Total refusal

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Demonstration in the GDR on May 3, 1990 in Berlin for the abolition of conscription and the right to total refusal

As total objection or more precisely total conscientious objection (TKDV) is called in Germany the refusal of each public service obligation, in particular military service (military service) and all conceivable replacement services ( community service ). Thus the total objection goes beyond the German Basic Law in Art. 4 guaranteed right to conscientious objection of conscience also.

The refusal of the general conscription imposed by a state or a state authority is a protest and rejection of what is fundamentally rejected by the total objectors as “state compulsory service” and “ state tutelage ”. They see the TKDV as a form of civil disobedience . In countries with compulsory military service, this form of refusal is subject to criminal penalties.

Motifs

There are different motives for this: for example religious and political convictions, which are usually underpinned by personal conscience, as is the case with normal conscientious objection. Often these convictions arise from an anarchist or pacifist attitude that not only rejects direct violence, but also its indirect form, which is simply perceived by many total objectors in hierarchical structures (see also anarcho-pacifism ).

A common motive for total refusal is the view that the state or the legislature does not have the right to oblige people to perform compulsory service. This argumentation scheme basically negates the fact that the state has the right to dispose of people within its sphere of influence as well as personal resources or property . Thus, ultimately, the legitimacy of the law on compulsory service is disputed, and its adoption by parliament is characterized as an act of overstepping the legislative powers , that is, it is expressed that the legislature has "made something obligatory that it was not entitled to make". This attitude is controversial.

Therefore, the total objector sees his act as a form of supra- legal emergency that arises from the difference between legality and legitimacy. According to Section 16 of the Military Criminal Law, the resulting act of the total refuser of not appearing for service is, however, a criminal offense.

The total refusal concerns alternative military service such as community service .

  • Often it is argued by total objectors that in the event of war, even those doing alternative military service are involved in acts of war or
  • that they would be disadvantaged compared to those doing military service.
  • It is also stated that alternative service has the character of a punishment for those who do not do military service. This is perceived by the person concerned as unjust, since from his perspective refusing military service is a correct act prescribed by his own conscience.

In individual cases, however, a personal or biographical background is also decisive, which does not necessarily have to be politically or religiously reflected, but which can also lead to an unconditional rejection of orders and obedience. Total refusal is often a symbolic act, the total refusal deliberately renounces other, legal or non-criminal opportunities to evade military service, and thus accepts serious criminal and social consequences.

  • In many countries, for example, people who show themselves to be homosexual are openly retired , which also offers non-homosexual people an opportunity to avoid military service. However, this unequal treatment is rejected as discriminatory by many total objectors and does not have the form of an enforceable right.
  • Often, through total refusal, protests are made against the discriminatory restriction of compulsory service to men and the restriction of the practice of attraction to young adults.
  • There is also a total refusal in protest against the convocation practice of the convocation authorities or which is felt to be arbitrary and / or unjust
  • Against the delegation of competence of the legislature to administrative authorities, which is considered improper (the legislature actually empowers the medical officers and drafting officers to determine whether people suffer massive restrictions of freedom through their decision “fit” or “unfit” and “call up” or “not call up” must or whether they are spared these and whether people even get into the situation of being able to break the law).

Forms of total refusal

The most common forms of total refusal in Germany were:

  • Refusal of military service without submitting a conscientious objection
  • Refusal of alternative military service (mostly community service )
  • Escape abroad

Total refusal in Germany

With regard to the suspension of compulsory military service in Germany, the total refusal of military service is only a theoretical issue. The TKDV assumes that no KDV application is made that can still be made in Germany despite the suspension of general military service.

Total refusal in Germany at the time of conscription from 1956 to 2011

If the armed forces of the total objector was getting hold of because he appeared at the duty station or military police was taken or the police, it was usually with further insubordination in accordance with § 21 of the Military Disciplinary Code arrested provisionally (WDO), and it was by the competent disciplinary superior with the consent of competent troop service court up to 21 days disciplinary arrest as a disciplinary measure imposed. In addition, they were regularly banned from working. In addition, the matter was passed on to the public prosecutor's office , which initiated proper legal proceedings before a criminal court on suspicion of refusal to obey , possibly also other criminal offenses (e.g. unauthorized absence or desertion ), within the meaning of the Military Criminal Act (WStG). However, desertion can only be committed by fully trained soldiers, i.e. not by conscripts, as these are only fully trained after the complete military service. A sentence to imprisonment was possible, but this was often suspended on probation . The conviction led to his subsequent discharge from the Bundeswehr.

Refusal of alternative military service

Here the conscript submitted a KDV application after or during the draft . Was this successfully, that is, the person was a conscientious objector accepted, accounted for conscription and their place was the alternative military duty , which then also refused the total objectors. The refusal then did not obey his call-up and after a few months received a criminal case for evacuation ( Section 53 ZDG ). The public prosecutor was able to order pre-trial detention because, in the opinion of the public prosecutor, it was permissible to conclude that there was a risk of flight and evasion of a possible sentence.

Escape abroad

The flight abroad had comparatively few legal consequences. The total objector could not return to Germany for a few years and problems could arise in obtaining important papers from German embassies.

Before reunification it was possible to move to West Berlin in order to avoid compulsory military service without having to deal with the state.

Subsequent total refusal

After completing the civil service, it was in principle conceivable that new circumstances or a new process of building conscience would cause a previous civil service provider to subsequently refuse to do community service. Such applications caused problems for the authorities: Although there is no right to total refusal, the application does not violate any law, as the service obligation had already been fulfilled.

Documented a case in which a result of international law disputed attack of NATO to the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( Kosovo war ) a former civil service subsequently denied the civil service and introduced a preventive application for non-convening, Yugoslavia was under international law as legal under defense measures, the Attack the Federal Republic of Germany. The application was rejected by the Federal Office for Community Service because there was no need for legal protection. There were no other legal consequences. The applicant withdrew his application and his total denial after the fighting had ceased and the presence of foreign powers had been legalized by the United Nations .

Consequences

Total refusal is not a separate criminal offense in Germany. From a legal point of view, however, it is considered to be criminally relevant and was usually tried in court on charges of evasion (in the event of refusal to do community service) or refusal to obey. In the latter case it seldom happened that the individual refusals of obedience were condemned separately. There were lawyers who specialized in defending total objectors.

Depending on the behavior of the total objector, arrest or pre-trial detention was possible, especially in the event of a previous flag or service flight. In May 2007, the student Jonas Grote was arrested for several weeks.

Since the 1990s, the penalties for total objectors have in practice been between three and six months in prison on probation or, in a third of the cases, resulted in a correspondingly high fine. Upward outliers, even without the granting of a probation period, occurred, but were almost always mitigated by higher authorities. Due to the young age of many total objectors, juvenile criminal law often came into play, which in the eyes of some total objectors should deprive total objections of their political significance, but on the other hand had the advantage for the convicted of not causing an entry in the certificate of good conduct. In very rare cases, the sentence could be youth arrest, but mostly a fine or up to 300 or more social hours, i.e. work in a mostly social institution recognized as a non-profit.

The problem of double punishment (prohibited under Article 103, Paragraph 3 of the Basic Law) , if a second convocation and consequently again a total refusal, existed for a long time and had to be clarified by the Federal Constitutional Court . As early as 1968 it determined that a repeated conviction is not possible if the refusal was based on reasons of conscience (decision of March 7, 1968 - 2 BvR 354, 355, 524, 566, 567, 710/66 and 79, 171, 431 / 67-23, 191).

Total refusal in the GDR

The GDR introduced general conscription in 1962. Two years later, in 1964, the opportunity was created to do unarmed service as a construction soldier in the National People's Army . The GDR was the only country in the Eastern Bloc that offered the option of refusing military service with a weapon.

Anyone who refused to work as a construction soldier would face punishment. Section 32 of the General Conscription Act of 1962 provided for a prison sentence of up to three years. The National Military Service Act of 1982 provided for a prison sentence of up to five years in Section 43. In practice, prison sentences of between 18 and 22 months were common. The imprisonment was about as long as the military service itself and the total objector was locked up for the time of the service to be performed.

Between 1962 and 1989 there were around 6,000 cases of total refusal in the GDR, of which only 3,144 were convicted. This was because in some cases a conviction was waived for political reasons. It was not supposed to attract so much attention that there were cases of total refusal that were accepted with impunity. In addition, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the SED did not want too many church-bound prisoners in the prisons; this was viewed as a factor of uncertainty. Jehovah's Witnesses as total objectors were not spared in the GDR and were almost always convicted. After 1985, the practice of convicting total objectors was suspended.

At all times in the GDR, as a total refusal, one had to reckon with massive social disadvantages. A study at a university in the GDR was fundamentally not possible for total objectors. There were also other disadvantages, for example when looking for an apartment or when ordering motor vehicles.

Total refusal internationally

Finland

Total objectors in Finland are sentenced to imprisonment for half the regular service.

Switzerland

A right to conscientious objection to military service was not recognized until 1989 and conscientious objection was therefore made a criminal offense. It was not until 1990 that a law decriminalized conscientious objection and introduced “unarmed service”. A federal law on alternative civilian service came into force in 1996.

Spain

Military service for everyone, the "mili", was introduced as early as 1835. However, wealthy people “obligated to the military” had the opportunity to free themselves from service in return for payment or by hiring a substitute. The military was never particularly popular among the Spanish population because of its anti-democratic role (as a colonial power, as a pillar of the dictatorship under Franco). In the 1980s, the number of conscientious objectors increased. A civilian alternative service was then created. However, anyone who refused to do so was referred to as “insumisos” and punished by the state with imprisonment from eight months to twelve years - later only with a fine. As a result of increasing democratization at the end of the 1980s, the military was also politically called into question - recruiting was reduced, the period of service shortened from twelve to nine months. In 1995, 224,000 young men were enrolled, in 2000 only 100,000 people. Of these, 15,000 refused to work and around 80,000 were put on hold for reasons of study. Since January 2002, the military in Spain has consisted only of professional soldiers. As in France, general conscription was suspended for economic and political reasons.

Zimbabwe

From 2003, the former President Robert Mugabe had school and university students forcibly recruited for six months of conscription . All school and university graduates who have not completed six months of military service will not receive a diploma either.

France

From 1945 to 1962 about 50 conscientious objectors were jailed each year, with a bloody colonial war in Algeria from 1954 to 1962 . In 1963 a law was created that legalized conscientious objection for religious or philosophical reasons and required alternative service with twice the duration of military service. At the same time, Art. 50 forbade any information about the right to conscientious objection, this was done in order to prevent the organization and representation of the interests of conscientious objectors (this article was valid until 1974). The government wanted to keep the number of conscientious objectors as small as possible. From 1964 to 1970 there were 705 applications for conscientious objection. In 1971 there were 621 conscientious objection requests. Of the recognized conscientious objectors, around 60 to 70% also resisted being called up for community service. In 1980 and 1981 around 900 men refused to do military service. Of these, 30% started community service and 50% resist being called up. In 1997, for economic and political reasons, the government decided to suspend conscription. The military has consisted of professional soldiers since 2002.

Israel

When the state was founded, general military service was established for all young men and young women . It is currently three years for men and 21 months for women. Most Israeli Arabs (except Druze) and all non-Jewish, pregnant, married or Orthodox Jewish women are exempt from conscription. By 2014, ultra-Orthodox ( Haredic ) men were also exempt from military service. After this rule was abolished, it was reintroduced and again rejected by the Supreme Court in 2017 as a violation of the Constitution. A new regulation is still being negotiated. In 2005, 168,000 men and women served in the army. Only women are legally allowed to refuse conscription for reasons of conscience. You then have to do a civilian alternative service (sherut leumi) of one or two years. However, a third of women are exempted from service, mostly for religious reasons. As an alternative to conscientious objection within the armed forces, men can take up a post outside the combat units, e.g. B. when giving civil defense lessons in schools. For men, on the other hand, total refusal of military service is a lengthy process with several hearings, at the end of which the refuser has to answer before a so -called committee of conscience . Legal proceedings can follow, at the end of which the objector is almost always exempt from military service, but can possibly be punished with a prison sentence of up to three years. Men who do not do their military service are socially ostracized and have to reckon with social and professional disadvantage. The same applies to a withdrawal due to the consumption of illegal drugs, including so-called “ soft drugs ”.

Since the second Intifada , the number of total and partial objectors has increased. The “ Shministim ” (translated high school student letter ) campaign has had several hundred signatories every year since 2001, who refused to take part in military service or in military actions against Palestinians. The objectors were initially decommissioned, but have mostly been sentenced to imprisonment since the great increase. Even among reservists - the reserve service lasts one month a year - there is growing resistance to serve in the occupied territories or at all. In the 2007 annual report, Amnesty International accuses the Israeli army of numerous cases of violations of international humanitarian law, including war crimes and serious human rights violations:

North Korea

In North Korea, military service is compulsory for all young men and women. There is no community service. Because there is hardly any news from the hermetically sealed country to the outside world, no cases of refusal and their consequences are known.

Russia

In Russia there is general conscription. The conditions in the Russian army are considered degrading and dangerous, as protection of personal rights is not guaranteed there. The army leadership therefore has problems recruiting enough young men. Many ignore the draft order, buy certificates or “go underground”. In 2004, around 40,000 deserters were suspected to have tried to escape military service. Another part of the recruits commits suicide or tries to survive the harassment and humiliation of the military ranking system (“ dedovshchina ”). The exact number of avowed conscientious objectors and total objectors is not known.

In 1991 the non-governmental organization “St. Petersburg soldiers' mothers ”and repeatedly made the grievances in the Russian army public. The soldier's mothers stand up for deserters, give legal advice to those affected and their families, and demand the abolition of compulsory military service. They point out that people who have gone through the so-called "School of the Russian Army" actually need therapeutic help. After experiencing this “school”, the young men are traumatized or have behavioral disorders and are unsuitable for a civil life in peace. This is also the cause of the high levels of domestic violence in Russia.

In 1998, the soldiers' mothers influenced a new law, according to which deserters may no longer be punished by military law in cases of hardship.

The military and constitutional lawyers, on the other hand, assess the situation differently: The Russian Defense Minister Sergei Ivanov publicly declared in 2006: The army was not in a crisis, "Thousands of mothers in Russia thank the army".

South Korea

In South Korea conscription is compulsory for all young men. The military service lasts 24 months and until 2020 it was not possible to do a civilian alternative service. Those who refused to do military service were generally sentenced to 36 months in prison , according to the Korean Main Military Service in Daejeon . The actual prison sentences were, however, below this value. After his release from prison, the objector had to reckon with massive professional and social disadvantages. In 15% of the cases, the defendants were either given probation or acquitted. An acquittal usually did not take place in the event of a confessed refusal, but only if the defendant was able to credibly demonstrate that, for example, he did not receive the confiscation notice.

In 2006, 1,186 conscientious objectors were serving prison sentences, and at the beginning of 2008 around 733 conscientious objectors, the vast majority of them for religious reasons. Most of them are Jehovah's Witnesses . There are also young men who refuse military service for ethical reasons or because they fear considerable harassment in the military (e.g. as homosexuals).

The shock of the Korean War (1950-1953), which was triggered by an attack by the communist neighboring state in the north, the armament of the north with 1.2 million active soldiers and the repeated threats of the rulers there with nuclear weapons prompt the elderly and a large part of the middle generation to demand military strength and combat readiness. The majority of the Korean population and the conservative opposition party are therefore in favor of unrestricted conscription.

On the other hand, President Roh Moo-hyun and members of the ruling party sought to amend the constitution with the aim of introducing adequate community service as an alternative to military service. The human rights commission set up by the government also recommended the creation of community service in 2005. A legislative proposal from 2007 provided for a three-year alternative service. (Based on the calculation basis: 24 months of military service plus 12 months in prison for objectors = 36 months of civil service) Because of the massive restrictions on human rights, Amnesty International has sponsored some of the conscientious objectors. In 2020, community service was introduced according to the 2007 plan with a duration of 36 months, the longest period of community service in the world.

Turkey

Total conscientious objectors who cannot or do not want to buy their way out of military service are sentenced to prison.

literature

Monographs

  • Group of Collective Nonviolent Resistance Against Militarism (Ed.): Resistance against conscription. Texts and materials . 1st edition approx. 1976. 6th completely revised edition. Verlag Weber & Zucht , Kassel 1982, ISBN 3-88713-002-2 .
  • Christoph Rosenthal: Perhaps peace cannot be obtained cheaper. About a total conscientious objection . Verlag Die Werkstatt, Göttingen 1982, ISBN 3-923478-01-1 .
  • EAK - Evangelical working group for the care of conscientious objectors: Keyword total conscientious objection . Documentation of a workshop of the EAK. Self-published, Bremen 1980, 57 pages.
  • Norbert Heitkamp (Ed.): Despite all of this! Documentation of a total refusal (refusal to do community service) . Publication series Zeitgeschichtliche Dokumentations Verlag, Münster 1982.
  • Christoph Rosenthal (ed.): Total denial and the church - a documentation . Self-published, Göttingen 1982, 74 pages.
  • People doing community service in the Social Peace Service (ed.): "Everyone has a conscience". Documentation of a total refusal: Thomas Hansen . Self-published, Gelsenkirchen 1983.
  • Investigation Committee Hildesheim: Armin Juri Hertel, total refusal. Sentenced to 18 months in prison. Documents of inhumanity . Self-published, Hildesheim 1983.
  • Christoph Bausenwein: Serving or sitting. A white paper on total denial . Self-published, Nuremberg 1982, 360 pages.
  • Calumet texts: Information on conscientious objection: The military record / sververweehung . Self-published, Hamburg autumn 1985, 165 pages.
  • Graswurzelrevolution: Special Issue Resistance Against Conscription . Hamburg 1987, ISSN  0344-2683 .
  • Christoph Rosenthal (ed.): Peace doers. Conscientious objectors report persecution and imprisonment . Verlag Die Werkstatt, Göttingen 1984, ISBN 3-923478-09-7 .
  • Christian Herz: Total refusal. A pamphlet for total conscientious objection. Ed .: Committee for Fundamental Rights and Democracy, Sensbachtal. 1st edition 1989, 5th edition 1995. ISBN 3-88906-034-X .
  • Same thing: no peace with conscription . History of development, effects and abolition of general conscription, Münster 2003 ISBN 3-89688-165-5
  • Dirk Wildgruber: A deserter reports. Documentation of a collective conscientious objection. Self-published, Hamburg 1990, 108 pages.
  • Dietrich Bäuerle (ed.): Total denial as resistance. Motivation, help, perspectives . Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt 1988, ISBN 3-596-23873-0 .
  • Hans Georg Ruhe: You can't count on me. Alternative service and total refusal . Patmos Verlag, Düsseldorf 1989, ISBN 3-491-79405-6 .
  • Andreas Ciesielski (Ed.): "... and he says no!" With a foreword by Günter Wallraff. Scheunen-Verlag, Kückenshagen 1993, ISBN 3-929370-13-1 .
  • The Greens in the Bundestag (ed.): Deterrence policy contra freedom of conscience. Documentation on the situation of total conscientious objectors in the FRG 1983/1984. Bonn 1984.
  • Albert Krölls (ed.): The refusal of alternative service by Jehovah's Witnesses . In: Conscientious objection. The uncomfortable basic right . European Publishing House, Frankfurt am Main 1980, ISBN 3-434-00440-8 , pages 207-211.
  • Gandhi Information Center (ed.): Manifesto against conscription and the military system . Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-930093-17-0 , 119 pages.
  • Jan & Bewi: total refusal . Syndikat-A Verlag, Moers 2001.
  • Jacques Prevert: Insubordination. An entertainment novel . Qumran Verlag, Frankfurt am Main and Paris 1981. ISBN 3-88655-158-X .
Legal issues
  • Dr. Klaus Ewald (Ed.): Refusal to provide alternative service and freedom of confession. A contribution to the interpretation of Art. 4 GG . Athenäum Verlag, Frankfurt 1970.
  • Ullrich Hahn: The punishment of offenders of conscience in the field of conscientious objection . Special print ami right part. ami-Verlag, Berlin July 1985, ISSN  0342-5789 .
France
Literature:
  • Insoumission Collectice International (ed.): L'insoumission collective international . Self-published, Bruxelles 1974, 56 pages.
  • Mouvement International de la Reconciliation - MIR (Ed.): Conscience socialiste et insoumission. des insoumis s'adressent aux organizations politique et syndicales de la gauche . Antony, 4e trimestre 1974. 44 pages. Legal deposit no. 34–346.
  • Pierre Martial (ed.): Des insoumis totaux parlent. Cavales Insoumises . Avis de Recherche, Paris 1982, 174 pages, ISSN  0248-3475 .
  • Michel Auvray (ed.): Objecteurs, insoumis, deserteurs. Histoire des refractaires en France . Editions Stock, Paris 1983, ISBN 2-234-01652-5 , 439 pages.
Total refusal in the German Democratic Republic (1949 to October 3, 1990)
  • Bernd Eisenfeld : Conscientious Objection in the GDR - A Peace Service? Genesis, questioning, analysis, documents . Haag + Herchen, Frankfurt 1978, ISBN 3-88129-158-X , 190 pages + appendix.
  • Anonymous: War is worse than jail. Call of a total objector from the GDR . In: Klaus Ehring, Martin Dallwitz (ed.): Swords for plowshares. Peace movement in the GDR . Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Hamburg 1982, ISBN 3-499-15019-0 , pp. 138-144
  • ami-Verlag (ed.): Total denial of BRDDR . Issue 10, Berlin October 1990, ISSN  0342-5789 , 60 pages.
  • Uwe Koch, Stephan Eschler: Clench your teeth up your head. Documents on conscientious objection in the GDR 1962–1990 . Scheunen-Verlag, Kückenshagen 1994, ISBN 3-929370-14-X , 260 pages.
  • State representative for the records of the State Security Service of the former GDR in Saxony-Anhalt and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (Ed.): Uwe Koch: The Ministry for State Security, the GDR conscientious objectors and the construction soldiers of the National People's Army . 177 pages. November 1997.

Periodicals

  • KGW Rundbrief: Group of Collective Nonviolent Resistance Against Militarism (KGW), Hamburg. Publication discontinued.
  • Say no! - Journal on total conscientious objection: Freundeskreis Wehrdienst-Totalverweigerinnen (FWTV), Berlin region. Self-published, Berlin. Publication discontinued.
  • tilt - Compulsory military service: (Ed.) Self-organization of community service providers (SOdZDL), Mit uns gegen die Wehrpflicht e. V., International of War Service Opponents (IDK) e. V., German Peace Society-United War Service Opponents (DFG-VK), Group Frankfurt / Main. Berlin 1995. - Publication discontinued.
  • disloyal - Journal for Antimilitarism: Mit uns gegen die Wehrpflicht e. V., quarterly annual magazine. Berlin, early 1997 - autumn 2002. Publication discontinued. ISSN  1434-2871 .
  • Without us - magazine on total conscientious objection ( online presence )

Archives

Press releases

  • Une groupe d'insoumis europeens denouce les “alliances militaires international” . In: Le Monde v. October 3, 1974, Paris.
  • Michael Schroeren: Totally refuse together. International Collective Resistance to Militarism . In: Young European Federalists (JEF) (Ed.): Forum Europe No. 3/4 . March / April 1975.
  • Klaus Fröbe: total refusal, double refusal, refusal to monitor civilian service . In: Federal Office for Civilian Service (Ed.): The civilian service. No. 5, 1982, pp. 9-10.
  • Defense passes burned on the Stoltzeplatz. A demonstration of total objectors . In: Frankfurter Neue Presse, May 10, 1982.
  • Werner Neumann: "Opened the door to multiple punishments for refusers". Federal Constitutional Court rejects complaint against two convictions of Thomas Hansen / decision triggers outrage . In: Frankfurter Rundschau January 7, 1983.
  • urs: The request of the Ministry of Defense becomes the legal basis. 12 months in jail for total objectors . In: the daily newspaper. May 7, 1984.
  • Günter Werner: The multiple punishment of total objectors in: Frankfurter Rundschau No. 295 v. December 20, 1985.
  • Jutta Duhm-Heitzmann: In a vicious circle . In: Zeitmagazin No. 27, June 27, 1986. Zeitverlag Gerd Bucerius, Hamburg.
  • Werner Neumann: They start with the Jehovah's Witnesses. The total refusal of conscription and the problem of multiple punishments . In: Frankfurter Rundschau December 5, 1986.
  • Committee for Fundamental Rights and Democracy e. V .: The court's concept of conscience gives him no chance. The petition in favor of the total objector Christoph Bausenwein . In: Frankfurter Rundschau September 24, 1986.
  • Martin Gold: When warriors pass out on you . In: Deutsche Jugendpresse e. V. (Ed.): Conscientious objection . 1st edition. Bonn 1992, ISBN 3-9802980-0-0 , pages 28-29
  • Detlev Beutner: Developments in the area of ​​total refusal 96/97 . In: DFG-VK (Ed.): 4/3 - specialist journal on conscientious objection, military service and community service . Issue 1/1997. Velbert, ISSN  0176-8662 .
  • xx: Constitutional complaint for failure to observe freedom of conscience in criminal proceedings against total objectors . In: DFG-VK (Hrsg.): 4/3 Fachzeitschrift . Issue 3/1997. Bonn, ISSN  0176-8662 .
  • Stephan Philipp: The problem is conscription, not total refusal . In: DFG-VK (Hrsg.): 4/3 Fachzeitschrift . Issue 3/1998. Bonn, ISSN  0176-8662 ,
  • Detlev Beutner: "I can no longer follow the defendant's lecture". Minutes of a hearing against a total objector . In: DFG-VK (Hrsg.): 4/3 Fachzeitschrift . Issue 4/1999. Bonn, ISSN  0176-8662 .
  • Christian Herz: Says no! The development of total refusal in the FRG between claim and reality . in: FriedensForum No. 5 , Ed .: Netzwerk Friedenskooperative, Bonn 2004.

Audio-video

  • Michael Enger: The uncomfortable way , long-term documentary about total conscientious objectors in the FRG and the GDR, 90 minutes, 1987–91, (TV broadcast: DFF, 60 min, 1991; SAT 1, 30 min, 1993)

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Max Hägler: Bundeswehr hides total objectors. In: taz.de . June 8, 2007, accessed May 10, 2020 .
  2. ↑ Conscription Act of January 24, 1962
  3. ↑ Military Service Act of March 25, 1982
  4. ↑ January 24, 1962 - GDR introduces conscription
  5. ↑ Total refusal
  6. ↑ Constant dripping wears away the iron - total refusal in the GDR
  7. ↑ January 24, 1962 - GDR introduces conscription
  8. ^ Neue Zürcher Zeitung, November 9, 2000.
  9. ↑ Insumissia. In: antimilitaristas.org. Retrieved May 10, 2020 .
  10. ↑ Der Spiegel No. 30/2002.
  11. ↑ wub. No. July 4, 1984.
  12. ↑ BBC News - Israel ends ultra-Orthodox military service exemptions . Bbc.com. March 12, 2014. Retrieved August 17, 2014.
  13. ↑ Isabel Kershner: Israel's Military Exemption for Ultra-Orthodox Is Ruled Unconstitutional. In: nytimes.com. September 12, 2017, accessed May 10, 2020 .
  14. ↑ Amnesty International: Annual Report 2007 Israel and Occupied Territories .
  15. ↑ Amnesty International's Korea Coordination Group, August 2006 and May 2008.
  16. ↑ Uni Kassel, AG Friedensforschung, Aachener Friedenspreis 2004 [1]  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.uni-kassel.de  
  17. ↑ Russia News February 15, 2006.
  18. ↑ a b mfh / dpa: South Korea carries out civil alternative for a military service. In: Spiegel Online . December 30, 2019, accessed May 10, 2020 .
  19. ↑ Korea - Amnesty International's coordination group, August 2006 and May 2008: Archived copy ( Memento of the original from June 4, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.amnesty-muenchen.de
  20. ↑ ntv.de: South Korea introduces community service. In: n-tv.de. December 30, 2019, accessed May 10, 2020 .