Hogarth, DD, et al .: Martin Frobisher's northwest venture 1576 - 1581. Mines, minerals & metallurgy . Quebec 1994, ISBN 0-660-14018-7 , pp. 32 .
  45. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 172 f .
  46. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 173 ff .
  47. ^ Hogarth, DD, et al .: Martin Frobisher's northwest venture 1576 - 1581. Mines, minerals & metallurgy . Quebec 1994, ISBN 0-660-14018-7 , pp. 34 .
  48. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 175 .
  49. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 176 f .
  50. ^ Hogarth, DD, et al .: Martin Frobisher's northwest venture 1576 - 1581. Mines, minerals & metallurgy . Quebec 1994, ISBN 0-660-14018-7 , pp. 35 .
  51. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 71 .
  52. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 76-79 .
  53. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 189 f .
  54. ↑ Kessler, Sabrina: cartographies of identity and alterity in English travelogues about the new world. 1560-1630 . Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-631-66561-9 , pp. 155 .
  55. ↑ Becher, AB: The Voyages of Martin Frobisher . In: The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London . London 1842, p. 8 .
  56. ↑ Becher, AB: The Voyages of Martin Frobisher . In: The Voyages of Martin Frobisher, in: The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London . London 1842, p. 9 .
  57. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 227 .
  58. ↑ Kenyon, Walter Andrew: Tokens of Possession. The Northern Voyages of Martin Frobisher . Toronto 1975, p. 87 .
  59. ^ Hogarth, DD, et al .: Martin Frobisher's northwest venture 1576 - 1581. Mines, minerals & metallurgy . Quebec 1994, ISBN 0-660-14018-7 , pp. 39 .
  60. ↑ Kenyon, Walter Andrew: Tokens of Possession. The Northern Voyages of Martin Frobisher . Toronto 1975, p. 90 ff .
  61. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 111 .
  62. ^ Hogarth, DD, et al .: Martin Frobisher's northwest venture 1576 - 1581. Mines, minerals & metallurgy . Quebec 1994, ISBN 0-660-14018-7 , pp. 44 .
  63. ↑ Becher, AB: The Voyages of Martin Frobisher . In: The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London . London 1842, p. 16 .
  64. ↑ Chylińska, Bożenna: The Mystique of the North West Passage. Martin Frobisher's Voyages to the Arctic Wasteland, 1576-1578 . Newcastle upon Tyne 2018, ISBN 978-1-5275-2499-6 , pp. 191 .
  65. ↑ Chylińska, Bożenna: The Mystique of the North West Passage. Martin Frobisher's Voyages to the Arctic Wasteland, 1576-1578 . Newcastle upon Tyne 2018, ISBN 978-1-5275-2499-6 , pp. 195 f .
  66. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 139 ff .
  67. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 146 .
  68. ^ A b McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 148 .
  69. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 299 .
  70. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 312 .
  71. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 333 .
  72. ^ William Arthur Shaw: The Knights of England. Volume 2, Sherratt and Hughes, London 1906, p. 86.
  73. ↑ McDermott, James: Martin Frobisher. Elizabethan Privateer . New Haven 2001, pp. 406 .
  74. ^ McGhee, Robert: The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher. To Elizabethan Adventure . Seattle / London 2001, p. 148 .
  75. ↑ McDermott, James: The third voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island 1578 . London 2001, p. 420 .
personal data
SURNAME Frobisher, Martin
BRIEF DESCRIPTION English navigator
DATE OF BIRTH around 1535
PLACE OF BIRTH Normanton (West Yorkshire) , Yorkshire
DATE OF DEATH November 22, 1594
Place of death Plymouth