Yanomami

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Yanomami

The people of the Yanomami , Yanomama or Yanomamö (especially in Anglo-Saxon literature) live in the Venezuelan - Brazilian border area on the 1500 meter high Serra Parima , between the Orinoco and Amazon rivers . The approximately 35,000 Yanomami make up the largest indigenous ethnic group in the Amazon region. Since the invasion of whites in the 1970s, their livelihoods there have been endangered. Culturally, the Yanomami belong to the Orinoco Parima cultures .

The popular name commonly used by anthropologists today as Yanomami goes back to the word yanõmami , which means " people " or "human beings" in the phrase yanõmami thëpë or yanomae thëpë . This expression stands for the Yanomami in contrast to the yaro or yaropë (“animals”, “game”) and yai or yai thëpë , i.e. the non-human beings (“invisible or nameless beings / things”), but also to napë or napëpë ("enemy", "stranger", "white man"). Many of the views on the way of life and behavior of the Yanomami, some of which are still widespread today, are based on reports of expeditions under the leadership of the anthropologists Napoleon Chagnon and Jacques Lizot , whose methods are now viewed by other scientists and human rights activists as highly questionable.

habitat

Yanomami habitat

Original tribal area

According to the oral tradition of the Yanomami and the first written documents in which they are mentioned, their former home country was in the Serra Parima (in Venezuela: Sierra Parima ), the watershed between the Alto Orinoco (also Paraguá) and the right tributaries of the Rio Branco ( Portuguese for "White River"), a left tributary of the Rio Negro (Portuguese and Spanish for "Black River"). This is still the most densely populated area within their territory. The migration of the Yanomami groups from the Serra Parima into the surrounding lowlands probably began in the first half of the 19th century, after the colonial powers Spain and Portugal moved into the region of the Alto Orinoco, the Rio Negro and the Rio Branco in the second half of the 19th century 18th century had advanced. The current tribal area of ​​the Yanomami has its origin in this migration movement.

This territorial expansion of the Yanomami was possible because they experienced enormous population growth between the early 19th and 20th centuries. A number of anthropologists believe that this population growth is due to economic changes through the acquisition of new crops as well as metal tools through exchanges or warfare with neighboring indigenous groups ( Caribs in the north and east: Ye'kuana , Purukoto , Sapara , Pauxiana ; Arawak in the south and west: Bahuana , Mandahuaca (Mandawaka), Yabaâna (Yabaána, Yabahana), Baniwa (Baniva, Baniua, Curipaco, Walimanai) , Kuripako (Curipaco, Curripaco, Coripaco), Kuriobana , Manao , Baré (Hanera)) or Arutani-Sapé (Awake (Arutani) - Kaliana / Kariana (Sapé)), Marakana or Máku was triggered by Roraima . These neighboring indigenous groups in turn had direct trade relations with the border settlements. However, through contact with the local white population, many of these tribes fell ill with previously unknown diseases ( malaria , tuberculosis , measles , influenza , whooping cough ) during the 19th century , so that many tribes died out or were severely decimated by repeated epidemics . As a result, various tribal groups of the Caribs and Arawak were soon no longer able to successfully resist the attacks of the Yanomami advancing into their area, so that they soon occupied their area and then regarded it as their own tribal area.

Meaning of Urihi (forest land)

The Yanomami word urihi denotes both the forest and its soil, it also means territory or land: ipa urihi - "my (tribal) land" can denote both the place of birth and the tribal area to which the speaker belongs. Yanomae thëpë urihipë - "the forest of the people" is therefore the forest that the god Omama gave the Yanomami (i.e. the people) to live for all subsequent generations - or simply "Yanomami land". Urihi can also be used as a name for the entire world; urihi a pree - “the great forest land”, on the other hand, describes the cosmological geography of the Yanomami.

Urihi ("forest-land") is the source of resources for the Yanomami, but is not simply superficially subject to the will of the people. Rather, it is a living unit, consisting of urihinari ("essential image"), wixia ("breath") and mainly në rope ("immaterial fertility"). So they do not regard Yanomae thëpë urihipë as a thing or even property that one can dispose of how and when one wants - but as a kind of living being with its own will, on which the will of man must not impose itself.

Today's reserves and protected areas

In Venezuela, the various Yanomami groups live in the Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare biosphere reserve along the Brazo Casiquiare in the states of Bolivar and the Amazon on an area of ​​over 82,000 km². In northwestern Brazil, the territory covers a further 96,650 km² in the states of Roraima and Amazonas , which was officially confirmed in November 1991 and finally recognized by a presidential decree in May 1992 as Terra Indígena Yanomami ("Territory of the Indigenous Yanomami "). This territory, almost twice the size of Switzerland , encompasses a wide variety of natural landscapes, dense tropical rainforests in the lowlands and tropical primeval forests and savannas in the highlands . In addition, it is considered by scientists as a priority region for the protection of biodiversity in the Brazilian Amazon. Together, this area forms the world's largest indigenous habitat in the tropical rainforest.

Uncontacted Yanomami

Some Yanomami have reported seeing uncontacted Yanomami in their area. The Yanomami contacted call her Moxateteu . It is believed that the Moxateteu live in an area where large amounts of illegal gold are mined. Contact with the gold diggers (garimpeiros ) could be very dangerous for the Moxateteu and violent conflicts could ensue. The gold diggers also pose a health risk, as they can bring in diseases such as malaria, against which the Moxateteu have no defenses. There are said to be two groups of the Moxateteu, one that lives along the upper reaches of the Rio Marauiá , a left tributary of the Rio Negro in the reserve, and a second between Rio Demini , a left tributary of the Rio Negro, and the Rio Catrimani , one right tributary of the Rio Branco , which lives outside the reserve but in the Rio Branco National Park .

Threat to habitat

" Shabono ", the traditional round house

In the early 1970s, the Brazilian military government at the time had a federal road, the “Perimetral Norte”, built through the Yanomami territory, which meant a devastating turn in the lives of the tribesmen. Construction workers and settlers brought diseases to which the Yanomami were not immune, resulting in numerous deaths and wiping out two villages. Gold, uranium and other mineral resources were found in the early 1980s. These finds triggered an overexploitation of the Yanomami nature, which threatened their habitat. In the late 1980s, the Brazilian Bishops' Conference estimated the number of prospectors who had invaded Yanomami territory at 65,000. The gold miners brought many diseases, destroyed many villages and shot the indigenous peoples, so that in just seven years 20% of the Yanomami died. The 1993 massacre in the village of Haximu is particularly well known. Illegal gold diggers killed 16 people with firearms and machetes. At that time five out of 22 gold diggers were convicted, but some of them are still in the same area. Although the Brazilian government is trying to take action against the illegal gold diggers, they continue to destroy the forest and pollute the rivers with mercury .

The Yanomami became better known in Germany through Rüdiger Nehberg and Christina Haverkamp , who had regular contact with the Yanomami in the early 1980s. They published several books about the ethnic group and made the public aware of the grievances and the exploitation of their habitat. Research and corresponding reports and radio interviews by the ethnologist Gabriele Herzog-Schröder also contributed.

In 1992, the ancestral land of the Yanomami was demarcated as "Yanomami Park", which significantly improved the situation of the Yanomami, even if they still have to fight against the threat to their habitat. To this day, however, the Brazilian government has denied them real ownership rights over their land, even though it is in breach of the international convention (ILO 169) it has signed.

Classification

Dialect groups

The Yanomami speak several variants and dialects of the Yanomam languages , which are often so different from one another that the Yanomami of neighboring villages cannot always understand each other. The Yanomami groups also do not have a collective term for all Yanomam speakers - each individual tribe or group as well as village communities (often these already form the tribe) each have an autonomous name for themselves. Today there are four major dialect and tribal groups within the Yanomami:

  • Yanam or Ninam (speak Yanam, aka Niman, Yanam-Ninam, approx. 570 speakers, some groups in Venezuela also speak the Pemón of the neighboring Pemón and Spanish)
  • Sanema (speak Sanumá, aka Tsanuma, Sanima, approx. 6410 speakers, some groups in Venezuela also speak Maquiritari [mch] of the neighboring Ye'kuana )
  • Waika (Guaica) or Yanomam (speak Yanomámi, aka Yanomam, Waiká, approx. 9000 speakers)
  • actual Yanomami or Yanomamö (speak Yanomamö, aka Yanomame, actual Yanomami, approx.17,640 speakers)

The Yanomámi of the Waika and the Yanomamö of the actual Yanomami show the greatest similarity to each other, which is why the Waika are often referred to as Eastern Yanomami (Eastern Yanomami, Yanomami Oriental, Yanomae) and the actual Yanomami as Western Yanomami (Western Yanomami, Yanomami Ocidental , Yanõmami).

Since the settlement areas of the different Yanomami groups often overlap, there are some bilingual settlements along the Río Matacuni (also: Río Matakuni ), Río Padamo and Río Ocamo (Sanumá and Yanomamö), along the Río Paragua (Sanumá and Yanam-Ninam) , along the Río Uraricoera (Sanumá and Yanomámi) and along the Rio Demini (Yanomamö and Yanomámi).

However, the Yanomami groups are not to be confused with the Yawanawá (Yawavo, Yauavo, Jawanaua, Yawanaua or Iawanawa) and Yaminawá (Yaminahua, Yuminahua, Yabinahua, Yambinahua) belonging to the Pano language family .

Tribal groups

The Yanam / Ninam form the eastern tribal group with around 700 tribal members , live along the Río Caroní and Río Paragua in the state of Bolivar, Venezuela and along the Rio Mucajai , the Upper Rio Uraricaá and Paragua in the state of Roraima, Brazil. Originally the tribes of the Arutani-Sapé (Awake (Arutani) and Kariana (Sapé)) and Parukoto lived along and north of the Río Uraricoera (also: Rio Uraricuera ) , who were dispersed or joined the Yanam / Ninam and adopted their language and culture , however , the Ye'kuana were able to hold their own for the most part. The Yanam / Ninam split into two major dialect groups as they advanced north:

  • Northern Yanam / Ninam (Shiriana, Uraricaa-Paragua)
  • Southern Yanam / Ninam (Shirishana, Mukajai)

The Sanema form the northern tribal group with about 6410 tribal members , live in the Ervato-Ventuari river system along the upper reaches of the Río Ventuari to Tencua and the Río Merevari in the west as well as the Río Erebato (also: Rio Ervato ) in the north and along the east of the Río Caura north to near the city of Maripa in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela and in the southwest in the headwaters of the Río Ocamo , on the upper reaches of the Río Matacuni (also: Río Matakuni ), on the Río Padamo , Río Kuntinamo and in the southeast along the Río Auaris (also : Rio Awaris ) in the state of Roraima, Brazil. Today there are also Sanema settlements eastwards to the Río Paragua , a tributary of the Río Caroní . Just like the Yanam / Ninam in the east, the Sanema also fought with the Ye'kuana, weakened by epidemics and slave hunts, for land along the Río Uraricoera, which they were largely able to wrest from them, ultimately forcing the Ye'kuana, with weapons acquired from white traders, the Sanema to make peace; since then both peoples have been living peacefully among each other in neighboring villages along the Río Auaris and the Río Uraricoera. In the Auris region in Brazil, 1435 Sanema live in 29 settlements and Ye'kuana live in two settlements (Auaris and Pedra Branca).

The Waika (Guaica) or Yanomam form the middle or central tribal group with approx. 9000 tribal members , today they mostly live in settlements around missions in Brazil:

  • Mission Waicá (also: Waikas , here together with 295 Ye'kuana ) on the Río Uraricoera and on the Rio Catrimani in the state of Roraima.
  • Mission Homoxi (three settlements, 359 people) on the upper reaches of the Rio Mucajaí in the state of Roraima.
    • Tirei (85 Tireitheripë live approx. 100 m from the Homoxi Mission, the Tireitheripë and Xereutheripë were often in armed conflict with the Yarithatheripë )
    • Xere u or Xereutheri (the first settlement with 44 Xereutheripë is about four hours' walk from the Homoxi mission on the Xere u river, a tributary of the Rio Mucajaí, the second settlement with 40 Xereutheripë about 15 minutes upstream, separated in the 1990s Years from the Tireitheripë )
    • Yaritha (the settlement of the 190 Yarithatheripë is about nine hours' walk south of the Homoxi mission on Hayathë u, a tributary of the Ruapë u (an Orinoco tributary) and thus actually in Venezuela (about seven kilometers south of the border), separated from the Wiramapiutheripë / Weremapiutheripë )
  • Mission Toototobi (six settlements, 311 people, Sinathatheripë (1950s) and Warepiutheripë (1970s)) on the Rio Toototobi , a tributary of the Rio Demini in the state of Amazonas.
  • Mission Demini (or Watoriki - 'Windy Mountain') (a settlement, 117 people, Watorikitheripë ) on the Rio Demini in the state of Amazonas.

The actual Yanomami / Yanomamö form with approx.17,640 tribal members the western and at the same time the largest tribal group , the majority (approx.15,710 (as of 2000)) live in the Orinoco - Río Mavaca area in the state of Amazonas in Venezuela and approx. 2000 tribesmen in the Brazilian state Amazon, on the upper tributaries of the Rio Negro , where they also bear the name Shamatari . In Venezuela and Brazil they are divided into two major dialect groups:

  • Western Yanomami (Padamo-Orinoco) (in the basin of the Río Padamo , along the Río Ocamo , Río Manaviche (also: Caño Manaviche ) and on the upper Orinoco in Venezuela and south of the Orinoco to the sources of the Rio Marania and Río Cauaburi in the state Amazonas, Brazil and in large settlements in the area of ​​the Río Siapa in southern Venezuela)
  • Eastern Yanomami (Parima) (in the Serra Parima (in Venezuela: Sierra Parima ), east of the Río Batau )

Way of life and culture

economy

Food procurement

Yanomami grow fields with over 60 different types of plants. Their staple foods are cassava, as well as bananas and plantains. They also eat crops and fruits such as taro and papaya. In order to grow the plants, they burn small sections of the rainforest ( slash-and-burn agriculture ). Since the soil in the rainforest is very poor in nutrients, after a few years it will no longer be possible to continue farming there. That is why the trunks keep moving a few kilometers.

Hunting also plays a major role in obtaining food. Since large animals are rare in the rainforest, the hunters often have to roam the rainforest for days in search of game. They hunt woolly monkeys , tapirs , armadillos and various birds.

Craft

Weaving a basket

The Yanomami don't build dugouts, but they pull huge barked trees, called “thõmoro”, into the water and drift down the river.

Beliefs and worldview

The world view of the Yanomami is animistic , which means that every part, no matter how small, has a cosmos that is comparable to the human soul.

For them, the spiritual world is the real reality. The awesome realization of appearance and disappearance as something that can be experienced every day, as well as the shadowy realm of the spirit world, is life-determining for them and shapes all areas of life. The spirits are responsible for the constant change in the world and therefore have to be respected, honored and in order to have a positive influence on events to be tempered.

Your cosmology encompasses a four-tier universe. In the two uppermost layers, ghosts and the dead live in an idealized earthly landscape. Below lies the human world, whereby people can see the worlds above them (stars, skies, etc.). The lowest layer is that of the evil people who have fallen from the human world and are now living and starving there as cannibals. From there they can send their spirits into the human world to rob children. It is up to the medicine man - in addition to his classic tasks such as healing magic - to prevent this and to fight against demons. Hallucinogens are also used. The cult of the dead includes endocannibalism , which means here: The ashes of the dead are consumed by the relatives, so that the dead continue to live in them.

The Yanomami are afraid of fixed forms, of defined material and of stories with a clear beginning and end and chronological course. Terms are replaced by others in stories, such as "sun" by "moon".

Through the work of Christian missionaries , individual tribes came to believe in what - in the words of Chief Shoefoot - the Supreme Being in the 1960s . Looking back, Shoefoot portrays his old worldview as a state in which he and his people were deceived by their spirits. The departure from the traditional spirit world towards the Supreme Being led to economic growth and a decline in tribal feuds.

mythology

According to the Yanomami creation myth, Pelibo, the moon, came down to earth and ate a termite nest. Many beings shot at him, but missed him. The moon flew up. After many misses, Omayali finally hit the moon in the middle of the body, and the moon's blood dripped onto the earth. This blood turned into the first humans.

The Yanomami tell the following story (based on Napoleon A. Chagnon ) about their own origins:

The Yanomami describe the population at that time as primordial beings or first beings and not as humans. People emerge later. A mother (1) gives a girl a fruit from which the girl dies. The mother's daughter-in-law feels a strong urge for meat and eats the deceased girl. The girl's father kills the birth mother (2) of the daughter-in-law in revenge and eats her. The mother's sons (2) then kill the father who killed their mother (2). As a result, the sons have a strong urge to have sexual intercourse and rape a girl. One of these sons becomes very thirsty. Because of this, his father digs a watering hole, but so much water flows out of it that most First Beings drown. The mother of the raped falls into a lake created by the flood. One of the mother's sons (2) turns her into a sea monster. Even today, the Yanomami are very afraid of crossing deep waters.

One of the few surviving First Beings is the moon spirit. He comes to earth to eat the souls of children. The other survivors want to prevent this and shoot the moon spirit with arrows. Where his blood drips onto the earth, the first men ( blood men ) arise . The women come from the left leg of a blood man, the particularly learned men from his right leg.

Gender roles

For the Yanomami, gender equality consists in the juxtaposition of different, separate areas. The kinship structure is bilinear , which u. a. in the passing of the noreshi expresses. The Yanomami believe that every person has an external part of the soul that is represented by a certain species of animal ( noreshi ). Women and men are assigned very specific noreshi , and their transmission takes place in absolute symmetry from father to son and from mother to daughter.

Female initiation:

The Yanomami celebrate a girl's first menstruation with a rite of passage lasting several weeks. The girl takes off all her jewelry and goes inside the maternal living quarters in a quickly erected shed; it is cut off from village life by a thick curtain of leaves. The girl is very restrained in all her expressions of life, since the Yanomami are convinced that she is susceptible to all possible dangers during this special time and can also bring the community into need. It hardly speaks, it does not cry, it has to fast and can only drink liquids through a tube to stay healthy itself. It hides so as not to cause natural disasters such as storms or floods. The young girl only has contact with her mother, sisters and friends. After two to four weeks, the curtain is removed, the initiate is washed and dyed red. A few days later, she and her friends and female relatives go on a ritual hunt for cancer. Then she is ceremonially painted and richly decorated and returns to the village in her new role as a marriageable woman. This maturity ritual is celebrated individually for each girl; for Yanomami boys there is no equivalent to this rite of passage.

Warfare

The children are brought up early on to a certain severity in enduring physical pain.

The Yanomami, like the Himba (South West Africa), Batak (Indonesia) and Eipo (New Guinea), have a decidedly warlike culture. The children are brought up early on to a certain degree of hardship in enduring physical pain and to be prepared to reward experienced aggressions in the same way. Martial skills are tested in the game. Crying is viewed as snobbery and is occasionally treated with corporal punishment. There have been reports of raids on other tribes in which women and children were also killed. Here, bitter tribal wars with high mortality rates were and are often waged.

The first Europeans (Portuguese, Spanish and French) to colonize South America found various Indian tribes who rivaled each other and occasionally waged wars (or at least raids). From the start there were coalitions between members of different European nationalities and the different Indian groups.

The extent to which the willingness to use violence of the Amazon Indians is rather exaggerated or understated is still the subject of discussion. In reports on missionaries there were occasionally tendentious depictions of the warlike state before and after. On the other hand, the myth of the “ noble savage ” lives on. Lawrence Keeley wrote an extensive account of the question of how warlike hunters-gatherers can be in 1996: "War before Civilization".

So far there has been no general conclusion from ethnological research regarding the Amazon wars. After two decades of relative peace, war and violence reappear (according to a field study in 1993). However, there is more violence against the “strangers”, which may indicate a stronger group feeling among the Indians. Their opposition to the oil companies, the government and other Indian groups seems to weld them together. Overall, however, Indian society has become considerably more peaceful over the past few decades. Today people often forego blood revenge and retribution, which used to stretch across generations.

The human rights organization Survival International criticized the claim that the Yanomami are particularly belligerent, “as a myth of the brutal savage”. The criticism was directed primarily against scientists like Napoleon Chagnon , on whom a large part of the description of the Yanomami as "warlike" goes back. Numerous anthropologists and respected Yanomami representatives such as Davi Yanomami Kopenawa joined Survival's criticism that the Yanomami are no more violent than other human societies.

Jewellery

Jewelry pins in the lower lip

In the form of a centuries-old tradition, the lips and nasal septum are pierced in childhood and, in the form of labret and septum piercings , jewelry pins known as arrow sticks or lip pegs are used. While women carry up to three symmetrically arranged bars in the lower lip, men usually only have one bar in the middle. It is also common to wear earrings.

Pijiguao festival

The Yanomami burn their dead and stamp the bones left in the pyre into powdered ash, which they store in small containers. Several times a year this powder is brought out on the occasion of the Pijiguao palm fruit festival, mixed into banana soup in a ceremony and eaten by the closest relatives. With this form of so-called " endocannibalism " (the "own" relatives are consumed), the bereaved take in the positive parts of the soul. To prevent the malevolent spirits of the dead from returning, all objects that belonged to the dead are destroyed; his name is no longer mentioned.

exhibition

literature

  • Napoleon A. Chagnon : Yanomamö. The fierce people. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York NY et al. 1968, ISBN 0-03-071070-7 .
  • Napoleon A. Chagnon: Noble Savages. My Life Among Two Dangerous Tribes - the Yanomamö and the Anthropologists. Simon & Schuster, New York NY et al. 2013, ISBN 978-0-684-85510-3 ( limited preview in Google book search).
  • Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt , Gabriele Herzog-Schröder , Marie-Claude Mattei-Müller: Yanomami. Human-ethological accompanying publications (= publications on scientific films. Ethnology. Special volume 10). Institute for Scientific Film, Göttingen 2001, ISBN 3-88222-080-5 .
  • R. Brian Ferguson: Yanomami Warfare. A Political History. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe NM 1995, ISBN 0-933452-38-1 (Collective article on the literature of the Amazon wars, attempt to declare war in the Amazon).
  • Roland Garve : Among the Amazon Indians. Herbig, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-7766-2303-9 .
  • Jörg Helbig, Oswald Iten, Jacques Schiltknecht (eds.): Yanomami. Indians of Brazil fighting for survival. Pinguin et al., Innsbruck et al. 1989, ISBN 3-7016-2322-8 .
  • Gabriele Herzog-Schröder: La menstruación, el cangrejo, el novio y el homicidio. Consideraciones sobre el concepto de la persona y las relaciones familiares a la luz de dos rituales de los Yanomami del Alto Orinoco (Venezuela). In: Hanna Heinrich, Harald Grauer (ed.): Paths in the garden of ethnology. Between there and here. Feschrift for María Susana Cipolletti. = Caminos en el jardín de la etnología. Entre aquí y allá (= Collectanea Instituti Anthropos. Vol. 46). Academia Verlag, Sankt Augustin 2013, ISBN 978-3-89665-632-2 , pp. 159-173.
  • Gabriele Herzog-Schröder: Okoyõma - The cancer hunters. About the life of the Yanomamï women in southern Venezuela (= women's cultures , men's cultures. Vol. 8). LIT, Münster et al. 2000, ISBN 3-8258-5082-X (at the same time: Berlin, Free University, dissertation, 1999: Okoyõma - the cancer hunters from the Upper Orinoco).
  • Hartmut-Emanuel Kayser: The rights of the indigenous peoples of Brazil. Historical development and current status (= publications of the German-Brazilian Lawyers Association. Vol. 32). Shaker, Aachen 2005, ISBN 3-8322-3991-X (Zugl .: Frankfurt am Main, University, dissertation, 2005).
  • Heinz Kindlimann: Born in the Stone Age - died in the present. Travel to the land of the Yanomami Indians. Orell Füssli, Zurich 2006, ISBN 3-280-06081-8 .
  • Franz Knobloch: The Aharaibu Indians in Northwest Brazil (= Collectanea Instituti Anthropos. 1, ZDB -ID 193655-4 ). Publishing house of the Anthropos Institute, St. Augustin near Bonn 1967.
  • Jacques Lizot: In the circle of fires. From the life of the Yanomami Indians. Syndicate, Frankfurt am Main 1982, ISBN 3-8108-0200-X .
  • Rüdiger Nehberg : The Yanomami Indians. Rescue for a people - my most important expeditions (= Piper. 3922). Piper, Munich et al. 2003, ISBN 3-492-23922-6 .
  • Mark Andrew Ritchie: The Spirit of the Rainforest. The life story of a Yanomamö shaman. Johannis, Lahr (Black Forest) 2008, ISBN 978-3-501-01586-5 .
  • Clayton Robarchek, Carole Robarchek: Waorani. The Contexts of Violence and War. Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Fort Worth TX et al. 1998, ISBN 0-15-503797-8 (ethnological study of violence and war among the Yanomami).
  • Hans Staden : Real history and description of the land of wild, naked, grim human-eaters Leuthen, located in the new world of America. Faithful facsimile print of the Marburg 1557 edition. Thiele & Schwarz, Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe 1978, ISBN 3-87816-024-0 .
    • Brazil. The true history of the wild, naked, fierce ogre-people (= Greno 10, 20. 89). Edited and introduced by Gustav Faber. Translated from the Early New High German by Ulrich Schlemmer. Greno, Nördlingen 1988, ISBN 3-89190-889-X .
  • Otto Zerries : Waika. The cultural-historical position of the Waika Indians of the Upper Orinoco in the context of ethnology of South America (= results of the Frobenius expedition 1954-55 to southeast Venezuela. Vol. 1). Renner, Munich 1964.
  • Otto Zerries, Meinhard Schuster : Mahekodotedi. Monograph of a village of the Waika Indians (Yanoama) on the Upper Orinoco (Venezuela). (= Results of the Frobenius expedition 1954–55 to Southeast Venezuela. Vol. 2). Renner, Munich 1974, ISBN 3-87673-034-1 .

Movies

  • Napoleon Chagnon , Timothy Asch: A man called Bee , Documentation 1974
  • José Padilha: Secrets of the Tribe , Documentation, 2010

Web links

Commons : Yanomami  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Other spelling variants are: Yanoama, Yanomani, Ianomami
  2. ↑ Approx. 19,400 live in the Brazilian states of Roraima and Amazonas (DSEI Yanomami - Sesai 2011) and around 16,000 in the Venezuelan states of Bolivar and Amazonas (2009)
  3. ↑ Instituto Socioambiental - The name Yanomami In: socioambiental.org , accessed on January 17, 2017
  4. ↑ The Yanomami - Abuse in the Primeval Forest (summary) ( Memento from October 19, 2014 in the Internet Archive ), accessed on November 15, 2013
  5. ^ The Yanomami - Abuse in the Jungle (OT: Secrets of the Tribe, José Padilha , 2010), accessed on November 15, 2013
  6. ↑ Goethe Institute - The Yanomami in Brazil
  7. ↑ Instituto Socioambiental - The ancient Yanomami
  8. ↑ Instituto Socioambiental - Urihi, the forest-land
  9. ↑ Jan Ullrich: Venezuela's national guard against gold prospectors. In: amerika21. July 7, 2010, accessed July 8, 2010 .
  10. ↑ Ethnologists assume 46 uncontacted indigenous peoples in Brazil. 12 to 13 of these peoples have been proven with certainty, for the existence of the rest there are clear indications such as abandoned fields and houses, finds of arrows and other objects.
  11. ↑ The Yanomami
  12. ↑ And the caiman laughed. On the importance of fire among the Yanomami in North Amazonia (Gabriele Herzog-Schröder) (PDF; 215 kB)
  13. ↑ a b Yanomami. In: Survival International. Retrieved April 12, 2010 .
  14. ^ Theodor Rathgeber: The Yanomami in Brazil and Venezuela. In: Society for Threatened Peoples (GfbV). Archived from the original on August 4, 2012 ; Retrieved February 19, 2010 .
  15. ↑ Venezuela: Yanomami Indians report massacres. (No longer available online.) In: DRadio Wissen. Formerly in the original ; Retrieved August 30, 2012 .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / Wissen.dradio.de
  16. ↑ Venezuela: Yanomami Indians report massacres. (No longer available online.) In: DRadio Wissen. Formerly in the original ; Retrieved August 30, 2012 .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / Wissen.dradio.de
  17. ↑ Press release 20 years after the Yanomami massacre.Retrieved August 15, 2013
  18. ↑ Goethe Institute - The Yanomami in Brazil
  19. ↑ Other names of the Ninam / Yanam: Shiriana, Xiriana (Venezuela) and Crichana, Jawaperi, Jawari, Jauaperi, Kasrapai, Shiriana Casa (pare), Xirixana, Xirianá (Brazil)
  20. ^ John D. Early, John F. Peters: The Xilixana Yanomami of the Amazon: History, Social Structure, and Population Dynamics, University Press of Florida (June 2000), ISBN 978-0-8130-1762-4
  21. ↑ Other names of the Sanema: Sanuma, Tsanuma, Sanima, Guaika, Samatari, Samatali, Xamatari (Venezuela and Brazil) and Chirichano (only Venezuela)
  22. ↑ On the Río Paragua the areas of the eastward advancing Sanema and the northern Yanam / Ninam, which first settled here, overlap
  23. ^ Yanomami groups in Roraima, Brazil ( Memento from October 29, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  24. ↑ Other names of the Ye'kuana: Maquiritari (Maquiritare, Makiritare), Maiongong (Mayongong), So'to (Venezuela and Brazil) as well as Decuana, Yecuana and Cun (only in Venezuela) and Pawana (only in Brazil)
  25. ↑ Instituto Socioambiental - The Ye'kuana, population and location
  26. ↑ Further names of the Waika / Yanomam: Yanomami, (Central) Waicá, Yanoam, Yanomaé, Yanomamé, Surara, Xurima, Parahuri
  27. ↑ Mission Homoxi was named after several settlements along the Rio Hoomoxi u , a tributary of the Rio Mucajaí
  28. ^ The Yanomami of Homoxi
  29. ↑ Your previous settlement on the Wiramapi u (tributary of the Hayathë u) was also in Venezuela, near the border, about six hours' walk from the Homoxi mission
  30. ↑ The shaman Davi Kopenawa Yanomami (also Davi Kobenawä Yanomamö ), who is perhaps the most important leader and advocate of the Yanomami in Brazil today, was born nearby
  31. ↑ Pauxiana ( Caribs ) once lived here and died out in the 20th century
  32. ↑ further names of the Yanomami / Yanomamö: Cobari Kobali, Cobariwa, Guaica, Guajaribo (Guaharibo), Shamatari, Yanomame (Venezuela and Brazil) and Shaathari (only in Brazil)
  33. ^ Edgardo González Niño
  34. ↑ Åke Hultkrantz , Michael Rípinsky-Naxon, Christer Lindberg: The book of the shamans. North and South America . Munich 2002, ISBN 3-550-07558-8 . P. 108 ff.
  35. ↑ Stephan Andreae: Swelling and swelling. In: Orinoco Parima. Indian societies from Venezuela. The Cisneros Collection. Art and Exhibition Hall of the Federal Republic of Germany GmbH, Bonn 2000, (page 16)
  36. ^ Mark Andrew Ritchie: Spirit of the Rainforest. A Ynomamö Shaman's Story , Island Lake Press, Chicago, 1996, p. 91 ff.
  37. ↑ Mark Andrew Ritchie: Spirit of the Rainforest , Island Lake Press, Chicago, 1996, p. 228: “Everything they ever said was a lie.” (Everything you ever said was a lie.)
  38. ^ Mark Andrew Ritchie: Spirit of the Rainforest , Island Lake Press, Chicago, 1996, pp. 173 ff.
  39. ↑ Press kit "Orinoco-Parima" (2000), page 22 ( Memento of March 7, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  40. ↑ Chagnon (1968), p. 44 ff.
  41. ^ Gabriele Herzog-Schröder: Okoyoma - The cancer hunters. About the life of the Yanomamï women in southern Venezuela. Lit Verlag, Berlin / Münster / Vienna / Zurich / London, 2000, p. 72 ff.
  42. ↑ Press kit "Orinoco-Parima" (2000), page 17 ( Memento of March 7, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  43. ↑ Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt: The biology of human behavior. Grundriss der Humanethologie , Piper, Munich, 1984, pp. 503–505
  44. ↑ H. Valero in E. Biocca: Yanoma - The Narrative of a White Girl Kidnapped by Amazonian Indians , New York, 1970; quoted from Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt: The Biology of Human Behavior - Outline of Human Ethology , p. 520 f.
  45. ↑ Jürg Helbling: Coevolution and the social sciences. In: Quarterly publication of the Natural Research Society in Zurich , 147/3, 2002, pp. 115–124; ( Online).
  46. ↑ Staden (1557)
  47. ↑ Robarchek (1998), p. 173
  48. ↑ 'Brutal savages': Debate about violence among indigenous peoples continues . Retrieved April 15, 2013.
  49. ↑ 'The warlike people? The myth of the “brutal savage” . Retrieved April 15, 2013.
  50. ↑ Yanomami Indians: The Fierce People?
  51. ^ Dorling Kindersley: [Encyclopedia of People], 79
  52. ↑ Press kit "Orinoco-Parima" (2000, page 20) ( Memento of March 7, 2012 in the Internet Archive )