Pitesamic language

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Pitesamish

Spoken in

Sweden , Norway
speaker 30-40
Linguistic
classification

Ural

Finno-Ugric
Sami
  • Pitesamish
Language codes
ISO 639-3

sje

Distribution area of ​​Pitesami (No. 3) in the Sami language area
Binding of the Pitesami-Swedish dictionary by Joshua Wilbur

Pitesamisch , also Arjeplogsamisch, is a Sami language that is currently spoken by around 30 people whose families come from the municipality of Arjeplog in Swedish Lapland . Historically, Pitesamic was also spoken in the neighboring areas of Norway .

Ethnolinguistic data

family

Pite Saami forms a branch within the Saami languages, which in turn belong to the Uralic language family .

geography

Pite Saami is spoken in the municipality of Arjeplog in Swedish Lapland as well as in neighboring areas of Norway.

designation

Pite Saami is sometimes referred to as Arjeplog Saami , the endonym is Bidumsáme Giella or Bisumsáme Giella , which translates as 'the language of the Pite Saami'. Often the Pite Saami speakers simply refer to their language as Saami .

Language status

Members of the Pite Saami people traditionally led a life as semi-nomads and reindeer herders, but sometimes also as sedentary farmers, fishermen and hunters. Their culture and language were suppressed for a long time by the predominant North Germanic culture, which was systematized especially from the 18th century. They first converted to Christianity , and from the 19th century onwards, additional assimilation programs began. The children were sent to special nomad schools, where they were forbidden to speak Pite Saami and were kept away from their families and thus from their traditional cultural life. Nowadays there are hardly any members of the Pite Saami who lead a traditional life. Most of them have settled down, live in villages and towns and speak mostly Swedish . Politically, there has been a turnaround in the past few decades and the will to preserve the Saami languages ​​and their cultural heritage is becoming noticeable. However, the problem is that the many sub-groups are hardly taken into account and are only viewed as 'Saami'. As a result, smaller groups such as Pite Saami are threatened not only by Swedish, but also by larger Saami languages ​​such as North Saami , as they receive greater support from the authorities. Among the approximately 2,000 ethnic Pite Saami members, the number of active speakers is currently estimated at only 30, who also all belong to the older generation over 50. This means that Pite Saami is threatened with extinction.

Phonology

The Pite Saami phoneme inventory includes 43 consonants and 9 vowels .

Consonants

bilabial labiodental alveolar post-alveolar palatal velar uvular glottal
Plosives p ʰp pː ʰpː t ʰt tː ʰtː k ʰk kː ʰkː
Nasals m mː n nː ɲ ɲː ŋ ŋː
Trills r rː
Fricatives f fː v vː s sː ʃ ʃː H
Approximants l lː j jː
Affricates ts ʰts tsː ʰtsː tʃ ʰtʃ tʃː ʰtʃː

As can be seen from the table above, all plosives and affricates exist in a non- aspirated and a pre- aspirated variant. In addition, there is a division into a Geminate and the corresponding simply spoken counterpart in all categories . Pre-aspirated consonants and geminates occur only in the consonant center.

Examples:

Plosive: bena - / pena / - 'dog'

Plosive (Geminate): bägga - / pɛkːa / - 'wind'

pre-aspirated plosive: dåhpe - / tɔʰpe / - 'house'

pre-aspirated plosive (Geminate): máhttet - / maːʰtːe-t / - 'can'

The phenomenon of pre-aspiration is realized differently in the Pite Saami, depending on which sound is in front of it. Voiceless simple plosives are also subject to post-aspiration at the end of the word. In the Pite Saami, consonant clusters are common, they can consist of up to three phonemes .

Vowels

There are eight monophthongs (/ ie ԑ a aː uo ɔ /) and one diphthong (/ ua /) in the Pite Saami . However, the two monophthongs / e / and / o / are pronounced as light diphthongs. The position V1 can be occupied by all vowels, V2 by all monophthongs except / ԑ / and V3 by / i ԑ au /.

Prosody

The majority of the words in Pite Saami are two-syllable, only a few functional words ( interjections , conjunctions and pronouns ) are monosyllabic.

The following consonant-vowel patterns are possible with monosyllabic words:

phonological pattern example IPA translation
VC aj aj 'also'
CV dä tɛ 'then'
CVC jus jus 'if'
CVCC gujt kujt 'definitely'
CVCCC dájst taːjst 'of these'

(DEM-PROX-ELAT.PL)

The basic structure of each polysyllabic pitesamic word is shown in the following table:

--- PROSODIC FOOT ---
--- CORE ---
ccc V ccC V ccc v ccc
Foot onset V1 Consonant center V2 C2 V3 C3
EXAMPLES
'Have' (SG.IMP) a n e
,Dog' p e n a
'Kiss' (2nd SG.PRS) u vː a t a
saːkasta-v s aː k a st a v

A word in Pite Saami consists of at least one consonant and one vowel (CV or VC). The minimal structure (core) of polysyllabic words is VCV, but most of them are more complex. The prosodic foot corresponds to the Trochaic pattern, that is, the first syllable is accented, the second unstressed. The intonation is expressed, as is usual with trochaic rhythm, through increased intensity and pitch, but not through a change in the length of the pitch. If the number of syllables is odd, the last one is unstressed.

Some loan words from Swedish are an exception to this pattern and, as in the original Swedish word, have an unstressed first syllable. Example: dep a rtemännta - / deˈparteˌmɛnːta / (= department)

Which phonemes can occur in the corresponding positions in the table above is not restricted within the prosodic foot, but only certain vowels and consonant clusters are allowed in positions V3 and C3. In addition, only the prosodic foot is subject to morphophonological changes.

The prosody at the sentence level becomes noticeable through a weakening of the intensity towards the end of a declarative sentence . The last one to three syllables are pronounced much softer, which manifests itself in a loss of voicing and even whispering.

Morphological patterns

Pite Saami is a synthetic language and has the following inflection categories:

Word class / subcategory Inflection categories
Verbs
- finite forms Person, tense, mode
-infinite forms Aspect, connegative etc.
Nominal expressions
Full nouns Case, number
Interrogative, relative pronouns Case, number
Personal, reflexive pronouns Case, number, person
Demonstrative pronouns Case, number, distance
Adjectives
- attributive adjectives Comparative, superlative
-predicative adjectives Comparative, superlative, number

Often derivative morphology is used in Pite Saami to form nouns and verbs or - albeit less often - to form adjectives and adverbs. Both the derivation morphology and the inflection morphology express themselves linearly (with the help of suffixes ) and non-linearly (via step change , umlaut and / or vowel harmony ). In many cases, linear and non-linear morphology are also combined.

Linear morphology

Both inflectional suffixes and derivation suffixes exist in the Pite Saami . Derivation suffixes are appended to a lexical root , before the inflectional suffix.

[lexical root + derivative morpheme + inflectional morpheme ] → word

Non-linear morphology ( morphophonology )

In Pite Saami there are three different ways that nonlinear morphology can be expressed:

  • Change of stem vowel in V1 position ( umlaut )

Word classes

Generally speaking, there are two main word groups in Pite Saami, the open word class and the closed word class . The open word class includes nouns , pronouns , adjectives and verbs . Adpositions , conjunctions and interjections , on the other hand, are assigned to the closed word class.

There are seven word classes for Pite Saami :

Word class Inflection category
noun Case, number
Adjectives number
Verbs Tense, mode, person, number
Adverbs -
Adpositions -
Conjunctions -
Interjections -

Nominal expressions

Full nouns

Every noun in the Pite Saami consists of a lexical stem to which a class marker and a portmante suffix are appended:

∑ + class marker + case / number

The nouns in Pite Saami inflect - except in the grammatical cases essive and abessive - in every grammatical case after singular and plural. The Pite Saami does not differentiate between mass nouns and countable nouns.

case

There are 9 cases in Pite Saami :

Nominative, genitive, accusative, illative, inessive, elative, comitive, abessive, and essive.

The case system applies to both nouns and pronouns , but not to adjectives and numerals .

In Pite Saami, case and number are usually marked by a nominal suffix , which is supplemented by further morphological marking strategies, such as a consonant change in the stem or an umlaut . In addition, nouns are also marked with case and number by nonlinear stem allomorphism. Since no suffixes are generally used in NOM.SG, NOM.PL and GEN.SG, nouns in these three case / number categories can only be expressed using non-linear morphology.

The table shows the case and number marking of the nouns:

case suffix Explanation
Singular Plural
Nominative NOM - - (~ h) marks the grammatical subject of a verb phrase
Genitive GENE - (~ h) -j the only adnominal case in Pite Saami, marks the possessive noun
accusative AKK -v -jt marks the object of a transitive verb
Illative ILL -j -jda marks nouns that are the goal of an action expressed by a movement verb (where in?)

marks nouns that refer to the recipient of an expression

Inessive INESS -n -jn marks nouns that serve as a supplement to verb clauses that indicate the location of an event or action (where?)
Elative ELAT -st -jst marks, among other things, nouns as the origin of a transfer action (where from?)
Comitative COM -jn (a) -j identifies nouns speak at someone or something that in an action together with the agent participate

marks nouns that refer to an instrument that is used to carry out an action

Abessive ABESS -dak, -daga, -gat, -gahta, -ahta rarely occurs in natural language

Referent for a noun in the abessive is not available.

Essive ESS -n does not inflect according to number

marks predicative nouns that 'become' as additions to verbs like sjaddat. function

expresses a state

Inflection classes

In Pite Saami there are 3 main classes and various sub-classes. Each noun is marked by a so-called class suffix, which is attached directly to the stem of the noun, before the case / number suffix. For the majority of the nouns in Pite Saami, this suffix only consists of a vowel (in V2 position).

There are 2 main criteria to postulate the different classes:

class Level change Class suffix in NOM.SG
I. strong too weak -a / á / o / å / e
II weak to strong -Vj
III weak to strong -
Class I.

First class nouns are characterized by a change in level from strong to weak consonants . Class I can in turn be divided into five sub-classes:

Subclass Class suffix
Yes -a
Ib -á
Ic -O
Id -å
Ie -e, i, á
Class II

The following properties characterize the second class of inflection:

  • the class suffix for NOM.SG. is -Vj, in all other case / number combinations -V
  • Level change from weak to strong consonant
Class III

The following properties characterize the third class of inflection:

  • the stem ends in a consonant
  • the NOM.SG. Class III form noun has no suffix
  • Level change from weak to strong consonant

Class III is divided into two sub-classes: Class IIIa and Class IIIb.

pronoun

All pronouns , including personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, reflexive pronouns, interrogative pronouns and relative pronouns in Pite Saami, inflect after case. Personal and reflexive pronouns inflect according to singular , dual and plural , while demonstrative, interrogative and relative pronouns only inflect according to singular and plural.

Personal pronouns in Pite Saami inflect according to person and number (singular, dual or plural) as well as according to case. However, personal pronouns in Pite Saami are not based on biological gender and only refer to people.

Singular dual Plural
1st person 2nd person 3rd person 1st person 2nd person 3rd person 1st person 2nd person 3rd person
Nominative mån∼månnå dån∼dånnå sån∼sånnå måj∼måjå dåj∼dåjå såj∼såjå mij∼mija dij∼dija sij∼sija
Genitive muv duv suv munuo dunuo sunuo mijá dijá sijá
accusative muv duv suv månov dånov sånov mijáv dijáv sijáv
Illative munje dunje sunje munnuj dunnuj sunnuj mijjaj dijjaj sijjaj
Inessive muvne duvne suvne munuon dunuon sunuon miján diján siján
Elative muvvste duvvste suvvste munuost dunuost sunuost mijást dijást sijást
Comitative mujna dujna sujna munujn dunujn sunujn mijájn dijájn sijájn

Demonstrative pronouns are based on the stem d- , followed by -á, -a or -u and end with a case / number suffix. Demonstrative pronouns in Pite Saami inflect according to case and number (singular and plural, but not dual). The proximity to the unit to which you refer also plays an important role. A distinction is made between proximal (close to speaking), distal (distant from the speaker) and remote (very distant from the speaker).

Case / number suffixes for demonstrative pronouns:

Singular Plural
Nominative -t (-H)
Genitive -n -j
accusative -v -jt
Illative -sa -jda
Inessive -n -jtne
Elative -sste -jste
Comitative -jna -j

Reflexive pronouns are based on the stem etj- (' sich ') and inflect according to number (singular, dual or plural), case and person.

In Pite Saami there are different types of interrogative pronouns as well as various interrogative pro-forms. A distinction is made, whether it is a human speakers is (in this case the strain is overall used and for singular / plural inflected) or whether it is a non-human speakers (is then the trunk is m- used and also inflected after singular / plural).

human speakers non-human speakers
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative ge ge mij ma (h)
Genitive gene gej man mej
accusative gev gejd mav mejd ~ majd
Illative total gejda masa mejda
Inessive call you man majdne
Elative gestures jsste measured majsste
Comitative gejna gej majna mej

Relative pronouns inflect according to number and case, but the humanity of the speakers does not matter.

Singular Plural
Nominative mij ma (h)
Genitive man mej
accusative mav mejd ~ majd
Illative masa mejda
Inessive man majdne
Elative measured majsste
Comitative majna mej

Adjectives

Adjectives in Pite Saami are syntactically defined according to their ability to be the head of an adjective phrase . Adjectives in Pite Saami are divided into four subcategories:

Attributive adjectives only inflect according to case and number in elliptical phrases in which the head of a NP is not realized overtly. Predicative adjectives are numerically marked and therefore resemble nouns from a morphological point of view. Demonstratives agree in number and case with the noun to which they refer. Numerals, on the other hand, never inflect.

Comparative and superlative

The comparative and superlative forms of attributive and predicative adjectives are formed by a suffix . From a morphosyntactic point of view, it seems that comparative and superlative forms can be formed from all adjectives, even if semantic restrictions prevent it.

The predicative singular superlative and comparative forms are identical to the corresponding attributive forms. The predicative plural superlative and comparative forms, on the other hand, are marked by a suffix, which consists of a single vowel (in most cases -a).

Comparative forms are created by adding the suffix –p to an adjectival root . If the root has a closed last syllable, a –u is inserted between the root and the suffix. In predicative positions, the plural is always marked by a suffix consisting of a vowel (usually –a, sometimes –o). It is not known what exactly determines the choice of the plural suffix of the comparative form.

The superlative suffix has four allomorphs :

  • Attributive and singular predicative form:
  • If the resulting form has a strange number of syllables: -bmus-
  • If the last, strange syllable is present (e.g. in the plural predicative form): -bmus-

Verbs

Verbs in Pite Saami inflect according to person, number (singular, dual, plural), tense (present and simple past) and mode ( indicative , imperative , potential ) and are made up of a stem, a class marker and a suffix or several suffixes.

∑ + class marker + mode / tense / person / number

Finite verbs

Finite verbs have the same number as the subject of a sentence and inflect according to singular, dual or plural. Furthermore, finite verbs in the indicative and potential modes match in the person .

In indicative clauses, verbs after the present or past tense can inflect. Verbs that are in the present tense can express that a situation is true in the present or they can express general truths. In addition, the present tense can also express the historical present tense or planned future situations. Hence, the term present is somewhat misleading and is more appropriately expressed by the term 'non-past'.

There are 3 modes in Pite Saami: the indicative, the imperative and the potentialis. The indicative, the unmarked mode, is most commonly used in Pite Saami. Verbs in the imperative are person-marked, but not inflected with numbers (singular, dual, plural).

Verbs that are in potential are marked by the morpheme -tj- followed by a person / number suffix. The potential expresses that an action is likely to happen. Furthermore, the potential can be used to express requests.

Infinite verbs

Most of the infinite verbs in Pite Saami are in the infinitive , connegative, perfect or progressive forms. Each of these infinite verbs can appear with an auxiliary verb.

To express a future action, the verb gallgat (to be) is used along with the infinite form of the lexical verb .

Pite Saami has two different aspects : the perfect and the progressive. Both are formed by a combination of the auxiliary verb årrot 'sein' and the relevant infinite verb form. The perfect tense is marked by the suffix -m . Verbs in the perfect tense express that an action from the past is still relevant in a present situation. Verbs in the progressive form express an ongoing action. Progressive verb forms are indicated by the suffix –min , which is added to the verb stem.

The negation in Pite Saami is expressed by the finite negation verb and a non-finite verb form. The negation verb agrees in person and number with the subject and inflects according to tense and mode . The complement verb appears in a special verb form, the connegative.

passive

Passive verb forms are derived using the suffix -duvv . Passive verbs can be finite verbs that inflect according to tense, person and number or infinite forms, such as the perfect tense.

Inflection classes

Each verb in the Pite Saami is marked by a class suffix, which is attached directly to the verb stem. The verbs are divided into the different verb classes according to the following criteria:

  • The uniformity of vowel patterns between stem and class marker suffix
  • Number of syllables in the infinitive form
  • The presence of deviating person and number suffixes relative to the other verb classes
  • Umlaut and level change
infinitive
class Class suffix Number of syllables Level change /

umlaut

I. -O 2 ✓
II -a / å 2 ✓
III -e 2 ✓
IV -V 2
V -i 3
Class I.

Verbs belonging to the first class:

Class II

Verbs belonging to the second grade:

  • have a two-syllable infinitive form with the class suffix -a (class IIa) or -å (class IIb)
  • possibly level change, umlaut and vowel harmony

Most inflected forms have the same class suffix as the infinitive form, but there are some differences:

shape suffix shape suffix
3.SG.PRS -a 1.DU.PRS -e
1.SG.PRÄS -i 2.SG.PRÄT -e
3.PL.PRS -e 3rd PL.PRÄT -e
2.DU.IMP -e 2.PL.IMP -i
Class III

Verbs that belong to the third grade:

  • have a two-syllable infinitive form with the class suffix -e
  • possibly level change, umlaut and vowel harmony
Class IV

Verbs belonging to the fourth grade:

  • have a two-syllable infinitive form
  • no allomorphic variation in stem and class marker
  • different person / number suffixes with a -j element
Class V

Verbs belonging to the fifth grade:

  • have a three-syllable infinitive form with the class suffix -i
  • no change of level, no umlaut, no vowel harmony

More word classes

In Pite Saami there are also other word classes: adverbs , adpositions , conjunctions and interjections.

Adverbs are defined according to their ability to be the head of an adverbial phrase. Adverbs can be divided into two main groups: derivative adverbs (suffix –t ) and lexical adverbs.

Adpositions are syntactically defined according to their ability to be the head of an adpositional phrase. Post positions are supplemented by NPs in the genitive. Some words that are normally used as postpositions can also appear as prepositions . Like other Saami languages, Pite Saami knows only a few prepositions.

Conjunctions connect phrases and sentences together. NPs, APs and verbs can be connected to other phrases of the same type by a conjunction. However, it is not clear whether PPs and AdvPs can be linked with one another.

Interjections express feelings or the speaker's attitude towards something. Many of the interjections in Pite Saami are loan words from Swedish .

Derivative morphology

Pite Saami is rich in derivation processes . This applies above all to the categories of substantiation and verbalization, but only a few morphological processes exist for adjectives and adverbs .

Nominal derivation

Nominalization processes can affect verbs and adjectives as well as other nouns . The most common substantivating morphemes are:

  • Diminutive : The suffix -tj is added to a noun. The resulting denominal noun belongs to class IIIa. Semantically, it expresses a belittling of the basic noun. Example: vájbmo (= heart) - vájmu- tj (= little heart)
  • General nouning: The suffix - k (between vowels / g / spoken) is added to a noun, verb or adjective. The possible meanings cover a wide range, but usually the resulting noun describes a referent with the property that is described by the word stem . Examples: jahke (= year) - jaga- k (= one year old); máhttet (= to) - máhta- k (= expert); suajbm (= slow) - suojme- k (= slow person); vihta (= five) - vida- k (= five-crown coin)
  • Action substantivation: The suffix - o is added to a verb. The resulting deverbal noun describes the action or result of the action introduced by the base verb. The resulting noun belongs to class Ic. Examples: barrgat (= work) - barrg- o (= work); lávvlot (= to sing) - lávvl- o (= song / hymn). The meaning can also refer to a related concept. Example: gåjjkåt (= drying) - gåjjk- o (= drought / thirst)
  • Agent nouning : The suffix - däddje is usually attached to a verb, but sometimes also to a noun. The resulting noun refers to a person who is involved in the action described by the verb. Examples: málestit (= cook) - máles- däddje (= cook); gieles (= lie) - gieles- däddje (= liar)
  • State substantiation : The suffix - vuohta is usually attached to an adjective, rarely also to a noun, and describes the state introduced by the stem. Examples: sádnes (= true) - sádnes- vuohta (= truth); mánná (child) - mánná- vuohta (= childhood)

Verbal derivation

The area of ​​verbal derivation is the most complex within the derivation morphology in Pite Saami. Ruong (1943) describes 40 verbal suffixes. The following are the most commonly used affixes :

  • Diminutive -tj : This suffix is ​​attached to another verb and means that an action is only carried out a little or in a limited way. The resulting verb is in class V. Although other verbal suffixes can also trigger diminutive meaning, - tj is the only suffix that does this systematically. Examples: barrgat (= work) - barga- tji -t (= work a little); vádtset (= walk) - vádtsa- tji -t (= walk slowly)
  • Verbal derivation suffix -st : This suffix is ​​added to a postposition , a noun or a verb. The resulting verb can simply describe the action of the base noun, but it can also have a diminutive or causal meaning. Examples: birra (= around / around) - bira- sti -t (= drive around); dållå (= fire) - dålå- sti -t (= make a fire)
  • Verbal derivation suffix -d : This suffix is ​​attached to an adverb or a noun and either triggers a diminutive meaning or has a reflective or transitive effect . In some cases, it does not introduce any noticeable change in meaning at all. Examples: bassat (= to wash) - basá- di -t (= to wash oneself); bussot (= to blow) - buso- di -t (= to blow out); tjájbmat (= laugh) - tjájma- di -t (= laugh)
  • Verbal derivation suffix -dall : This suffix is ​​attached to an adjective, verb, or noun. The resulting verb describes a characterization by the stem and belongs to class IIa. Examples: lajjkes (= lazy) - lajkas- dalla -t (= to be lazy); etjas (= oneself) - etjas- dalla -t (= to be stubborn); gähtjat (= see) - gichtja- dalla -t (= examine / look into)
  • Passivation -duvv : This suffix is ​​attached to a transitive verb and causes passivation: The valence is reduced by one, the direct object becomes the subject and bears the nominative . The oblique agent becomes optional and is in the elative case . Examples: Active: máná child-NOM.PL lä be-3.SG.PRS tsiggim build-PRF gådev hut-AKK.SG ("Children built the hut"); Passive: gåhte hut-NOM.SG lä be-3.PL.PRS tsiggij- duvvu -m build-PASS.PRF mánájst child-ELAT.PL ("The hut was built by children"). The suffix can also be attached to a noun or adjective, in which case it expresses a change in the state of the referent described by the stem. Examples: vuoras (= old) - vuoras- duvva -t (= age); tjálbme (= eye) - tjálme- duvva -t (= go blind)

Adjectival derivation

In Pite Saami there are only two derivation processes that generate adjectives:

  • Non-productive derivation: The suffix - s is added to another adjective. Since this process is not systematically possible with all adjectives, it is considered non-productive. Example: bahá (= devil) - bahá- s (= devilish)
  • Productive derivation: The suffix -át / -et is appended to a cardinal number in order to generate an ordinal number . The words vuostas (= first) and mubbe (= second) are, however, suppletive .

Adverbial derivation

There is only one adverbialization process in Pite Saami:

  • The suffix - git is attached to an adjective to form an adverb.

Phrase Types

Verb phrase

The verb complex in Pite Saami consists of a finite verb and optionally one or two non-finite verbs. The order is not strictly specified, but mostly follows the pattern in the table below. The verbs can also be separated from one another by other elements such as adverbs.

Number of verbs Verb form
1 finite verb (lexical / copula)
2 finite verb (grammatical) non-finite verb (lexical / copula)
Modal verb infinitive
Aspectal auxiliary verb Perfect / progressive
Negation verb Connegative
3 finite verb (grammatical) non-finite verb (grammatical) non-finite verb (lexical / copula)
Aspectal auxiliary verb Modal verb in the perfect / progressive infinitive
Negation verb Modal verb in the connegative infinitive
Aspectal auxiliary verb in the connective Perfect / progressive

Noun phrase

The noun phrase can be occupied by full nouns as well as pronouns . It fulfills the syntactic function of verbal arguments, postpositional arguments, adjuncts , predicates , adverbials, possessors and modifiers of other NPs. In addition, a noun phrase itself can be modified by relative clauses , postpositional phrases and non-finite verbs.

The structure looks like this: [(demonstrative pronoun ) + (other modifier) ​​+ noun / pronoun + (reflexive reinforcer) + (relative clause)]

If the noun complex contains a demonstrative pronoun or a modifier, such as a numeral or, in rarer cases, an adjective, the head noun can optionally be omitted ( ellipse ).

Example: bårov eat-1.SG.PRS rupsisav red-ACC.SG [__] ("I eat the red [__]")

Like full nouns, personal pronouns can also be modified.

Adjective phrase

Depending on the head adjective, the adjective phrases are divided into three categories:

  • attributive APs (these modify nouns)
  • Predicative APs (these assign a property to subjects of a copula)
  • numeral APs

Adverbs can modify adjective phrases and always precede them in such cases. However, these constructions appear comparatively rarely. The most common of these adverbs are ilá (= also), nåv (= so), huj (= really), åbbå (= completely), gajk (= all)

Adverbial phrase

The head of the adverbial phrase, the adverb, can be modified by further adverbs. Besides adverbs, an adverbial function can also be fulfilled by noun phrases, adjective phrases, postpositional phrases and non-finite verb forms.

Postpositional phrase

The post position (the head of the PP) can appear in the Pite Saami both before and after the nominal complement. The complement is always inflected in the genitive . In isolated cases, selected post positions can also appear prepositionally .

Word order

Pite Saami has a relatively free word order : SVO, SOV, OSV and VSO are possible, but there are differences in frequency. SVO is the preferred variant if there is no context.

Example: mån 1.SG.NOM vuojnav see-1.SG.PRS bierdnav bear-ACC.SG ("I see a bear")

The reason for this preference can also be found in the use of Swedish as a metalanguage in the elicitation sessions. An additional difficulty in determining the basic word order is that NPs in Pite Saami are often not realized overtly, so that the word order for these sentences cannot be determined. Despite the largely free word order, there are a few mandatory rules. This includes that some elements such as the adverb da (= then) always have to come before the verb.

Simple sentences

Information structure

The topic (mostly the subject ) precedes the comment in the Pite Saami. The focus is positioned after the verb and is usually the verb's complement. The element in focus can also be moved away, as is the case, for example, with questions of constituents.

Declarative clause

Pite Saami is a nominative accusative language. Grammatical roles are all marked morphologically - not by the word order. The finite verb is marked for person , number , tense, and mode . The aspect is expressed analytically in the Pite Saami by an auxiliary verb in conjunction with a non-finite verb form. The finite verb is congruent with the subject in person and number (except in the imperative ). In intransitive sentences, the subject is in the nominative. In transitive sentences the subject is in the nominative and mostly occupies the role of agent, the direct object is in the accusative and usually occupies the role of patient. In ditransitive sentences, the indirect object is mostly in the illative .

passive

During passivation, a transitive sentence becomes an intransitive sentence, the patient becomes a syntactic subject and thus receives the nominative case. The agent appears only optionally and is in the elative case . The verb is marked by a passive suffix (see section Verbal Derivation )

Possessive construction

In the Pite Saami there are two ways of expressing ownership. A copula construction is used for one variant, but this is extremely unusual (see section on the predicative clause ). The verb adnet (= to have) is used for the second and more common variant .

Example: ja and dä then inijmä have-1.PL.PST gusajd cow-ACC.PL ("And then we had cows")

Predicative Clause (Copular Expressions)

The copula verb in Pita Saami is årrot (= to be). Predicative clauses can be classified according to the type of complement:

  • If the complement is a noun phrase in the nominative, this identifies or classifies the referent (the subject) of the copula. Example: mån 1.SG.NOM lev be-1.SG.PRS sábme saami-NOM.SG ("I am a Saami")
  • If the complement is an adjective phrase, it ascribes a property to the subject. Example: buhtsoj reindeer-NOM.PL lä be-3.PL.PRS nav so buojde fat.PL ja and tjábbe beautiful-PL ("The reindeer are so fat and beautiful")
  • If the complement is a noun phrase in the insitive , the position of the subject is described. Example: måj 1.DU.NOM lijmen be-1.DU.PST Fuordnagin Furodnak-INESS.SG ("We two were in Fuordnak"). In addition, ownership can be expressed in relation to the subject. However, this construction is rarely used. Example: muvne 1.SG.INESS lä be-3.SG.PRS akta one mánná child-NOM.SG ("I have a child")
  • If the complement is a noun phrase in the elative , the material of the subject is described. Example: yes and dát DEM.PROX.NOM.SG lä be-3.SG.PRS aj so struvdast cloth-ELAT.SG ( "And that's made of fabric")
  • If the complement is a temporal adjunct, it is an existential expression . The word order is obligatory temporal expression - copula - subject . Example: ja and dále'l now-be-3.SG.PRS káffa coffee.NOM.SG ("And now it's coffee time")

Existentialis

Existence statements are expressed in the Pite Saami by the verb gävdnut (derived from gávdnat = to find). The element whose existence is assumed occupies the position of the subject. In these constructions the subject mostly follows the verb. The reason for this lies in the information structure, as the subject is the focus here. If it is already assumed due to the context, it can also come before the verb.

Example: Våren mountain-INESS.SG gävdnu exist-3.PL.PRS aj so juomo sorrel-NOM.PL ( "In the mountains there are also sorrel")

Potentials

The potential is marked by the suffix - tj . The subject is mostly not overt.

Example: Na no , virtitjav must-POT.1.SG nuollat undress-INF ("Oh no, I'll probably have to take something off")

The potential can also be used as a weakened or polite form for the imperative.

Example: vuosjatja prepare-POT.2.SG káfav coffee-ACC.SG ("Maybe you could make some coffee")

imperative

In imperative clauses the subject is not overt and always refers to a referent in the second person. This sentence type is marked by a portmanteaumorphem on the finite verb, which expresses the imperative mode and number. The verb is usually at the beginning of a sentence.

Example: bieja put-SG.IMP pirunav potato-ACC.SG bävvdaj table-ILL.SG ("Put the potato on the table")

The following fixed expression, which was adopted from Swedish, is an exception:

gijtov thank-ACC.SG adnen have-DU.IMP ("Thank you!")

Imperative clauses often also contain the adverb dále (= now), abbreviated dál .

Interrogative clause

Constituent questions

Constituent questions are syntactically marked as the only sentence type in Pite Saami. The question word is the mandatory focus at the beginning of the sentence and congruent in case and number with the queried grammatical role. The roots of the question words differ depending on whether they refer to a person or not.

Examples: mav what-ACC.SG dån 2.SG.NOM hålå say-2.SG.PRS ? ("What are you saying?")

guste from where dån 2.SG.NOM bådá come-2.SG.PRS ? ("Where are you from?")

The discourse particle nå (= yes / now / also) is very often the initial sentence in constituent questions, but is not mandatory and can also appear in other sentence types.

Polarity issues

Questions of polarity do not clearly differ from declarative clauses, neither in word order nor intonation . However, the finite verb often comes before the subject and the sentence initial.

Example: suovade smoke-2.SG.PRS dån 2.SG.NOM ? ("Do you smoke?")

Occasionally, however, other elements also precede the verb. There is a question particle gu / gus that follows the finite verb, but it is not mandatory and is rarely used.

Sentence embedding

Infinite constructions

In Pite Saami there are three groups of verbs with a non-finite verb complement. Modal verbs require the infinitive , additional auxiliary verbs perfect or progressive and the negation verb requires the connegative. The finite verb always comes before the non-finite unless it is in focus.

modal verbs

The complement of a modal verb is marked by the infinitive suffix - t . The modal verbs in Pite Saami are máhttat (= can), ådtjot (= may), virrtit (= must), hähttut (= must), sihtat (= want), gallgat (= will / should).

Example: mij 1.PL.NOM máhttep can-1.PL.PRS ságastit speak-INF Bidumsáme Pite Saami-GEN.SG gielav language-ACC.SG ("We can speak the Pite Saami language.")

The modal verb gallgat can also express the future tense and is often used in conditional clauses of type I.

Auxiliary aspect verbs

The non-finite verb that follows the auxiliary verb årrot (= to be) is marked in the perfect tense by the suffix - m and in the progressive by the suffix - min .

Example: denne there liv be-1.SG.PRS riegadam be born-PRF ("I was born there")

Negation verb

In Pite Saami, negation is expressed by a construction with a negation verb. The negation verb can only occur in the finite form, inflected for tense and mode and congruent with the subject. The complement of the negation verb is in the non-finite connegative form. The complement can also be an auxiliary or modal verb. The negation verb always precedes its complement.

Example: iv NEG.1SG.PRS jáhke believe-CONNEG ("I do not believe")

Subordination

A subordinate clause can be either a complement or an adverbial clause .

Complementary sentence

A subordinate clause as a complement fills an argument in the matrix clause . The complementary sentence can be marked by a complementer or placed next to the matrix sentence without a complementer.

In finite form, the complementer att is prefixed to the complement clause . The complement clause follows the matrix clause.

Example: men but mån 1.SG.NOM diedav know-1.SG.PRS att SUBORD háre greyling-NOM.PL lä be-3.PL.PRS jávren lake-INESS.SG ("But I know that there are limers in gives the lake ")

For some verbs, the subordinate clause can be added to the matrix clause without a complementer, for example with jáhkket (= believe), diehtet (= know), hållåt (= say), tuhtjet (= like).

Example: men but hålåv say-1.SG.PRS , vuhtjijmä shott-1.PL.PST mija 1.PL.NOM sárvav moose-ACC.SG ("But then I say, we'll shoot a moose")

Constituent questions are also possible as a complement. The complement can also precede the matrix sentence.

Infinite subordinate clauses are attached to the matrix clause without a connecting word. Most of the time, the complement follows the matrix sentence. Infinite embedding is possible with verbs like állget (= to begin) or vajáldahtet / åjaldahtet (= to forget).

Example: Nä no , mån 1.SG.NOM liv be-1.SG.PRS åjaldahtam forget-PRF valldet take-INF maŋen with ("No, I forgot to take it with me")

Adverbial clause

Adverbial clauses are introduced by a subordinating element, for example gu (= as), jus (= if), maŋŋel (= after), åvdål (= before) or innan (= before). Adverbial clauses can precede or follow the matrix clause.

Example: hihtu must-2.SG.PRS Vanj well dä then baktjat back-INF innan before mån 1.SG.NOM stärtiv start-1.SG.PRS motorav motor-ACC.SG ( "So then you have to reset before I start the engine ")

Conditional clause

In the case of conditional clauses, the subordinate clause is introduced by jus (= if / if). Apart from that, conditional clauses do not differ in any other way from declarative clauses. The embedded sentence can appear either before or after the matrix sentence.

Relative clause

Relative clauses are marked by a relative pronoun at the beginning of the embedded relative clause. Otherwise, relative clauses are the same as ordinary statements. The case of the relative pronoun corresponds to the syntactic position that is filled. In the number it is congruent with the modified head noun.

Example: dä then inijmä have-1.PL.PST aktav one-ACC.SG vuoksav bull-ACC.SG Majna REL.COM.SG vuojadijmä drive-1.PL.PST muorajd wood-ACC.PL ( "We had a bull , with which we transported firewood ")

The relative pronoun, like demonstrative and interrogative pronouns , is inflected only for singular and plural , but not for dual . The forms of the pronoun are also homophonic with those of the interrogative pronoun, which refer to non-human NPs. A post position can be inserted between the relative pronoun and the modified NP . Relative pronouns can fill a wide range of syntactic positions, such as arguments , adjuncts , postpositional complements, and possessors.

Linking of sentences

To coordinate two sentences , a conjunction is inserted between the two sentences. Otherwise, the coordinated sentences do not differ from declarative sentences. The conjunctions are yes (= and), vala (= but), men (= but), jala (= or), eller (= or).

literature

  • Joshua Wilbur: A Grammar of Pite Sami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . tape 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-944675-47-3 ( langsci-press.org [accessed November 3, 2014]).
  • Joshua Wilbur: Pitesamisk ordbok - velvet stavnings regulator (=  Samica . Band 5 ). Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg 2016, ISBN 978-3-9816835-1-6 .
  • Eliel Lagercrantz: Linguistic theory of Western Lappish according to the dialect of Arjeplog . In: Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia . tape 25 . Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura, Helsinki 1926.
  • Juhani Lehtiranta: Arjeploginsaamen äänne- ja taivutusopin pääpiirteet (Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia 212) . Helsinki: Suomalais-ugrilainen Seura 1992.
  • Risto Pulkkinen: Missionary work: History . In: Ulla-Maija Kulonen, Irja Seurujärvi-Kari & Risto Pulkkinen (eds.): The Saami: A cultural encyclopedia . Vammala: Vammalan Kirjapaino Oy 2005, p. 218-221 .
  • Israel Ruong: Lappish verbal derivation based on Pitelappish . Uppsala: Almqvist och Wiksell 1943.
  • Pekka Sammallahti: The Saami languages: An introduction . 1998.
  • Riitta-Liisa & Joshua Wilbur: The current state of the Pite Saami language: Sociological and linguistic factors . In: Nordic Journal of Linguistics . tape 34 , no. 3 , 2011, p. 295-329 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Juhani Lehtiranta: Arjeploginsaamen äänne- ja taivutusopin pääpiirteet . Helsinki 1992.
  2. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . No. 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin, p. 1-2 .
  3. ^ Risto Pulkkinen: Missionary work: History . In: Ulla-Maija Kulonen, Irja Seurujärvi-Kari & Risto Pulkkinen (eds.): The Saami: A cultural encyclopedia, 218-221 . Vammala 2005.
  4. ↑ Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi & Joshua Wilbur: The current state of the Pite Saami language: Sociological and linguistic factors . In: Nordic Journal of Linguistics . tape 34 , no. 3 , 2011.
  5. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A Grammar of Pite Sami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . tape 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-944675-47-3 , pp. 42 .
  6. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . tape 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin 2014, p. 28, 31 .
  7. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . tape 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin 2014, p. 27 .
  8. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . No. 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin, p. 73 .
  9. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . No. 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin, p. 73 ff .
  10. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . No. 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin, p. 82 .
  11. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . No. 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin, p. 114 .
  12. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . No. 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin, p. 115 .
  13. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . No. 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin, p. 120-121 .
  14. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . No. 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin, p. 125 .
  15. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . No. 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin, p. 168 .
  16. ^ Israel Ruong: Lappish verbal derivation presented on the basis of Pitelappish . Uppsala 1943.
  17. ↑ Joshua Wilbur: A grammar of Pite Saami . In: Studies in Diversity Linguistics . tape 5 . Language Science Press, Berlin 2014, p. 212 .