Skull and Crossbones

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Skull and Crossbones
Skull hawk (Acherontia atropos)

Skull hawk ( Acherontia atropos )

Systematics
Class : Insects (Insecta)
Order : Butterflies (Lepidoptera)
Family : Swarmers (Sphingidae)
Subfamily : Sphinginae
Genre : Acherontia
Type : Skull and Crossbones
Scientific name
Acherontia atropos
( Linnaeus , 1758)
Upper side of a prepared butterfly
Underside of the same butterfly

The Totenkopfschwärmer ( Acherontia atropos ) is a butterfly ( moth ) from the family of the swarmers (Sphingidae), whose main distribution area is the tropics of Africa. It is also found in the extreme south of Europe, from where it flies as a migratory butterfly to Central and Northern Europe. The species, together with its two relatives from the genus Acherontia, is unique within the hawkmoth, as it can generate whistling noises through a mechanism in the oral cavity. The moths' way of life, feeding on honey and invading beehives to do so , is also very unusual.

Due to its way of life and the imposing appearance with the eponymous “skull” on the thorax , it was considered ominous for a long time. Even today it is, as in the novel The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris stylized, for evil. Already the first describer, Carl von Linné , gave the species a related scientific name with “ Atropos ”, a goddess of fate in Greek mythology.

features

butterfly

The moths reach a wingspan of 90 to 115 mm (males) or 100 to 122 mm, a maximum of 130 mm (females), whereby animals grown up in Central Europe are usually somewhat larger than those that migrate from the south. Their completely and almost furry densely scaled body is up to 60 mm long and reaches a diameter of about 20 mm. This makes the skull hawk the largest hawk species found in Europe and one of the largest ever occurring butterflies here. Males reach a weight of 2 to 6 g, females 3 to 8 g. The relatively short antennae are 10 to 14.5 mm long in the male and 10 to 13 mm long in the female. They are colored black and have a white tip. The male has a pointed end of the abdomen and can therefore be distinguished from the female, which is bluntly rounded.

The head and top of the thorax are black-brown or nearly black. The characteristic skull-like drawing can be seen on the thorax, to which the species owes its German name. This yellow drawing is variable and can sometimes be completely absent. The underside of the thorax and abdomen is ocher in color. Each sternite on the underside of the abdomen has a wide, dark transverse band, the terga on the back of the abdomen are ocher to almost orange on the sides and have a gray-blue longitudinal stripe in the middle. The rear edge of the terga is black. This results in a striking double row of ocher or orange spots on the abdomen. The last two, more rarely three, abdominal segments are either completely gray-blue or black in the male. In the female, only the last segment has this coloration.

The forewings are shaded from deep brown to dark gray and marbled with red-brown to ocher-colored, sometimes whitish spots. In the middle of the wing there is a small bright point between two black cross bars. The moths are hairy pale ocher yellow directly at the base of the wing. Near the base of the wing and in the post-disk region there are light ocher-yellow cross bars , the latter of which is clearly discolored rust-brown towards the outer edge of the wing. The ends of the wing veins are also colored rust-brown on the outer edge of the wing . The variable pattern of the wings can be very clear or almost completely absent, so that the front wings then appear almost uniformly brown. The bright point is also variable. The hind wings are ocher-colored on the upper side and have two conspicuous dark transverse bars. Their coloring is also very variable. The bandages can be lightened gray-brown or so pronounced that they almost fuse together. The inner bandage can have the same width as the bandage close to the outer edge of the wing, but there are also individuals with an inner bandage of different widths, up to and including the complete absence of this. The underside of both pairs of wings is predominantly ocher in color. In the middle of the forewings there is a fine black band, the outer edge of the wing is dark. The bandage continues on the underside of the hind wings, and instead of the dark outer edge there is an indistinctly demarcated dark submarginal bandage, which radiates through the wing veins to the outer wing edge. The inner band is curved towards the outer edge near the inner edge angle. The forewing coloring allows the animals a perfect camouflage on tree bark or dry leaves on the ground, where they rest during the day with roof-shaped wings.

As typical for all three species of the genus Acherontia , but otherwise unique among the swarms, the animals with a length of 12 to 18 mm have a relatively short, but very wide and stable proboscis . Unlike other butterflies, it does not consist of a tube, but is ribbon-like and only fills half of the proboscis sheath. At the base it has a width of 0.75 to 1.25 mm and tapers to a pointed end, which, unlike the rest of the trunk, is imperforate. This proboscis tip is also more agile than other hawk species. The animals also have a cleaning scale on the inside of the tibia (rails) of the forelegs, which consists of a spongy-looking plate covered with bristles. The feelers are cleaned by pulling them between the plate and the tibia.

egg

The eggs of the skull hawk are matt light green or bluish-gray and have a very fine polygonal network structure on their surface , which, however, can only be seen when magnified. They are 1.5 to 1.7 mm wide, 1.7 to 1.9 mm long and thus slightly oval. Their shell is very elastic, so that the eggs spring up again after falling from the floor. As the embryo develops, the egg gradually changes color from yellow to yellow and is slightly dented two days before the caterpillar hatches. Shortly before hatching, the caterpillar's mouthparts and anal horn can be seen through the eggshell .

Caterpillar

Caterpillar on an adult's hand for size comparison
Yellow color variant of the caterpillar; all in the last stage
Turquoise-gray caterpillar with easily recognizable markings on the back; last stage
Brown color variant; last stage

The caterpillars reach a body length of 120 to 130 mm and appear fully grown in a green-yellowish, brown or yellow-orange basic color. After hatching, they are around six millimeters long and then have a light yellowish color, which is matted over by fine, very close together, pale yellow tubercles and lines. Her body is sparsely hairy. The anal horn , which is 2.6 to 2.8 mm long, is relatively long to the body length, has a forked tip and turns black one to two hours after hatching. The head capsule has the same color as the body and is 0.9 to 1 mm wide. After the leaves begin to feed, the caterpillars' bodies quickly turn green. Before the first molt, the caterpillars have an average body length of 12 mm.

In the second caterpillar stage, the animals are 12 to 17 mm long, have a yellowish-green to green body color and also bear clearly recognizable, closely spaced, fine, light, thorn-shaped tubercles and granules, especially on the 1.5 to 1.6 mm wide head capsule on the thorax . From this caterpillar stage on, the oblique stripes on the side of the body gradually appear. The black anal horn is straight and 4 to 5 mm long. Its point ends in one or two ends.

After the second moult, the animals have a body length of 18 to 30 mm and are light green to yellowish. They still have light-colored tubercles and warts that are more and more prominent on the thorax. Distinctive oblique stripes have now formed on the abdomen, white on the underside and yellow on the top, which meet to form a "V" on both sides on the back. There are dark green to bluish diagonal stripes between this drawing. The anal horn is thicker than in the previous caterpillar stage and curved towards the end, which is usually one, rarely two-pointed. It has a dark basal color and becomes light yellow-greenish towards the tip. The first half has dark spines, especially on the back. The head capsule is 2.7 to 2.8 mm wide.

Green color variant of the caterpillar; last stage

From the fourth caterpillar stage, the animals are already 40 to 45 mm, a maximum of 50 mm long and weigh about four grams before the last moult. They have a yellow or green basic color. The head capsule is 4.2 to 4.5 mm wide, black stripes are formed on the sides of the head. The thoracic legs are black and dotted with fine white warts. The oblique stripes on the abdomen are yellow and blue to purple-blue in color. Dark purple dots are formed on the back of the first abdominal segment. The thorax is clearly brightly bristled on the back. The spiracles are black. The 6 to 7 mm long, now yellow anal horn is already curved upwards at the tip and is therefore S-shaped. It has showy yellow spines.

In the fifth and final caterpillar stage, after moulting, the caterpillars are 50 to 70 mm long and develop to the length described at the beginning by the time they pupate; stretched out they even reach 150 mm. They then weigh 18 to 22 g. Your head capsule is 7 to 8 mm wide, the head is colored black on the sides, the forehead has two dark stripes on the top, slightly apart from each other. The mouthparts are also colored black. Unlike in the previous stages, the body surface is smooth. It is colored in the three color variants mentioned at the beginning, with dark brown animals very rarely. The "V" mark on the abdomen is outlined in blue to violet on the back and bright yellow on the abdomen. On the back of the abdomen there are numerous black points, the stigmas are clearly protruding black. The thoracic legs are black, as before, with white warts. The only 5 to 7 mm long, yellow anal horn is characteristic of the species bulging, coarsely spiked and clearly S-shaped curved. After each molt, it always takes a short time for the new body color to develop.

Doll

Doll
Totenkopfschwaermer doll just before hatching. The coloring varies 3, 2, 1 days before hatching

The pupa is 50 to 65 mm long in the male, 65 to 70 mm in the female, and a maximum of 80 mm. The fresh doll is yellow to cream-colored and can be slightly green on the back. After about 12 hours, it will be very shiny and mahogany in color. It weighs 7 to 10 g in the male and 7 to 12 g in the female. The proboscis is fused flush with the abdomen. The Kremaster can be seen as heavily folded under the scanning electron microscope . On the seventh segment there are a few microscopic depressions in the doll's skin with bristle hairs in the middle.

Similar species

The skull hawk can hardly be confused with other hawkmoth species, only Acherontia styx , whose distribution area in the Middle East overlaps that of the skull hawk, looks similar to it. This species differs from the skull hawk by two dark bands on the underside of the forewings instead of one in the middle, an orange instead of yellow dot on the middle of the forewings, a darker skull mark and a faint bluish spot in the anal angle on the upper side of the hind wings, that of the black submarginal bandage is enclosed.

distribution and habitat

Distribution areas of Acherontia atropos . Red: permanently populated; Orange: known to occur in the summer months

Overall spread

The Totenkopfschwärmer is essentially a species of the Afrotropic ecozone , but is also found in North Africa, the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Its distribution ranges in the east from Turkey to the northeast of Iran as well as in the Ukraine, Turkmenistan, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. A single male was found in northeast Kazakhstan ( Pavlodar ) in 2006 . In Europe, the species occurs permanently on the southernmost coasts of the Mediterranean Sea and on the Mediterranean islands as well as on Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores. However, it occasionally flies further north as a migratory butterfly in summer and can penetrate far beyond France and Italy to northern Europe and also to Iceland. The northernmost distribution in Russia is proven from the place Izvail in the Republic of Komi . The migratory flights of the species reach in the African tropics to the island of Ascension .

habitat

The animals colonize open, bushy habitats in which nightshade plants grow, especially regions in which potatoes are grown for agriculture. They prefer dry and sunny areas. At least in Central Europe, the species has predominantly become a crop follower and populates almost exclusively potato fields.

The butterflies prefer to stay in the lower altitudes; for example, butterfly finds from Baden-Württemberg from the lowlands to the high-montane level of the Black Forest around 900 meters above sea level have been documented. During their hiking flights, the animals also fly significantly higher, for example in the Alps in Graubünden at 3000 meters, in the Silvretta at 2000 meters above sea level, both on glaciers, or on the Timmelsjoch at almost 2500 meters above sea level. However, due to their high heat requirement, caterpillars and pupae are only found significantly lower, in Baden-Württemberg up to a maximum of the lower montane zone up to 700 meters above sea level.

Way of life

Exciting sounds of the butterfly

Like the other species of the genus Acherontia , both the males and the females of the skull hawk can produce high-pitched, whistling noises. By contraction of two strong muscles connected to the pharynx, the pharynx is lifted and air is sucked in through the proboscis. At the same time, the gullet ( esophagus ) is closed so that the air only fills the oral cavity. Some of the air also passes through the mouth opening, whereby the epipharynx is bent upwards in order to be pressed down again by a depressor muscle. By alternating this process quickly, the mouth opening is alternately briefly opened and closed and so sound waves are generated, similar to a mechanical siren . The oscillation of the epipharynx generates a tone between 6000 and 8000 Hz , whereby this carrier frequency is modulated with about 280 pulses per second. A sound generated in this way lasts about a sixth of a second and thus has 40 to 50 pulses. As the muscles in the pharynx relax, the air is transported back out through the proboscis, creating another sound that has the same frequency but is not modulated because the epipharynx does not vibrate and so a steady flow of air is generated. The resulting sound lasts only a sixteenth of a second, is weaker and more whistling; the main tone during inhalation is louder and sounds more scratchy.

The moths usually only whistle when they are very worried, for example when touched. In the case of males in particular, the generation of sounds can also be heard in the vicinity of a female or shortly after arriving at a light source.

If the moths are disturbed, they unfold their wings and hop restlessly around, making whistling noises. However, they do not fly off, but crawl under parts of plants or in holes and crevices. In severe disruption, males release a substance that smells of modern mushrooms from glands on the sternite of the second abdominal segment. This is better distributed by brush-like tufts of hair that are spread apart. Even when artificial light sources are switched off, dormant moths look for hiding places instead of flying away. They then do this in the same way that they invade hives. In order to warm up the wing muscles, the moths leave the wings folded over the abdomen and only vibrate slightly up and down with the wings. This is an adaptation to the beehive lifestyle; Otherwise, enthusiasts unfold their wings over their backs.

Food of the moths

The moths feed on honey.

The adults are active in the search for food or sex partners from dusk until after midnight. The moths are attracted by artificial light sources, but almost only males or rarely females fly to them shortly before they lay eggs. The animals also occasionally fly to the flowers of various plants, such as potatoes, tobacco, cloves , honeysuckles , pipe bushes or orange . However, due to the shape of their proboscis, they cannot feed on flower nectar and for this reason do not touch the flowers. Butterfly baits are not used. The situation is different with sap that escapes from wounds. In all likelihood, this food source will only be used in an emergency. Likewise, the presumed piercing of ripe fruit is likely to be the case, which, unlike the closely related species Acherontia styx, has not been documented in the skull hawk . Ingesting food is not only necessary for the skull and crossbones for their survival, but also for the egg maturation of the females.

The most important source of food for the skull hawk is the nests of the western honey bee ( Apis mellifera ), which the moths enter to suckle honey and nectar . It is noticeable that the workers of the bees show no aggressiveness towards the butterflies. At first it was thought that the skull owls soothed the bees with their whistling noises, but this actually happens through the release of chemical substances that camouflage the foreign smell of the moths. The odor of the moths consists of a mixture of four fatty acids , namely palmitoleic acid , palmitic acid , stearic acid and oleic acid , which are found in honey bees in almost the same concentration and in the same ratio. The mixing ratio is the same in all parts of the body of the moth and in both males and females. Because the butterflies have the same smell as the bees, they are not recognized as intruders. If at all, the intruders are only attacked by the guards at the entrance to the nest, from whom they are well protected by their thick body shell. The bee venom doesn't bother them much either. In experiments, butterflies survived the injection of an amount of poison equivalent to four bee stings unscathed. Once they have penetrated the nest, the moths sit quietly on the honeycomb and are ignored by the bees. They climb around unmolested on the honeycombs with whirring wings, pushing the bees aside with their forelegs and shaking off those who climb them with body and wing movements. Finally, they stick their strong proboscis into both covered and uncovered cells and suck about five of them on average in about 15 minutes, only to leave the hive afterwards. It also happens that the middle wall of the cells is pierced and the moths can suck out the cell on the other side. The energy consumption of the butterflies is enormous in flight. At rest, 0.06 µmol glucose is converted into glucose-6-phosphate in one gram of the flight muscles per minute ; during flight it is 3.9 µmol, which corresponds to 0.7 milligrams.

Hiking flights, flight and caterpillar times

The skull hawk is a migratory butterfly that undertakes regular and long migrations. Year after year, the animals fly in strongly fluctuating numbers from Africa to southern and central Europe, some even to northern Europe. These flights take place with strongly fluctuating numbers of individuals. Years in which the moths appear regularly and frequently are replaced by those in which the moths apparently do not even fly in. Caterpillars and pupae are found far more frequently than moths; the caterpillars occasionally appear en masse.

Acherontia atropos occurs in Africa all year round in successive generations. In Europe, the first moths are usually found from May, occasionally from March / April, together with the isolated individuals that have survived hibernation as pupae. This simultaneous occurrence means that it is very difficult to determine the origin of the moths. The first wave of incoming waves weaker in the course of June, the second wave then follows in August and September. The eggs of the females mature during the flight to the north. Once ripening is complete, the moths stop flying and lay their eggs quickly. These first moths usually do not find sufficient potato growth, which is why other food plants are used. Only the moths that fly in from July also cover potato plants with their eggs. Cold spells that occur in May or June, such as the ice saints or the sheep's cold , severely impair the populations, so that the eggs or young caterpillars perish in large numbers. They cannot tolerate prolonged temperatures below 15 ° C, but can survive night temperatures between 5 and 8 ° C and daytime temperatures around 16 ° C for about six days. The moths are more temperature-tolerant and could be observed in flight in the Alps even when there is snow drift. If the temperatures are favorable from April to June, the caterpillars can develop in Central Europe in four to five weeks. Accordingly, the first adult caterpillars appear in such years from mid to late June. On average, the caterpillars need eight weeks to develop and then rest for a month. Thus, the next generation of butterflies will appear from September and intensify the second wave of incoming birds flying in at the same time. Usually caterpillars are found in Europe from July to September and pupae from September to October. Eggs and caterpillars appear on Gran Canaria as early as December and January.

Food of the caterpillars

The most important food crop for the caterpillars is the potato.

The caterpillars feed mainly on plants from the nightshade family and especially on the potato ( Solanum tuberosum ). Other important food plants of the same family are bittersweet nightshade ( Solanum dulcamara ), Lycium Europaeum , wolfberry ( Lycium barbarum ), black nightshade ( Belladonna ), Nicotiana tabacum ( Nicotiana tabacum ) and Thorn apple ( Datura stramonium ) and jujubes ( Physalis ) Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum ), black nightshade ( Solanum nigrum ) and eggplant ( Solanum melongena ).

However, the caterpillars are polyphagous and also feed on a variety of plants from a number of families, including:

From Anatolia, the caterpillars have also been found on bean-like yoke leaf ( Zygophyllum fabago ), in the Canaries they are also found on Cussonia , African tulip tree ( Spathodea campanulata ), tabebuia , Cordia sebestena , blue-green tobacco ( Nicotiana glauca ) and loosestrife ( Clerodiana ).

During their entire development, the caterpillars mostly feed on the food plant on which they hatched. In contrast to the line hawk ( Hyles livornica ), food crop changes are possible, but can sometimes lead to the death of the caterpillars.

In old literature the species is called "thorn apple hawk" or the caterpillars are called "jasmine caterpillars" , as was the case with Rösel von Rosenhof in the 18th century. This happened because today's most important food crop, the potato, was first imported from America to Europe around 1565 and it was not until the 18th century that large parts of Europe were cultivated on a large scale. The skull and crossbones hawk was already at home in Europe before that, albeit not as frequently as it is today thanks to potato cultivation. The caterpillars ate on other nightshade plants during this time. Claims that the death's head hawk first appeared after the potato was introduced into Europe are incorrect.

In Europe, no significant damage from caterpillars has recently been documented. Historically, however, there have always been years in which the animals appeared so strongly that they caused damage, especially to potato fields, for example in 1905 in Norfolk , or in 1950 in large parts of Central Europe, where the caterpillars, for example in Thuringia, even with official orders were specifically fought. In the case of mass occurrences, damage is also known from North Africa and southern Europe, for example in 1955/56 in orange plantations in Tunisia, or in 1973 in Greece on olive trees.

Mating and laying eggs

The male moths are ready to mate immediately after hatching and can mate with an equally newly hatched female after the first flight. However, this usually only happens after a few days, especially since newly hatched females often try to escape or make whistling noises. Females ready to mate remain seated and turn out their scent glands at the end of their abdomen to attract males. The mating often takes place in the resting places of the moths, i.e. on tree bark or on the ground on dry leaves. It usually takes place in the late evening from around 10 p.m., but can continue into the morning hours. The male steers directly towards the female in flight or on the ground, holds on to the leading edge of the wing and unites with him while sitting slightly crooked. After all, the pair are coupled to each other sitting side by side on the abdomen and, as is usually the case with swarmers, are rarely connected to the body in opposite directions. The mating usually lasts one to three, rarely up to five hours. Males sometimes mate with several females in a row. The fertilized eggs are ready to lay in about eight days.

A few days before this, the females fly to potential food plants for the caterpillars and show their laying behavior. In the end, they lay around 10 to 30 eggs in one to five weeks, a total of 150 eggs on average. Females can lay a maximum of around 200 eggs, up to 75 of them per day. They are mainly deposited individually on the underside of older sheets.

development

Caterpillar digs into the earth to pupate

As with other migratory hawk species, such as the oleander hawk ( Daphnis nerii ) or the line hawk ( Hyles livornica ), the critical photoperiod for the development of the skull hawk is short days with around 14 hours of light. In caterpillars that develop over longer days, the probability increases that the moths that develop from them are sterile, form few or no eggs, or they perish after being laid. Caterpillars that develop in Central Europe or further north in summer are exposed to light for 15 or more hours per day, so they rarely develop reproductive moths.

The caterpillars hatch after five to 12 days, depending on the temperature. At 20 ° C they need about eight days. The newly hatched caterpillars first eat their egg shells and then usually position themselves on the underside of the leaves on a leaf vein to eat. They initially live in groups and eat small holes in the leaves (pitting). During the feeding breaks, the caterpillars rest on the underside of the leaves. From the third caterpillar stage onwards, when they rest, they typically sit with an upright front body and cling to the midrib with the pusher and the last two pairs of belly legs . After some time of development, the caterpillars eat the leaves from the edge as solitary animals. Not only are they active at night, but they also feed during the day and are extremely sluggish throughout their development. They only move when they need a new leaf to feed on, which after a while creates a bald spot in the area where the caterpillar sits on the plant. Due to their color, they are excellently camouflaged, so that even large, fully-grown caterpillars are usually difficult to spot on the plants. If they are disturbed, they make clicking noises with their mandibles and can also injure their attackers with their mouthparts. Before each molt, the caterpillars remain motionless on the underside of the leaves for a few hours, while as young animals they sit especially on the midrib, as older, larger animals on the stems. Often the detached caterpillar skin is eaten up together with the anal horn after moulting.

When the caterpillars are ready to pupate, they no longer consume any food and within a few hours they change color from the beginning to a dark and cloudy yellow-orange. During this time they moisten their bodies with saliva, which apparently accelerates the discoloration process. They then go in search of a suitable place to pupate and, during their march, separate an alkaline liquid from both the mouth and the anus , which is also secreted during the construction of the pupa chamber. Pupation takes place buried in the ground from a depth of about 3 cm, usually between 15 and 40 cm. Depending on the temperature, the caterpillar rests in the ground for some time before it finally pupates. This rest period lasts six to seven days at 20 ° C and up to 16 days at 10 to 14 ° C. Pupation takes place in an egg-shaped cavity, which becomes relatively smooth-walled on the inside as the caterpillar moves. It has the dimensions of eight by six centimeters. The doll is very active and flexible. When disturbed, it makes beating and turning movements. Shortly before they hatch, the pupae can also generate short, simple "beeps" without repetitions. Wintering takes place for ordinary people in the pupal stage, although the animals only survive European winters in exceptional cases. The dormancy of overwintering is induced by low temperatures below 5 to 7 ° C shortly after pupation. Once this condition has been triggered, the moths only hatch after several months of cool temperatures above 20 ° C and do not react to a temperature rise that follows shortly thereafter. If the pupae rest at temperatures that do not fall below 15 to 17 ° C, the dormancy occurs as a quiescence , which means that development is delayed, but fully developed butterflies hatch as soon as the temperatures return, regardless of the duration of the low temperatures rise above 20 ° C. In Central Europe, taking into account the depth of the soil in which pupation takes place, this does not occur before May, which means hatching only from June / July, given the subsequently necessary four to six weeks of development until the adult butterfly. This late hatching means that the eggs of these moths are only ready to lay in July / August, which in turn causes caterpillars to develop by the end of September. These caterpillars are exposed to light for short days with less than 14 hours and are therefore able to reproduce. However, according to Traub in Ebert, the egg-laying or return migration of these moths is not documented; their occurrence merely supplements the immigrated populations, which are otherwise solely responsible for the continuous occurrence of the species north of southern Europe with their migratory flight. Reinhardt and Harz, however, speak of several documented "return flyers", which Weidemann and Köhler also confirm.

A skull hawk hatch

The moths normally hatch in the evening between 6 p.m. and 9 p.m., only rarely can it happen later or even during the day. The time depends on the temperature cycle of the earth surrounding the doll. If it is warmer during the day than at night, the moths hatch in the evening, and vice versa, in the morning. After hatching, the moths crawl into the open air and are constantly looking for a suitable place where they can climb up. There they let their wings hang down, they are fully unfolded after about 40 minutes and hardened after a total of two hours. Normally, the moths leave this resting place the next evening at the earliest, only to find a better hiding place, they leave the place earlier.

Specialized enemies

Various species of parasitic wasps (Ichneumonidae) and caterpillar flies (Tachinidae) have been identified as parasitoids on the squirrel hawk:

Taxonomy and systematics

Átropos o Las Parcas by Francisco de Goya ; the scientific name of the butterfly is derived from Atropos .

The skull hawk was first described by Carl von Linné in 1758 in the 10th edition of his work Systema Naturae as Sphinx atropos , Jacob Heinrich Laspeyres placed the species in the genus Acherontia , which he newly established in 1809 , to which the species is still assigned today. The genus name Acherontia is derived from Acheron , one of the five rivers of the underworld from Greek mythology. The specific epithet is derived from the goddess of fate Atropos , one of the three Moiren from Greek mythology, whose task it is to cut the thread of life. With the assignment of the scientific name, Linnaeus referred to the superstition widespread at the time. The names of the two other species of the genus also have reference to the Greek underworld: Styx is a river of the underworld, Lachesis is another moire.

The genus Acherontia is placed together with four other genera in the tribe Acherontiini, the monophyly of which is well founded. The relationships between the genera within the tribe have not been fully explored, but it seems certain that Acherontia is most closely related to the genus Coelonia , which therefore forms the sister group. The three species of Acherontia are well separated from Coelonia . Based on morphological studies of adults, caterpillars, pupae and host plants, it was possible to show that Acherontia atropos is closely related to Acherontia styx , the sister taxon of the two species is Acherontia lachesis .

The following relationships result in the genus Acherontia :



Acherontia lachesis


   

Acherontia atropos


   

Acherontia styx




Synonyms

  • Atropos solani Oken, 1815, Okens textbook Naturgesch. 3 (1): 762.
  • Acherontia sculda Kirby, 1877, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1877: 242.

Hazard and protection

Due to its wide distribution and frequency, the skull hawk is not endangered. As a migratory butterfly it is usually not included in the Red Lists of Endangered Species in Central Europe ; in Germany it is listed as a migratory butterfly and classified as harmless. The species is not recorded in the Federal Species Protection Ordinance (BArtSchV).

Due to its predilection for potato plants, the species has suffered high harvest losses in both the caterpillar and pupa stages. The insecticides used in agriculture also do their part. Since the occurrence in Europe is guaranteed solely by animals immigrating from the south, these losses have no impact on the native populations and the species is therefore not included in the Red Lists.

According to the experiences of earlier butterfly collectors, skull owls could practically not be euthanized in the "killing jars" that were common at the time with potassium cyanide plastered into the glass bottom, not even with the otherwise usual mixture of ether and chloroform. In contrast, the injection of a brew of cigarette tobacco drawn into a syringe has proven itself time and again.

Cultural reception

Skull and crossbones on a postage stamp from Azerbaijan

The skull owl was known as a "bird of death" due to its distinctive drawing, especially the eponymous "skull" on the thorax, which occasionally shows hints of crossed leg bones. It was entered under this name in 1719 in the “Breslau Art and Natural History”. Its appearance in beehives and the nocturnal lifestyle also reinforced its reputation as ominous. There, where he got lost in houses, one feared disaster.

Bertelli, Ciondolino (first 1895), illustrations of a skull and crossbones enthusiast (drawings by Carlo Chiostri, ca.1915)

The skull hawk also found its way into modern mythology.

  • In Luigi Bertelli's children's book Ciondolino (first in Italian in 1895, in German: Max Butziwackel der Ameisenkaiser , 1920), Max, who has been transformed into an ant, helps a swarm of bees to repel an attack by a skull swarm on the bee nest.
  • In the novel Dracula (1897) by Irish author Bram Stoker , Count Dracula sends this species of butterfly to Renfield, the confused prison inmate.
  • The skull owl also appears in the film An Andalusian Dog (original French: Un chien andalou ) by Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí , which was shown for the first time in Paris in 1929.
  • Also in Thomas Harris' book Das Schweigen der Lämmer (USA 1989) and in the film based on it (USA 1991, director: Jonathan Demme, script: Ted Tally) the skull owl appears. The serial killer "Buffalo Bill" places the butterfly pupa in his victims' mouths; the cover of the book and the movie poster show the skull owl.

But Carl von Linné's pupil , James Barbut, also philosophized about animal ethics and scientific curiosity based on the way work colleagues and entomologists dealt with the skull hawk: "The ſphinx atropos ſqueakes when hurt, nearly as loud as a mouſe, which, when uttered in the moſt plaintive tone, naturally ſhocks the human heart, and makes it ſhudder at the thought of deſtroying inoffenſive animals merely for the ſake of curioſity. I cannot help reflecting on this tyranny, this wanton cruelty, exerciſed by thoughtleſs man, on many animals , but eſpecially in inſects: 'tis certain, that every animal poſſeſſing life, has feeling; and, therefore, is as capable of ſuffering pain, as of enjoying pleaſure; and, as Shakeſpeare humanely expreſſes “The poor beetle cruſhed beneath the foot, feels the pangs of death as great as when a monarch falls. " Gentle reader, pardon this digreſſion, my feelings commanded my pen. "

swell

literature

  • Arno Bergmann: The large butterflies of Central Germany. Volume 3: Weirdos and Swarmers. Distribution, forms and communities. Urania-Verlag, Jena 1953, DNB 450378365 .
  • Günter Ebert: The butterflies of Baden-Württemberg. Volume 4, Moths II (Bombycidae, Endromidae, Lemoniidae, Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Drepanidae, Notodontidae, Dilobidae, Lymantriidae, Ctenuchidae, Nolidae). Ulmer, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-8001-3474-8 .
  • JJ de Freina, Th. Witt: The Bombyces and Sphinges of the West Palaearctic. Volume 1. Noctuoidea, Sphingoidea, Geometroidea, Bombycoidea. EFW Edition Research & Science Verlag, Munich 1987, ISBN 3-926285-00-1 .
  • Ian J. Kitching, Jean-Marie Cadiou: Hawkmoths of the World. An Annotated and Illustrated Revisionary Checklist (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae). Cornell University Press, New York 2000, ISBN 0-8014-3734-2 .
  • Manfred Koch : We determine butterflies. Volume 2: Bears, Spinners, Swarmers and Drills in Germany. 2nd, expanded edition. Neumann, Radebeul / Berlin 1964, DNB 452481929 .
  • AR Pittaway: The Hawkmoths of the western Palaearctic. Harley Books, 1993, ISBN 0-946589-21-6 .
  • Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Migratory swarmers. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers. (= Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei. Volume. 596.) Westarp & Spectrum, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 .
  • Hans-Josef Weidemann, Jochen Köhler: Moths. Weirdos and hawkers. Naturbuch-Verlag, Augsburg 1996, ISBN 3-89440-128-1 .

Web links

Commons : Totenkopfschwärmer  - Album with pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c Josef J. de Freina, Thomas J. Witt: Noctuoidea, Sphingoidea, Geometroidea, Bombycoidea . In: The Bombyces and Sphinges of the Western Palaearctic . 1st edition. tape 1 . EFW Edition Research & Science, Munich 1987, ISBN 3-926285-00-1 , p. 405 .
  2. ^ A b c Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 30th f .
  3. ↑ a b c d A. R. Pittaway: The Hawkmoths of the western Palaearctic . Harley Books, 1993, ISBN 0-946589-21-6 , pp. 82 .
  4. ^ Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 32 .
  5. ^ A b Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 34 .
  6. ^ Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 35 .
  7. ^ A b c Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 36 f .
  8. ^ Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 37 f .
  9. ^ Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 42 f .
  10. ↑ a b Sphingidae of the Eastern Palaearctic: Acherontia styx. AR Pittaway, accessed September 24, 2009 .
  11. ↑ Dubatolov; VV (2011): Discovery of Acherontia atropos L. (Lepidoptera, Sphingidae) in North-East Kazakhstan. Amurian zoological journal III (1), pp. 58-59
  12. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Sphingidae of the Western Palaearctic: Acherontia atropos. AR Pittaway, accessed September 4, 2009 .
  13. ^ Günter Ebert: The butterflies of Baden Württemberg . 1st edition. tape 4 . Moths II Bombycidae, Endromidae, Lasiocampidae, Lemoniidae, Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Drepanidae, Notodontidae, Dilobidae, Lymantriidae, Ctenuchidae, Nolidae . Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim) 1994, ISBN 3-8001-3474-8 , pp. 127 .
  14. ^ A b Josef J. de Freina, Thomas J. Witt: Noctuoidea, Sphingoidea, Geometroidea, Bombycoidea . In: The Bombyces and Sphinges of the Western Palaearctic . 1st edition. tape 1 . EFW Edition Research & Science, Munich 1987, ISBN 3-926285-00-1 , p. 406 .
  15. ^ A b Günter Ebert: The butterflies of Baden Württemberg . 1st edition. tape 4 . Moths II Bombycidae, Endromidae, Lasiocampidae, Lemoniidae, Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Drepanidae, Notodontidae, Dilobidae, Lymantriidae, Ctenuchidae, Nolidae . Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim) 1994, ISBN 3-8001-3474-8 , pp. 123 .
  16. ^ A b c d e f g Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 58 ff .
  17. ^ A b Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 53 ff .
  18. ^ A b c Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 50 ff .
  19. ^ A b c Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 56 f .
  20. ^ A b R. FA Moritz, WH Kirchner, RM Crewe: Chemical Camouflage of the Death's Head Hawkmoth ( Acherontia atropos L.) in Honeybee Colonies , Naturwissenschaften 78 (1991) 179-182
  21. ↑ a b c Günter Ebert: The butterflies of Baden Württemberg . 1st edition. tape 4 . Moths II Bombycidae, Endromidae, Lasiocampidae, Lemoniidae, Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Drepanidae, Notodontidae, Dilobidae, Lymantriidae, Ctenuchidae, Nolidae . Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim) 1994, ISBN 3-8001-3474-8 , pp. 124 .
  22. ^ A b c d e Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 39 ff .
  23. ^ Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 33 .
  24. ^ A b Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 85 ff .
  25. ^ Hans-Josef Weidemann, Jochen Köhler: Moths, Spinners and Swarmers . Naturbuch-Verlag, Augsburg 1996, ISBN 3-89440-128-1 , p. 24 .
  26. ↑ Acherontia atropos (Linnaeus 1758). Fauna Europaea, Version 1.3, April 19, 2007 , accessed on September 4, 2009 .
  27. ^ A b c Ian J. Kitching: Phylogeny of the death's head hawkmoth, Acherontia [Laspeyres], and related genera (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae, Acherontiini) , Systematic Entomology 28 (2003) 71-88
  28. ^ A b Günter Ebert: The butterflies of Baden Württemberg . 1st edition. tape 4 . Moths II Bombycidae, Endromidae, Lasiocampidae, Lemoniidae, Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Drepanidae, Notodontidae, Dilobidae, Lymantriidae, Ctenuchidae, Nolidae . Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim) 1994, ISBN 3-8001-3474-8 , pp. 128 .
  29. ^ Hans-Josef Weidemann, Jochen Köhler: Moths, Spinners and Swarmers . Naturbuch-Verlag, Augsburg 1996, ISBN 3-89440-128-1 , p. 26 .
  30. ^ Rolf Reinhardt, Kurt Harz: Wandering Schwärmerarten. Skull, curling, oleander and line swarmers . In: Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Vol. 596 . 2nd, unchanged edition. Westarp Sciences, Magdeburg / Heidelberg / Berlin / Oxford 1996, ISBN 3-89432-859-2 , p. 61 f .
  31. ↑ Un Chien Andalou: Frame Enlargements: Part 4 of 4. The University of Alabama, College of Communication and Information Sciences, accessed September 29, 2009 .
  32. ↑ James Barbut (1781): The Genera Insectorum of Linnæus, Exemplified by Various Specimens English Insects drawn by Nature
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on November 23, 2009 in this version .