Second voyage of the HMS Beagle
The second voyage of the HMS Beagle from December 27, 1831 to October 2, 1836 was the second survey expedition of the HMS Beagle under Captain Robert FitzRoy , who had taken command of the ship on the first voyage after the previous captain, Pringle Stokes , Committed suicide. FitzRoy had thought of the advantages of having someone on board who could study geology and was looking for a naturalist to accompany them as an extra. At the age of 22, graduate Charles Darwin hoped to see the tropics before becoming a pastor and took the opportunity. During the trip he was reading throughHeavily influenced by Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology . By the end of the expedition, Darwin had made a name for himself as a geologist and fossil collector, and the publication of his journal (later known as The Voyage of the Beagle ) made him well known as a scientific writer.
The Beagle sailed across the Atlantic, then performed detailed hydrographic surveys on the coasts of southern South America, and returned via Tahiti and Australia after circling the earth. The original offer to Darwin told him the trip would take two years; but it lasted almost five.
Darwin spent most of this voyage exploring on land: three years and three months on land, 18 months at sea. Early on in the trip, Darwin decided he could write a geology book, and he showed a gift for theorizing. In Punta Alta , Argentina, he made an important find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, of which very few specimens were known at the time. He collected and made detailed observations of plants and animals. His findings undermined his belief in the doctrine that species are immutable and, back in England, provided the basis for his ideas on evolution through natural selection .
Goals of the expedition
When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815, the Pax Britannica saw the seafaring nations compete in colonization and rapid industrialization. Supply logistics and growing trade required reliable information about the sea routes, but the existing nautical charts were incomplete and inaccurate. The South American Wars of Independence ended Spain's monopoly on trade, and the 1825 trade treaty with Argentina recognized the country's independence, adding to the maritime and commercial importance of the east coast of South America . The British Admiralty commissioned Commander King with an accurate hydrographic survey of the "southern coasts of the peninsula of South America, from the southern entrance of the Río Plata to Chilóe; and from Tierra del Fuego ”. Darwin wrote of his voyage: “The purpose of the expedition was to complete the survey of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego begun under Captain King from 1826 to 1830, to survey the coasts of Chile, Peru and some islands in the Pacific, and to conduct a chain of chronometric measurements around the world . “The expeditions also had diplomatic goals and visited disputed areas. The purpose of the expedition was to carry out hydrographic surveys of the coasts of southern South America. These were supposed to expand and correct previous surveys and create nautical charts with information about the depth of the sea that should aid trade and the navy.
An Admiralty memorandum contained the detailed instructions. The first requirement was to resolve inconsistencies in the previous measurements of the longitude of Rio de Janeiro , which was essential as a base point for meridian distances. The precise marine chronometers needed to determine longitude had only become affordable since 1800; the Beagle carried 22 chronometers to enable corrections. The ship was to stop at certain points to evaluate the chronometers for four days and check them by astronomical observations: it was essential to make observations at Porto Praya and Fernando de Noronha to match the previous measurements by William Fitzwilliam Owen and Henry Calibrate Foster . It was important to measure the extent of the reefs of the Abrolhos Archipelago , which were misrepresented in Albin Roussin's survey , and then go to Rio de Janeiro to determine the exact longitude of Villegagnon Island.
The actual surveying work should then begin south of the Río de la Plata , with trips back to Montevideo for supplies; Priorities were set, including the surveying of Tierra del Fuego and the approaches to the ports in the Falkland Islands . The west coast should then be measured as far north as time and means would allow. The commander would then set his own route west: if the season permits, he could survey the Galápagos Islands . Then the Beagle was supposed to continue to Point Venus, Tahiti , and on to Port Jackson , Australia, which were known points to check the chronometers.
No time should be wasted on elaborate drawings; Maps and plans should include notes and simple views of the land from the sea with measured heights of hills. Continuous records of tides and meteorological conditions were also required. An additional proposal was the geological survey of a circular coral atoll in the Pacific Ocean, including its profile and tidal currents, in order to study the formation of such coral reefs.
Context and preparation
The previous survey expedition to South America involved the HMS Adventure and the HMS Beagle under the overall command of the Australian commander Phillip Parker King . During the survey, the Beagle's captain, Pringle Stokes , committed suicide and command of the ship was given to the young aristocrat Robert FitzRoy, a nephew of George FitzRoy, 4th Duke of Grafton . When the ship was captured by the natives in Tierra del Fuego, FitzRoy took four of them hostage. One died of smallpox and the other three were brought back to England for a Christian upbringing, with the idea that they might eventually become missionaries. After the return of the Beagle to the Devonport shipyard on October 14, 1830, Captain King retired.
FitzRoy, 27, had hopes of commanding a second expedition to continue surveying South America, but when he heard the Admiralty Lords no longer supported it, he became concerned about how to bring the Tierra del Fuego back. He made an arrangement with the owner of a small merchant ship to take himself and five others back to South America, but a friendly uncle heard about it and contacted the Admiralty. Soon after, FitzRoy learned that he was about to be appointed in command of the HMS Chanticleer to go to Tierra del Fuego, but due to her poor condition she was replaced by the Beagle. On June 27, 1831, FitzRoy was appointed in command of the voyage, and Lieutenant John Clements Wickham and Bartholomew James Sulivan were also appointed.
Asked about the usefulness of the voyage in continuing the survey, Captain Francis Beaufort , the Admiralty's hydrograph, discussed plans with FitzRoy for a multi-year voyage, including a continuation of the circumnavigation of the world to determine mean distances. The Beagle was put into service on July 4, 1831 under the command of Captain FitzRoy , who promptly spared no expense to extensively convert the Beagle. The Beagle was immediately brought to the dock for extensive conversions and conversions. In need of a new deck, FitzRoy had the upper deck raised 200 mm (8 inches) aft and 300 mm (12 inches) forward. The brig sloops of the Cherokee class had a reputation for being "Sargbriggs" that were difficult to handle and tended to sink. By allowing the decks to drain more quickly and reducing the accumulation of water in the gunwales , the raised deck allowed the Beagle to be better handled and made them less prone to top-heaviness and capsizing. The additional covering of the hull increased the load-bearing capacity by about seven tons and the displacement by maybe fifteen tons.
The ship was one of the first to test the lightning rod invented by William Snow Harris . FitzRoy received five copies of the Sympiesometer , a type of mercury-free barometer patented by Alexander Adie and preferred by FitzRoy because it provided the precise readings required by the Admiralty.
In addition to the officers and crew, the Beagle carried several surplus people, passengers without an official position. FitzRoy employed a mathematical instrument maker to maintain his 22 marine chronometers kept in the cabin and hired the artist / draftsman Augustus Earle as a private individual. The three Tierra del Fuego that had been taken along on the previous voyage were to be brought back to Tierra del Fuego along with the missionary Richard Matthews on the Beagle.
Naturalist and geologist
For Beaufort and the leading “gentlemen of science” at Cambridge, the opportunity to have a naturalist join the expedition fitted in with their quest to reinvigorate the British government's science policy. This elite despised research that was done for money and believed that natural philosophy was something for gentlemen, not for traders. The army and navy officer classes offered an opportunity to rise in this hierarchy; Usually the ship's doctor collected specimens while traveling, and Robert McCormick had secured the official position of ship's doctor on the Beagle after participating in previous expeditions and studying natural history. A sizable collection had considerable social value and attracted widespread public interest, and McCormick pursued fame as a naturalist researcher. Collections made by the ship's doctor and other officers were government owned, although the Admiralty was inconsistent in this regard, and went to important London institutions, usually the British Museum . The Admiralty's instructions for the first voyage had required the officers "to use their best diligence in increasing the collections in each ship: the entirety of them must be understood as public property", but on the second voyage this requirement was omitted, and the officers were allowed to keep all copies for themselves.
FitzRoy's diary, which he wrote during the first voyage, noted that while examining magnetic rocks near the Barbara Channel, he regretted "that no person on the ship was trained in mineralogy or even familiar with geology " to report the opportunity to use to determine "the nature of the rocks and earth" of the investigated areas. FitzRoy decided that on any similar future expedition he would "try to bring along a person qualified to survey the land while the officers and I deal with the hydrography ." What was needed was a naturalist who would spend significant time on land rather than on ship. McCormick lacked the expertise in geology and he had to carry out his duties on the ship.
FitzRoy knew that commanding a ship could be stressful and lonely; he knew of Captain Stokes' suicide, and his own uncle Viscount Castlereagh had committed suicide under stress from overwork. For the first time, he would take full responsibility without the advice of a commanding officer or second captain, and it is believed that he felt the need for a gentlemanly companion who shared his scientific interests and dined with him on an equal footing could. There is no direct evidence for this. Henslow described the position as "more of a companion than a mere collector," but this was an assurance that FitzRoy would treat his guest like a gentlemanly naturalist. Several other ships at the time carried unpaid civilians as naturalists.
In early August, FitzRoy discussed the position with Beaufort, who had a scientific network of friends at Cambridge University . At Beaufort's request, London-based math lecturer George Peacock wrote to Professor John Stevens Henslow about this "rare opportunity for a naturalist" saying that "I was offered the suggestion of a suitable person to join as a naturalist this expedition goes out ”, and suggested the Reverend Leonard Jenyns . Although Jenyns almost agreed and even packed his things, he had concerns about his obligations as Vicar of Swaffham Bulbeck and his health and therefore declined. Henslow thought about leaving for a moment, but his wife "looked so miserable" that he quickly dropped the idea. Both recommended the 22-year-old Charles Darwin, who had just completed his Bachelor of Arts degree, the prerequisite for his desired career as a pastor, and was on a geological excursion with Adam Sedgwick .
Offer of a place to Darwin
Darwin fitted in well with the expectations of a gentlemanly natural philosopher and was well trained as a naturalist. He had found it boring when he was in his sophomore year in Edinburgh studying geology, but from Easter to August 1831 he learned a lot with Adam Sedgwick and developed a keen interest during their geological excursion. On August 24th, Henslow wrote to Darwin:
... that I consider you to be the best qualified person I know of who is likely to undertake such a situation— I state this not on the supposition of yr. being a finished naturalist, but as amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History. Peacock has the appointment at his disposal & if he can not find a man willing to take the office, the opportunity will probably be lost— Capt. F. wants a man (I understand) more as a companion than a mere collector & would not take any one however good a naturalist who was not recommended to him likewise as a gentleman . ... The Voyage is to last 2 yrs. & if you take plenty of books with you, any thing you please may be done… there never was a finer chance for a man of zeal & spirit… Don't put on any modest doubts or fears about your disqualifications for I assure you I think you are the very man they are in search of.
(Translation: ... that I consider you the most qualified person I know who could take on such a situation - I am not saying this under the assumption that you are an accomplished naturalist, but as well qualified for collecting, observing & Jotting Down Everything Worth Note In Natural History, Peacock has the appointment at his disposal & if he can't find a man ready to take office, the opportunity is likely to be lost - Captain F . wants a man (as I understand) more as a companion than a pure collector & would not take any natural scientist, no matter how good, who would not be recommended to him as a gentleman. ... The trip should take 2 years & if you take plenty of books with you, anything can be done as you please ... there has never been a better opportunity for a man of zeal & spirit ... Don't put humble doubts or fears about your disqualifications, for I assure you that I believe that you are exactly the man you are looking for.)
The letter was first sent to George Peacock, who quickly forwarded it to Darwin with further details and confirmed that the "ship will be sailing around the end of September". Peacock had discussed the offer with Beaufort, "he approves it completely & you can consider the situation at your absolute disposal". When Darwin returned home on late August 29 and opened the letters, his father strictly refused the trip, so the next day he wrote that he declined the offer and made his way to his uncle's estate Shoot Josiah Wedgwood II . With Wedgwood's help, Darwin's father was persuaded to give in and fund his son's expedition, and on Thursday, September 1, Darwin wrote that he would accept Peacock's offer. That day, Beaufort wrote to inform FitzRoy that his friend Peacock had managed to find you “a ' Savant ' - a Mr. Darwin, grandson of the famous philosopher and poet - eager and enterprising, who would make a journey of his own Considered bill to South America ”. On Friday Darwin traveled to Cambridge, where he spent Saturday with Henslow for advice on preparation and pointers to experts.
Alexander Charles Wood (a student whose tutor was Peacock) wrote to his cousin FitzRoy from Cambridge recommending Darwin. At around noon on Sunday, September 4, Wood received a response from FitzRoy, who was "direct and in the manner of a gentleman" but strongly opposed Darwin's participation in the expedition; both Darwin and Henslow then "abandoned the plan". Darwin drove to London anyway and met FitzRoy the next morning, who explained to him that he had promised the place to his friend Mr. Chester (possibly novelist Harry Chester ), but Chester had refused him in a letter he had written less than five minutes before Received Darwin's arrival. FitzRoy emphasized the difficulties, including the cramped conditions and easy eating. Darwin would stand in the books of the Admiralty, to get provisions as the ship's officers and the captain, 30 pounds per year (worth 40 pounds per year) and would, for fair pay bill. Including the equipment, the cost for him is unlikely to reach £ 500. The ship would leave on October 10th and would likely be underway for three years. They talked and ate together and soon found each other to be likable. The Tory FitzRoy had been wary of the prospect of company with this unknown young gentleman of Whig background, and later admitted that his letter to Wood was "to pour cold water on the proposition" in "sudden horror." about the possibility of having someone on board whom they shouldn't like ”. In half-seriousness, he later told Darwin that as "an ardent student of Lavater " he almost turned Darwin down because the shape (or physiognomy ) of Darwin's nose suggested a lack of determination.
Darwin's preparations
While he continued to befriend Fitzroy and go shopping together, Darwin hurried around to gather his supplies and equipment. He sought advice from experts in the conservation of specimens such as William Yarrell of the Zoological Society of London , Robert Brown of the British Museum , Captain Phillip Parker King , who led the first expedition, and invertebrate anatomist Robert Edmond Grant , who was in Darwin Edinburgh had taught. Yarrell gave invaluable advice and negotiated with shopkeepers, so Darwin paid £ 50 for two pistols and a rifle, while FitzRoy had spent £ 400 on firearms. On Sunday, September 11th, FitzRoy and Darwin took the parcel ship to Portsmouth . Darwin was not seasick and had a pleasant "three day trip". For the first time he saw the "very small", cramped ship, got to know the officers and was glad to have a large cabin which he shared with the assistant surveyor John Lort Stokes . Darwin hurried back to London on Friday, "250 miles in 24 hours," and on via Cambridge, arriving in Shrewsbury for one final brief visit to family and friends on September 22nd and returning to London on October 2nd. The delays on the Beagle gave Darwin an extra week to consult with experts and get his luggage ready. After sending his heavy goods down by steam parcel, he took the carriage with Augustus Earle and arrived in Devonport on October 24th .
Geologist Charles Lyell asked FitzRoy to record observations on geological features such as erratic boulders. Before leaving England, FitzRoy gave Darwin a copy of Volume One of Lyell's Principles of Geology , which explained the features as the result of a gradual process that took place over extremely long periods of time. In his autobiography, Darwin recalled Henslow's advice at the time to get the book and study it, "but on no account to accept the views therein advocated." to accept")".
Darwin's position as a naturalist on board was that of a self-financed guest with no official employment, and he could leave the voyage at any appropriate stage. At the start of the trip, George Peacock had pointed out that “The Admiralty is unwilling to pay a salary, although it will provide you with formal employment and any lodging [ sic ]: however, if a salary is required, I am inclined to believe that it would be granted ”. Far from wanting to do so, Darwin wanted to keep control of his collection. He was even reluctant to be paid by the Admiralty for meals until he received assurances from FitzRoy and Beaufort that doing so would not affect his rights to transfer his copies. Darwin did not want his collection to go to the British Museum, as he had heard that the specimens from the first Beagle voyage were still waiting to be described. Beaufort assured him that he "shouldn't have any trouble" as long as he presented it to "any public institution" like the Zoological or Geological Society. Darwin himself believed that his new finds should go to the "largest & most central collection", not the Cambridge Philosophical Society Museum , which Henslow established in Cambridge, but after receiving Henslow's willingly, the copies should be sent Darwin replied that he hoped to give some to the Cambridge museum.
Darwin's work on the expedition
The captain had to record his measurements in meticulous paperwork, and Darwin also kept a daily log and detailed notebooks of his findings and speculations and a diary that became his journal. Darwin's notebooks show the full professionalism that he probably learned at the University of Edinburgh when he explored the banks of the Firth of Forth with his brother Erasmus in 1826 and, in 1827, studied marine invertebrates with Robert Edmund Grant for a few months, taking natural history notes. Darwin had collected beetles at Cambridge too, but was a novice to all other areas of natural history. During the trip, Darwin studied small invertebrates while collecting specimens from other living things for experts to study and describe once the Beagle returned to England. More than half of his carefully organized zoological notes deal with marine invertebrates. The notes record tightly reasoned interpretations of what he discovered about their complex internal anatomy while dissecting specimens under his microscope, and of small experiments about their response to stimuli. His observations on land included intense, analytical commentary on possible reasons for the behavior, distribution, and relationship of the creatures he saw to their surroundings. He used the ship's excellent library of books on natural history, but constantly questioned their accuracy.
Geology was Darwin's "main occupation" on the expedition, and his notes on the subject were nearly four times the size of his zoological notes, although he kept extensive records on both. During the trip he wrote to his sister that "there is nothing like geology; the pleasure of the first days partridge shooting or first days hunting cannot be compared to finding a fine group of fossil bones, which tell their story of former times with almost a living tongue "(Eng .:" There is nothing like geology; the pleasure of the first days of partridge shooting or the first days of hunting cannot be compared to finding a beautiful group of fossil bones that has its history from earlier times with almost to tell with a living tongue ”). For him, exploring geology brought logical thinking into play and gave him the opportunity to theorize.
trip
Charles Darwin had been told the Beagle was due to leave around the end of September 1831, but it took longer to equip. Instructions from the Admiralty were received on November 14th and she was moved to anchorage on November 23rd, ready to sail. Repeated western storms caused delays and forced them to turn back after sailing out on December 10 and 21. Another day was lost because of being drunk at Christmas. Finally, on the morning of December 27th, the Beagle left her anchorage in Barn Pool, below Mount Edgecumbe on the west side of Plymouth Sound, and set out on her surveying expedition.
Atlantic islands
The Beagle touched Madeira for a confirmed position without stopping. On January 6th, she reached Tenerife in the Canary Islands , but was quarantined there because of cholera in England . Despite being temptingly close to the city of Santa Cruz , they were refused landing, to Darwin's great disappointment. As the weather conditions improved, they sailed on. On January 10, Darwin tried a plankton net he had developed and was intended to be pulled behind the ship - only the second recorded use of such a net (after the use by John Vaughan Thompson in 1816). The next day he noticed the large number of animals that he collected far from the country and wrote: "Many of these creatures so low in the scale of nature are most exquisite in their forms & rich colors. - It creates a feeling of wonder that so much beauty should be apparently created for such little purpose. " (Eng .: "Many of these creatures, which are so low on the scale of nature, are most exquisite in their shapes and rich colors. - There is a sense of wonder that so much beauty ought to be created for so little purpose . ")
Six days later they made their first landing in Praia on the volcanic island of Santiago in the Cape Verde Islands . This is where Darwin's description in his published journal begins . His first impression was that of a desolate and sterile volcanic island, but after visiting the city he came into a deep valley, where he “saw the magnificence of the tropical vegetation for the first time” and experienced “a wonderful day” because of the sights and sound found overwhelming novelty. FitzRoy pitched tents and an observatory at Quail Island to pinpoint the islands' exact location while Darwin gathered marine life, enjoyed the vibrant tropical coral in the tide pools, and explored the geology of Quail Island. Although Daubeny's book in Beagle's library described the volcanic geology of the Canary Islands, it was said that the structure of the Cape Verde Islands was "too imperfectly known". Darwin saw Quail Island as his key to understanding the structure of St. Jago and made careful studies of its stratigraphy , just as he had learned from Adam Sedgwick. He collected samples and described a white layer of hard, white rock made up of crushed corals and shells, sandwiched between layers of black volcanic rock, and noticed a similar white layer growing horizontally in the black cliffs of St. Jago at a height of It was 12 m (40 feet) above sea level. As far as he could tell, the mussels were "the same as today's". He speculated that in recent geological times a lava flow had covered this shell sand on the ocean floor and then the layers had slowly risen to their present level. Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology put forward the thesis of the gradual rise and fall of the earth's crust, illustrated by the changing levels of the Temple of Serapis . Darwin implicitly supported Lyell by noting that “Dr. Daubeny, when mentioning the current state of the Temple of Serapis, doubts the possibility that an area of land can rise without breaking buildings on it. - I am sure that in some places in St. Jago a town could have been raised without damaging a house. ”In a letter to Henslow he wrote:“ The geology was extremely interesting & I think quite new: there is some facts on a grand scale from sublime coast ... that would interest Mr. Lyell. ”While still on the island, Darwin was inspired to think of writing a book on geology. He later wrote that he "saw a thing Lyell had never seen, but was partially seen through his eyes".
Usually the ship's doctor took the position of naturalist, and the Beagle's surgeon, Robert McCormick , sought fame and fortune as an explorer. When they first met at the beginning of the trip, Darwin had commented, "My friend [McCormick] is an ass, but we get on very well." They hiked in the St Jago countryside together, and Darwin, influenced by Lyell, found the surgeon's approach old-fashioned. They found a remarkable baobab tree that FitzRoy measured and sketched. Darwin then undertook “riding expeditions” with Benjamin Bynoe and Rowlett to visit Ribeira Grande and St. Domingo . FitzRoy extended her stay to 23 days to complete his magnetism measurements . Darwin later wrote to Henslow that his collection “contained several specimens of an octopus which had a most marvelous ability to change colors; he was equal to any chameleon and obviously matched the changes to the color of the ground he was walking on - yellowish green, dark brown and red were the predominant colors: this fact seems to be new as far as I can find out. ”Henslow replied: "The fact is not new, but any new observations will be very important."
McCormick grew increasingly annoyed with the favors FitzRoy gave to help Darwin collect. On February 16, FitzRoy landed on St. Paul's Rocks with a small group that included himself and Darwin and found the seabirds so tame that they could easily be killed, while a disgruntled McCormick in a second small boat hit the islands had to circle. That evening the novices were greeted by a pseudo- Neptune , and in the morning they crossed the equator with the traditional equator baptism .
Darwin held a special position as the captain's guest and social equality, so the junior officers called him "sir" until the captain called Darwin Philos for "ship philosopher," and this became his appropriately respectful nickname.
Surveying South America
In South America, the Beagle carried out her survey work by traveling back and forth along the coast for a careful survey and follow-up inspection. Darwin made long trips inland with tour guides from the town. He spent much of the time off the ship, returning only by prior arrangement when the Beagle entered ports where mail could be received and Darwin's notes, diaries and collections sent back to England. He had made sure his collections were his and they were shipped to Henslow in Cambridge to await his return. Some of the others on board, including FitzRoy and other officers, were skilled amateur naturalists who generously supported Darwin and also made collections for the Crown which the Admiralty housed in the British Museum.
Tropical paradise and slavery
Because of the heavy surf, they only stayed one day in Fernando de Noronha to make the necessary observations, and Fitzroy decided to go to Bahia , Brazil to evaluate the chronometers and take water. On February 28th, they reached the continent and arrived at the splendid sight of the city now called Salvador , with large ships in port that were scattered across the bay. The next day Darwin was in "storms of enthusiasm" walking alone in the tropical forest , and in "long naturalizing walks" with others he went on to "add more to the earlier raptures." He found the sight of slavery offensive, and when FitzRoy defended the practice by describing a visit to a slave owner whose slaves replied "no" to their master's question whether they wanted to be set free, Darwin said that answers were among such Circumstances are worthless. Angry that his word had been challenged, FitzRoy lost his temper and banished Darwin from his company. The officers nicknamed such outbursts "hot coffee," and within a few hours FitzRoy apologized and asked Darwin to stay. FitzRoy was later held silent when Captain Paget visited her and shared "such hideous facts about slavery" that refuted his claim. The survey of the sandbanks around the harbor was completed on March 18, and the ship went down the coast to survey the extent and depth of the reefs of Abrolhos and to complete and correct the survey of Roussin.
On April 4, they entered the port of Rio de Janeiro to make observations of the longitude from the island of Villegagnon . Darwin took in the city's sights, then went on an inland expedition and returned to the ship on April 24th. By this time, with the permission of the commanding admiral , Robert McCormick had disembarked and returned to England. Assistant Surgeon Benjamin Bynoe has been appointed Assistant Surgeon in his place. McCormick felt "very disappointed in my expectations of carrying out my natural history ventures as every obstacle was put in my way to get ashore and collect collections," while Gentleman Darwin received all invitations from dignitaries ashore and gave him the opportunity was given to pack his collections. On April 26, Darwin moved to a house he had rented in Botafogo and stayed there with three others when the Beagle left on May 10 to re-examine the observations in Bahia. FitzRoy had found a 4 mile (6.4 km) discrepancy in the meridian distance of length between his measurements and those of Albin Roussin and decided to pull back. A sailor, a cabin boy and a young midshipman caught a fever after visiting the Macacu River and died. When the ship returned to Rio on June 3, FitzRoy confirmed that his measurements of Bahia and the reefs of Abrolhos were correct and sent those corrections to Roussin. They sailed from Rio on July 5th.
Fossil finds
_-_Quarter_Deck_of_a_Man_of_War_on_Diskivery_(sic)_or_interesting_Scenes_on_an_Interesting_Voyage.jpg)
After storms, the Beagle reached Montevideo on July 26, 1832, where she made observations for the chronometer. An attempt to call at Buenos Aires for information was thwarted by officials. FitzRoy then agreed to a request that the ship's crew (including Darwin) briefly occupy a fort in Montevideo to disperse a revolution. On August 22, the Beagle began surveying the coast of Cape San Antonio , Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, after sounding in Samborombón Bay .
In Bahía Blanca , in the southern part of what is now the province of Buenos Aires , Darwin rode with gauchos into the interior of Patagonia : He saw them use bolas to hunt "ostriches" ( rheas ) and ate roasted armadillo . He and FitzRoy took "a very pleasant voyage across the bay" with FitzRoy on September 22nd, and they stopped for a while at the settlement of Punta Alta about ten miles from the ship . On low cliffs near the point, Darwin found conglomerate rocks containing numerous shells and fossilized teeth and bones of giant extinct mammals, in layers close to a layer of earth with shells and armadillo fossils, which for him indicated calm tidal deposits rather than disaster. With the assistance (possibly of the young sailor Syms Covington , who acted as his servant), Darwin collected numerous fossils over several days and amused others with "the loads of ostensible rubbish that he frequently brought on board".
Much of the second day was spent excavating a large skull that Darwin found embedded in soft rock and that appeared to be related to the rhinoceros . On October 8, he returned to the site and found a jawbone and a tooth that he was able to identify with the help of Bory de Saint-Vincent 's Dictionnaire classique . He wrote home describing this and the large skull as Megatherium fossils, or perhaps " Megalonyx ", and was excited to see that the only specimens in Europe were locked away in the King's collection in Madrid . In the same shift he found a large bony shell made of polygonal plates. His immediate thought was that they came from a giant armadillo, like the small creatures that are common in the area. But based on Cuvier's misleading description of the Madrid specimen and a recent newspaper report of a fossil discovered at Villanueva on the Salado del Sur River south of Buenos Aires and shipped to England from Woodbine Parish , Darwin thought the bone armor was the fossil Megatherium identified. With FitzRoy, Darwin walked about 30 miles (48 km) across the bay to Monte Hermoso on October 19 and found numerous fossils of smaller rodents in contrast to the giant siblings of Punta Alta. In November he bought "fragments of some huge bones" in Buenos Aires, of which he was "assured that they belonged to the former giants!" And subsequently used every opportunity to get fossils "through gold or gallop" .
In Montevideo in November, the mail from home contained a copy of Volume Two of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology , a refutation of Lamarckism in which there was not a common ancestry of different species or a general advance corresponding to gradual geological change, but one ongoing cycle in which species mysteriously appeared, closely adapted to their "centers of creation" and then died out when the environment changed to their detriment.
fire land
They reached Tierra del Fuego on December 18, 1832, and Darwin was surprised at what he perceived to be the raw ferocity of the Yámana natives in stark contrast to the "civilized" behavior of the three Tierra del Fuego whom they brought back as missionaries (to whom they named York Minster, Fuegia Basket and Jemmy Button ). He described his first encounter with the native Tierra del Fuego as "without exception the strangest and most interesting spectacle I have ever seen: I could not have believed how great the difference is between the wild and the civilized man: it is greater than that between you wild and a domesticated animal, insofar as there is a greater power of improvement in humans. ”They appeared to him like“ the representations of the devil on the stage ”as in Der Freischütz . In contrast, he said of Jemmy: “It still seems wonderful to me, when I ponder all his many good qualities, that he is said to have been of the same breed and undoubtedly of the same character as the wretched, degraded savages we are here with first met. ”Four decades later, in The Descent of Man, he recalled these impressions to support his argument that civilized society, like man, descended from“ a lower form ”through gradations from a more primitive state . He remembered how much the Tierra del Fuego aboard the Beagle "resembled us in disposition and in most of our mental abilities."
On January 23, 1833, they set up a mission post on Buttons Land, with huts, gardens, furniture and dishes, but when they returned nine days later the property had been looted and evenly divided by the natives. Matthews gave up and went back to the ship, leaving the three civilized Tierra del Fuego to continue their missionary work. The Beagle continued to the Falkland Islands and arrived shortly after the British returned. Darwin studied the relationships between species and habitats and found ancient fossils such as those found in Wales. FitzRoy bought a schooner to help with the survey, and they returned to Patagonia , where it was rebuilt and renamed Adventure. Darwin was assisted by Syms Covington in the preservation of specimens, and his collecting activity was so successful that, with FitzRoy's approval, he hired Covington as a full-time servant for £ 30 a year.
Gauchos, rheas, fossils and geology
The two ships sailed to the Río Negro in Argentina and on August 8, 1833 Darwin set out with the gauchos on another journey inland. On August 12, he met General Juan Manuel de Rosas , who was leading a punitive expedition in his campaign against local "Indians" , and received a passport from him. As they crossed the meseta , the gauchos and Indians told Darwin about a rare, smaller species of rhea . After three days in Bahía Blanca , he got tired of waiting for the Beagle and visited Punta Alta again on August 21 , where he checked the geology of the site in the light of his new knowledge and wondered whether the bones were older than the mussels. He was very successful in finding bones and on September 1st found an almost complete skeleton with the bones still in place.
He set off again and on October 1st, while searching the cliffs of the Río Carcarañá, he found “a huge incisor tooth”, then he saw “two large groups of huge bones” that were too soft in a cliff of the Río Paraná to collect them, but a fragment of a tooth identified them as mastodons . An illness stopped him in Santa Fe , and after seeing the fossilized shell of a giant armadillo embedded in the rock, he was amazed to find a horse's tooth in the same layer of rock, since horses had been brought to the continent with European immigration. They took a river boat down the Río Paraná to Buenos Aires , but were embroiled in a revolution when rebels allied with Rosas blocked the city. The pass helped and with Covington he escaped in a boatload of refugees. They met the Beagle again in Montevideo .
While the surveys were in progress, Darwin embarked on another 400 mile (640 km) "galloping" journey from Banda Oriental to see the Uruguayan River and to visit Mr. Keen's estancia at Mercedes on the Negro River . On November 25th, he heard "of some giant bones which, as usual, turned out to be those of the Megatherium ", but was only able to recover a few broken fragments. The next day he visited a nearby house and bought "a head of a megatherium , which must have been pretty perfect when it was found " for about two shillings , although the teeth had since broken off and the lower jaw had been lost. Mr. Keen arranged for the skull to be shipped downstream to Buenos Aires. In Las Piedras , a clergyman showed him fossils, including a club-like tail, which he sketched and described as an "extraordinary weapon". His notes also included a page where he realized that the steep banks of the rivers exposed two layers that formed in an estuary interrupted by an undersea layer, suggesting that the land had rose and fell.
Back in Montevideo, Darwin was introduced to Conrad Martens , the substitute artist who was brought aboard the Beagle after Augustus Earle had to leave due to health problems. They sailed south and docked at Port Desire on December 23rd . The following day, Darwin shot a guanaco , which gave them a Christmas dinner. At the start of the New Year, Martens shot a rhea which they ate with relish before Darwin realized it was the elusive smaller rhea and preserved the remains. On January 9, 1834, 110 miles (180 km) further south, they reached Port St. Julian , and while exploring the local geology in the cliffs near the port, Darwin found fossils of pieces of the spine and a hind leg of "some large one Animal, I think of a mastodon ”. On January 26th they drove into the Strait of Magellan and encountered semi-civilized Patagonian "giants" over six feet tall in St. Gregory's Bay, described by Darwin as "excellent practical naturalists." One told him that the smaller rheas were the only species this far south, while the larger rheas stayed in the north, with the species meeting around the Rio Negro.
After further measurements in Tierra del Fuego, they returned on March 5, 1834 to visit the missionaries, but found the huts abandoned. Then canoes approached and they found that one of the natives was Jemmy Button, who had lost his possessions and got used to the natives' way of life and took a wife. Darwin had never seen "such a complete and painful change". Jemmy came on board and dined with the right cutlery and spoke English almost always. He then assured them that he "had absolutely no desire to return to England" and was "happy and content" and left them gifts of otter skins and arrowheads before returning to the canoe to join his wife. About the first visit Darwin had written: “When you see such people, you can hardly bring yourself to believe that they are fellow creatures who live in the same world. .... It is a common subject of speculation what pleasures in life some of the less gifted animals can enjoy? How much more legitimately can it be asked in relation to these people ”, but Jemmy had willingly adapted himself to civilization and then decided to return to his primitive habits. This raised uncomfortable questions; it contradicted Charles Lyell's firm beliefs, expressed in Volume 2 of his Principles of Geology , that the human races "showed little deviation from a common standard" and that acceptance of transmutation meant "man's belief in it." high genealogy of his species ”.
It was around this time that Darwin wrote Reflection on reading my Geological notes , the first in a series of essays included in his notes. He speculated on possible causes for the repeated uplift of the land and on a history of life in Patagonia as a succession of named species.
They returned to the Falkland Islands on March 16, shortly after an incident in which gauchos and Indians slaughtered senior members of Vernet's settlement, and helped quell the uprising. Darwin noticed the immense number of organisms that depend on the kelp forests . He received word from Henslow that his first shipment of copies had reached Cambridge. The South American fossils were valued by expert William Clift for showing previously unknown species and characteristics of the megatherium , and exhibited by William Buckland and Clift before the crème de la crème of British science, which established Darwin's reputation.
The Beagle was now sailing to southern Patagonia, and on April 19, an expedition with FitzRoy and Darwin set out to haul boats as far up the Río Santa Cruz as possible , everyone taking turns in teams to pull the boats upstream. The river cut through a series of ridges and then plateaus that formed wide plains covered with shells and pebbles, and Darwin discussed with FitzRoy his interpretation that these terraces were banks that Lyell theories had gradually raised. In the distance you could see several of the smaller rheas, but they were too difficult to catch. The expedition approached the Andes but had to turn back.
Darwin summarized his speculations in his essay on the uplift of Patagonia. Though provisional, he questioned Lyell's ideas. Darwin relied on measurements from the Beagle officers, as well as his own measurements, to suggest that the plains had been raised in successive stages by forces acting over a large area, rather than small-scale actions in a continuous motion. However, he assisted Lyell in finding evidence to rule out sudden flooding when normal processes suddenly accelerated. Seashells that he found far inland and that still showed their color suggested to him that the process had been relatively young and may have influenced human history.
West coast of South America
The Beagle and the Adventure now examined the Strait of Magellan before they sailed north on the west coast and reached the island of Chiloé in the damp and heavily forested Chiloé archipelago on June 28, 1834 . They spent the next six months surveying the coast and islands to the south. On Chiloé, Darwin found fragments of black lignite and petrified wood , at least two of which were discovered in 2011 by the British Geological Survey , locked away in their collection called "Unregistered Fossil Plants". A copy exchanged with Joseph Dalton Hooker about ten years later was signed "Chiloe, C. Darwin Esq".
They arrived in Valparaiso on July 23rd . After several hikes in the area, Darwin got horses and set out for the volcanic Andes on August 14 with a companion . Three days later they spent a pleasant day on the summit of the "Campana or Bells" mountain, Cerro La Campana . Darwin visited a copper mine and spent five days in the mountains before traveling on to Santiago , Chile. On the way back, he fell ill on September 20th and had to spend a month in bed. It is possible that he contracted Chagas disease here, which caused his health problems after his return to England, but this diagnosis of his symptoms is controversial. He learned that the Admiralty had reprimanded FitzRoy for buying the Adventure . FitzRoy, having received it badly, sold the ship and announced that he would double-check its survey. Then he resigned his command because he had doubts about his sanity, but was persuaded by his officers to retire and continue. The artist Conrad Martens got off the ship and took the passage to Australia.
After waiting for Darwin, the Beagle set out on November 11th to survey the Chonos Archipelago . From here they saw the eruption of the Osorno volcano in the Andes. They sailed north and Darwin was amazed at the fossils they found. The giant mastodons and megatheria were extinct, but he had found no geological evidence of a " diluvial debacle " or of the changed circumstances that Lyell believed had rendered the species no longer adapted to the position for which they were created was. He agreed with Lyell's idea of the "gradual birth and death of species," but unlike Lyell, Darwin was willing to believe Giovanni Battista Brocchi's idea that extinct species had somehow aged and become extinct.
They reached the port of Valdivia on February 8, 1835. Twelve days later, Darwin was ashore when he experienced a severe earthquake and returned to find the port city badly damaged. They sailed two hundred miles (320 km) north to Concepción and arrived on March 4 to find that the same earthquake had devastated the city with repeated tremors and a tsunami, with even the cathedral in ruins. Darwin noted the horrors of death and destruction, and FitzRoy carefully noted that the mussel beds were now above the high tide, which was clear evidence that the ground had risen about 2.7 m (9 feet), which was he confirmed a month later. Indeed, they had seen the gradual process of the continent's emergence from the ocean, as Lyell had suggested.
Back in Valparaiso, Darwin set out on another hike up the Andes, reaching the continental divide at 4,000 m (13,000 feet) on March 21, where he also found fossilized shells in the rocks. He felt the wonderful view "as if one were watching a thunderstorm or listening to a choir of the Messiah in a full orchestra." After driving on to Mendoza , they returned over another pass when they found a petrified forest of petrified trees crystallized in a sandstone slope, which showed him that they had been on a Pacific beach when the land sank and buried them under the sand that had been compressed into rocks and then gradually lifted up with the continent to be in the mountains Stand at 7,000 feet (2,100 m). After returning to Valparaiso with half a mule load of samples, he wrote to his father that his findings, if accepted, would be decisive for the theory of the origins of the world. After another grueling expedition into the Andes while the Beagle was being refitted, he rejoined her and sailed for Lima , but found an armed uprising and had to stay with the ship. Here he was just jotting down his notes when he realized that Lyell's idea that coral atolls were on the edges of ascending extinct volcanoes made less sense than that the volcanoes gradually sank, so that the coral reefs around the island get closer and closer to them Sea levels formed and became an atoll as the volcano beneath it disappeared. This was a theory he would investigate when they reached such islands.
Galapagos Islands
A week away from Lima, the Beagle reached the Galápagos Islands on September 15, 1835 . The next day, Captain FitzRoy dropped anchor near the present-day town of Puerto Baquerizo Moreno on Chatham Island . In what is now known as Frigatebird Hill / Cerro Tijeretas, Darwin spent his first hour on land in the Galápagos Islands.
Darwin looked forward to seeing newly formed volcanic islands and took every opportunity to go ashore while the Beagle methodically paced around mapping the coastline. He found broken black rocky volcanic lava burning under the hot sun and made detailed geological notes of features, including volcanic cones like chimneys, that reminded him of the iron foundries of industrial Staffordshire . He was disappointed that he did not see any active volcanoes or find strata showing uplift as he had hoped, although one of the officers found broken oyster shells high above the sea on one of the islands. The plentiful Galápagos giant tortoises seemed antediluvian , and the large black marine iguanas appeared to be "most gross, clumsy lizards" that suited their habitat - he noted that someone had called them "goblins of the dark." Darwin had learned from Henslow to study the geographical distribution of species, particularly interconnected species on oceanic islands and on nearby continents, and so he endeavored to collect flowering plants. He found widespread "pathetic looking" thin scrub with only ten species and very few insects. The birds were remarkably shy of humans, and in his first field note he noted that a mockingbird resembled those he had seen on the continent.
The Beagle sailed on to Charles Island . By chance they were greeted by the Englishman Nicholas Lawson , acting governor of Galápagos for the Republic of Ecuador , who accompanied them to the penal colony . It was said that turtles differed in the shape of their tanks from island to island, and Darwin noted Lawson's statement that when he saw a turtle, he could "be certain of which island it was brought from". Though Darwin later recalled it, he didn't pay much attention to it at the time. However, he found a mockingbird and "fortunately happened to notice" that it was different from the specimen on Chatham Island, so from then on he carefully noted where mockingbirds had been caught. He diligently collected all animals, plants, insects & reptiles and speculated about “finding out from future comparisons which district or 'center of creation' the organized beings of this archipelago must be assigned to.” At this stage his thoughts reflected Lyell's rejection of the transmutation of the Species reflected.
They drove on to Albemarle Island , where Darwin saw a small plume of smoke from a recently active volcano. On October 1st, he landed near Tagus Cove and explored the Beagle Crater. There he saw his first Galapagos land iguanas. The water pits were disappointingly inadequate for drinking, but attracted flocks of small birds and Darwin made his only note about the finches, which he did not label by islands. He caught a third species of mockingbird .
After passing the northern islands of Abingdon , Tower and Bindloe , Darwin, along with surgeon Benjamin Bynoe and her servants, were put ashore on James Island for nine days , where they busily gathered all kinds of specimens while the Beagle returned to the Chatham -Island went to fetch fresh water.
After further measurements, the Beagle set sail for Tahiti on October 20, 1835. Darwin wrote down his notes and was amazed to find that all of the mockingbirds caught on the Charles, Albemarle, James, and Chatham Islands differed from island to island. He wrote: "This birds which is so closely allied to the Thenca of Chili (Callandra of B. Ayres) is singular from existing as varieties or distinct species in the different Isds. I have four specimens from as many Isds. These will be found to be 2 or 3 varieties.— Each variety is constant in its own Island… Varieties or different species exist on the different islands - I have four specimens from as many islands - these will be found as 2 or 3 varieties - each variety is constant on its own island ... ")".
Via Tahiti to Australia
They sailed on, ate Galapagos turtles and passed the Honden Island atoll on November 9th . They passed the archipelago of the Low Islands , where Darwin remarked that these "a very uninteresting appearance; a long brilliantly white beach is capped by a low bright line of green vegetation. The gleaming white beach is crowned by a low, light line of green vegetation. ”)“ Upon arriving in Tahiti on November 15th, he soon found interest in the lush vegetation and the pleasant, intelligent natives who demonstrated the virtues of Christianity and thus claims refuted what he had read about tyrannical missionaries subverting indigenous cultures.
They reached New Zealand on December 19 , where Darwin mistook the tattooed Māori for savages of a much lower order than the Tahitians and found that they and their homes were "filthily dirty and offensive" was. He saw in the missionaries an improvement in character and new agricultural practices with an exemplary "English farm" employing the natives. Richard Matthews was left here with his older brother Joseph Matthews, who was a missionary in Kaitaia . Darwin and FitzRoy agreed that the missionaries were unjustifiably misrepresented in tracts, particularly one written by the artist Augustus Earle that he had left on the ship. Darwin also noted many English residents of the most unworthy of character, including escaped convicts from New South Wales . On December 30th he was happy to leave New Zealand.
The first sight of Australia on January 12, 1836 reminded him of Patagonia, but inland the country improved and he was soon filled with admiration for the bustling city of Sydney . On a trip inland he came across a group of Aborigines who "looked good-humored & pleasant & they seemed far removed from such completely degraded beings as they are usually portrayed". They gave him a javelin demonstration for a shilling, and he thought sadly how quickly their numbers were falling. He joined a hunting party on a large sheep farm and caught his first marsupial , a "potoroo" ( rat kangaroo ). As he pondered the strange animals of the land, he thought that an unbeliever might “exclaim, 'Surely two different creators must have been at work; however, their purpose was the same, and certainly the ending is complete in each case '”, but an ant lion he observed was very similar to its European counterpart. That evening he saw the even stranger platypus and noticed that its beak was soft, unlike the preserved specimens he had seen. The Aboriginal stories that they laid eggs were believed by few Europeans.
The Beagle visited Hobart , Tasmania , where Darwin was impressed with the pleasant high society of the settlers, but noted that "Aboriginal blacks are all removed & (in reality as prisoners) kept in a promontory with a bottleneck guarded. I think it was impossible to avoid this cruel step; although no doubt whites' wrongdoing first led to the need. ”They then sailed to King George Sound in southwest Australia, a desolate settlement that was then replaced by the Swan River Colony . Darwin was impressed with the "good disposition of the black natives ... even though they are true savages, it is impossible not to have the inclination to like such calm, good-natured men." He procured boiled rice for a " corroboree " native dance party , which was performed by the men of two tribes for the great pleasure of women and children, a "highly rude, barbaric scene" in which everyone appeared in high spirits, "everyone moved in terrible harmony" and "completely in their element". The Beagle's departure was delayed by a storm when she ran aground. She was made afloat again and was on her way.
Home from Keeling Island
FitzRoy's instructions from the Admiralty required a detailed geological survey of a circular coral atoll to study how coral reefs formed, particularly whether they rose from the seabed or the tops of extinct volcanoes, and the effects of the tides , measured with specially constructed gauges became. He chose the Keeling Islands in the Indian Ocean , and upon arrival on April 1st, the entire crew got to work. Darwin found a coconut economy that served both the small settlement and the wildlife. There was a limited selection of native plants and no land birds, but hermit crabs everywhere . The lagoons were teeming with a rich variety of invertebrates and fish, and he studied the structure of the atoll in light of the theory he developed in Lima that encircling reefs become atolls when an island sinks. This idea was supported by the numerous soundings FitzRoy had made which showed a steep slope outside the reef with no live coral below 20-30 fathoms (40-60 m).
When Darwin arrived in Mauritius on April 29, 1836 , he was impressed by the civilized prosperity of the French colony that had come under British rule. He toured the island, examining its volcanic mountains and adjacent coral reefs. Surveyor General Captain Lloyd took him on the island's only elephant to see a high coral plain. It was at this time that FitzRoy was writing the official report on the Beagle voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary, suggested that it be included in the report, a suggestion that Darwin discussed with his family.
On May 31st, the Beagle reached the Cape of Good Hope . In Cape Town , Darwin received a letter dated December 29th from his sister Caroline, who informed him that his fame was spreading. On November 18, 1835 Sedgwick had read extracts from Darwin's geological records before the Geological Society of London , which was reported on November 21 in The Athenæum . On December 25, her father received a letter from Henslow saying that Darwin would become one of the greatest naturalists of his day, and he enclosed a few copies of a book with excerpts from Darwin's Letters on South American Geology, printed for private distribution had been. Her father "didn't move from his place until he had read every word of your book & he was delighted - he liked the simple, clear way you gave your information so much". Darwin was appalled that his careless words were being printed, but no hay remedio (it can't be changed). He researched the geology of the area and came to conclusions about schist formation and the injection of granite seams as a fluid that departed from the ideas of Lyell and Sedgwick. Zoologist Andrew Smith showed him formations and later discussed the large animals that lived on sparse vegetation, showing that a lack of lush vegetation did not explain the extinction of the giant creatures in South America.
Around June 15, Darwin and FitzRoy visited the noted astronomer Sir John Herschel . In his diary Darwin called this "the most memorable event which, for a long period, I have had the good fortune to enjoy." Science had been awakened in Cambridge by reading Herschel's book on the Philosophy of Science, which had guided his theorizing during the trip. Their discussion is not recorded, but a few months earlier, on February 20, 1836, Herschel had written to Lyell praising his Principles of Geology as a work that "would bring a complete revolution in [its] subject by adding the point of view , under which it must be viewed from now on, would completely change ”and opened the way for bold speculation on“ the secret of secrets, the replacement of extinct species with others ”. Herschel himself considered catastrophic extinction and renewal "an inadequate conception of the Creator," and by analogy with other intermediate causes, "the emergence of new species, should it ever come into our view, would prove to be a natural as opposed to a miraculous process ".
In Cape Town the missionaries were accused of causing racial tension and making a profit. After the Beagle set sail on June 18, FitzRoy wrote an open letter to the evangelical South African Christian Recorder on the Moral State of Tahiti , including excerpts from his and Darwin's diaries, about the reputation of the Defend Missionaries. This was handed over to a passing ship that took it to Cape Town, where it became FitzRoy's (and Darwin's) first published work.
On July 8th they stopped at St. Helena for six days . Darwin took up lodging near Napoleon's grave, and when he wrote to Henslow asking to be proposed to the Geological Society of London , he mentioned his suspicions, "that differently from most Volcanic Islds. Its structure is rather complicated. It seems strange, that this little center of a distinct creation should, as is asserted, bear marks of recent elevation a distinct creation, it is said, should bear signs of recent elevation. ”)“ With a guide he wandered across the island and noticed its complex sloping layers showing fault lines interspersed with volcanic dykes . He examined layers high up on the hill that had been mistaken for clams, showing that St. Helena had recently emerged from the sea, but Darwin identified them as extinct species of land clams. He found that the forests had been destroyed by goats and pigs, which had roamed wild since their introduction in 1502, and that native vegetation was only dominant on tall, steep ridges after it was replaced by imported species.
At this point, Darwin had an acute interest in island biogeography, and his description of St. Helena as "a small center of creation" in his geological diary reflects Charles Lyell's speculation in Volume 2 of the Principles of Geology that the island was "Focus of creative power" would have acted. He later recalled believing in the persistence of species, but "as far as I can remember, vague doubts occasionally flickered through my mind." When arranging his ornithological notes between mid-June and August, Darwin expanded his initial notes on the Galapagos Mockingbird Mimus thenca :
"These birds are closely allied in appearance to the Thenca of Chile or Callandra of la Plata.… In each Isld. Each kind is exclusively found: habits of all are indistinguishable. When I recollect, the fact that the form of the body, shape of scales & general size, the Spaniards can pronounce at once, from which Island any Tortoise may have been brought. When I see these Islands in sight of each other, & [but del.] possessed of but a scanty stock of animals, tenanted by these birds, but slightly differing in structure & filling the same place in nature, I must suspect they are only varieties.
The only fact of a similar kind of which I am aware, is the constant asserted difference - between the wolf-like Fox of East & West Falkland Islds.
If there is the slightest foundation for these remarks the zoology of Archipelagoes - will be well worth examining; for such facts [would inserted ] undermine the stability of species. "
(in German: These birds are closely related in appearance to the mockingbird from Chile or the Callandra from la Plata. ... Each species can be found exclusively on each island: the habits of all are indistinguishable. If I remember that the Spanish based the shape of the body, the shape of the scales, and the general size can tell immediately which island a turtle is from. When I see these islands within sight of each other, & [but del.] only have a sparse population of animals from these Birds are inhabited, but differ slightly in structure & occupy the same place in nature, I have to assume that it is only about varieties.
The only fact of a similar nature that I know of is the consistently asserted difference - between the wolf-like fox of the East and West Falkland Islands.
When there is the slightest basis for these remarks, the zoology of the archipelagos - will be worth examining; for such facts [would] undermine the stability of the species.)
The expression “would” before “undermined” was added after he had written what is now considered to be the first expression of his doubts about the immutability of species, which led to his being convinced of the transmutation of species and thus evolution. In contrast to transmutation, Lyell had suggested that varieties emerged due to changes in the environment, but that these varieties lived in similar conditions, although each on its own island. Darwin had just checked similar inconsistencies with mainland bird genera such as Pteroptochus . Although his suspicions about the Falkland fox were not confirmed, he remembered the differences in the Galápagos turtles between the islands, and he later wrote that he was very impressed by the character of the South American fossils and species in the Galápagos Archipelago from around March 1836 and noted: "These facts are the origin (especially the latter) of all my views".
The Beagle reached Ascension Island on July 19, 1836, and Darwin was delighted to receive letters from his sisters telling them that Sedgwick had written, “He is doing admirably in S. America, & has already sent home a collection which is beyond praise - it was for the best in the world for him to go exploring - there was a certain risk that he would turn out to be an idler: but his character will now be established & if God be Spared life, he will have a great name among the naturalists of Europe. ”Darwin later recalled how he“ climbed with a hopping step over the mountains ... and made the volcanic rocks ring under my geological hammer! ”He agreed with the adage, which is attributed to the residents of St. Helena: "We know that we live on a rock, but the poor people of Ascension live on ashes", and he noted the care with which " Houses, gardens and fields near the top of the central mountain “can be preserved. (In the 1840s, Darwin worked with Hooker, who in 1847 proposed that the Royal Navy import tree species, a project that began in 1850 and resulted in the creation of an artificial cloud forest on what is now Green Mountain .)
They left again on July 23, longing to get home, but FitzRoy wanted to ensure the accuracy of his longitude measurements, so he took the ship across the Atlantic back to Bahia, Brazil, to take control measurements. Darwin was happy to see the beauties of the jungle one last time, but now compared "the stately mango trees with the horse chestnuts of England." The return trip was delayed by another 11 days when the weather forced the Beagle to seek shelter further up the coast at Pernambuco where Darwin examined rocks for signs of elevation, noted "mangroves like creeping grass," and examined marine invertebrates at various depths on the sandbar. On August 17th, the Beagle left for home. After a stormy passage with a supply stop in the Azores , the Beagle finally reached England on October 2, 1836 and anchored in Falmouth , Cornwall. A plaque now commemorates this arrival point in Falmouth.
return
On the stormy night of October 2, 1836, immediately after arriving in Falmouth, Darwin set out in the stagecoach and arrived at The Mount House , the family home in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, late in the evening of October 4, 1836 . Darwin apparently went straight to bed and greeted his family over breakfast. After ten days of catching up with his family, he traveled on to Cambridge and sought Henslow's advice to organize the description and cataloging of his collections.
Darwin's father gave him seed capital that enabled him to put other careers aside. A scientific celebrity with a reputation established by his fossils and Henslow's publication of his letters on the geology of South America, he toured London's social institutions. At this point he was already part of the "scientific establishment, " working with experienced naturalists to describe his specimens, and working on ideas he had developed during the trip. Charles Lyell gave him enthusiastic support. In December 1836 Darwin gave a lecture to the Cambridge Philosophical Society . He wrote a paper showing that Chile and the South American continent were slowly rising, which he presented to the Geological Society of London on January 4, 1837 .
Darwin considered publishing his diary with FitzRoy's report, but his relatives, including Emma and Hensleigh Wedgwood , pushed for it to be published separately. On December 30, the issue was resolved when FitzRoy accepted William Broderip's advice that Darwin's diary should be the third volume of the tale. Darwin went to work reorganizing and shortening his diary and incorporating scientific material from his notes. He finished his Journal and Remarks (now commonly known as The Voyage of the Beagle ) in August 1837, but FitzRoy was slower and the three volumes were published in August 1839.
Syms Covington stayed with Darwin as his servant, then on February 25, 1839 (shortly after Darwin's marriage), Covington separated on good terms and emigrated to Australia.
Specialist publications on Darwin's collections
Darwin had shown great collector skills and had made the best of the reference books he had on the ship. It was now the job of recognized professionals to determine which specimens were unknown and to make informed taxonomic decisions about defining and naming new species.
In the multi-part work The Zoology of the Voyage of HMS Beagle (English for: The zoology of the journey of the HMS Beagle), published under the supervision of Charles Darwin, the zoological results of his journey with the HMS Beagle were published.
Fossils
Richard Owen had expertise in comparative anatomy, and his professional judgments showed a succession of similar species in the same place, giving Darwin insights that he would later call central to his new views. Owen met Darwin on October 29, 1836, and quickly took on the task of describing these new fossils. At that time, the only fully described fossil mammals from South America were three species of " mastodon " and the gigantic megatherium . On November 9, Darwin wrote to his sister: "Some of them are turning out to be great treasures." The almost complete skeleton from Punta Alta was apparently very closely related to anteaters , but the extraordinary size of a small horse. The head the size of a rhinoceros, which was bought for two shillings near the city of Mercedes , was not a megatherium , but “as far as you can guess it must have been a gnawing animal. Imagine a rat or a rabbit that size - what famous cats they must have had back then! "
In the years that followed, Owen published descriptions of the most important fossils and named several as new species. He described the fossils from Punta Alta, including a near-perfect skull and three skull fragments from Megatherium cuvierii , the lower jaw of a related species Owen called Mylodon darwinii , and a lower jaw which he referred to " Megalonyx jeffersonii " (which becomes the lower jaw put to Mylodon today). The almost complete skeleton was named Scelidotherium by Owen because of the large hind limbs . Numerous rodents have been found in the nearby beds of Monte Hermoso, including species related to the Brazilian tuco-tuco and the capybara .
Owen realized that the fossils with polygonal plates of bone armor found in several places did not come from the Megatherium , as Cuvier's description suggested, but from a giant armadillo, as Darwin had briefly assumed. As early as 1839, Owen had described finds from Cañuelas on the Río Matanza-Riachuelo near Buenos Aires as Glyptodon clavipes . Darwin's discovery of a bony shell from Punta Alta with dimensions of approximately 0.91 × 0.61 m (3 × 2 ft), in the folded interior of which there were still toe bones, corresponded to a smaller glyptodon. Similar fossils from Brazil had Peter Wilhelm Lund in the same year as Hoplophorus identified.
The huge skull from the vicinity of Mercedes was named Toxodon by Owen and he showed that the "enormous incisor tooth" from the cliffs of the Río Carcarañá was a molar tooth of this type. The finds near Mercedes also included a large fragment of a glyptodon shell and a skull fragment that Owen initially identified as Glossotherium , but later believed to belong to Mylodon . Owen found fragments of the jaw and a tooth of another Toxodon in the fossils at Punta Alta.
Among the fossils from near Santa Fe was the horse tooth, which had confused Darwin because it was previously believed that horses had only come to America in the 16th century, near a tooth from Toxodon and a tooth from " Mastodon. " ". Owen confirmed that the horse's tooth was from an extinct South American species he named Equus curvidens (now Equus neogeus ) in 1845 , and its age was confirmed by a corroded horse tooth among the fossils at Punta Alta. This discovery was later explained as part of the horse's evolution .
For the "cheese-soft" mastodon bones on the Río Paraná , two huge skeletons, and the mastodon teeth from Santa Fe and on the Río Carcarañá, Owen did not first assign a species in 1840, but identified them in 1845 as belonging to " Mastodon andium " (this corresponds today to Cuvieronius hyodon , which however did not occur in the South American lowland region, it is probably remnants of Notiomastodon ). The pieces of the spine and a hind leg from Port S. Julian , which Darwin believed were from "some large animal, I believe a mastodon," bothered Owen, for the creature he called Macrauchenia appeared to be "gigantic and extremely extraordinary pachyderm, related to the Palaeotherium , but with affinities for the lama and the camel . One of the fossils in Punta Alta was a pachyderm tooth, believed to have likely come from Macrauchenia .
filming
The second voyage of HMS Beagle is the subject of the seven-part British television series The Voyage of Charles Darwin from 1978. The main roles are played by Malcolm Stoddard as Darwin and Andrew Burt as FitzRoy.
Web links
- The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online - Darwin Online ; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews. Free to use, also contains works that are not in the public domain.
- Darwin Correspondence Project texts and notes on most of his letters
- AboutDarwin.com - Beagle Voyage . Archived from the original on November 12, 2007. Retrieved November 21, 2007.
Individual references and comments
- ↑ Browne, Janet; Neve, Michael (1989), "Introduction", in Darwin, Charles (ed.), Voyage of the Beagle: Charles Darwin's Journal of researches, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-043268-X , p. 16
- ↑ a b Browne, Janet; Neve, Michael (1989), "Introduction", in Darwin, Charles (ed.), Voyage of the Beagle: Charles Darwin's Journal of researches, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-043268-X , p. 9
- ^ Taylor, James (2008), The Voyage of the Beagle: Darwin's Extraordinary Adventure in Fitzroy's Famous Survey Ship , Conway, ISBN 978-1-84486-066-1 , p. 17
- ↑ Browne, EJ (E. Janet), 1950-, Neve, Michael .: Voyage of the Beagle: Charles Darwin's Journal of researches . Penguin Books, London, England 1989, ISBN 0-14-043268-X , pp. 3 .
- ↑ Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the first expedition, 1826-30, under the command of Captain P. Parker King, RN, FRS. Retrieved February 7, 2021 .
- ^ A b Taylor, James .: The voyage of the Beagle: Darwin's extraordinary adventure in Fitzroy's famous survey ship . Conway, London 2008, ISBN 978-1-84486-066-1 , pp. 18 .
- ^ Journal of Researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of HMS Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, RN 2d edition. Accessed February 7, 2021 .
- ↑ a b Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 24-26 , accessed February 7, 2021 (English).
- ↑ Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 26-33 , accessed February 7, 2021 (English).
- ↑ Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 33-40 , accessed February 7, 2021 .
- ↑ a b c Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 13-16 , accessed February 7, 2021 (English).
- ↑ Browne, EJ (E. Janet), 1950-, Neve, Michael .: Voyage of the Beagle: Charles Darwin's Journal of researches . Penguin Books, London, England 1989, ISBN 0-14-043268-X , pp. 3-4 .
- ↑ a b c d Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 17-22 , accessed February 7, 2021 (English).
- ↑ HMS 'Beagle' (1820-70). Accessed February 7, 2021 .
- ↑ Browne, EJ (E. Janet), 1950-, Neve, Michael .: Voyage of the Beagle: Charles Darwin's Journal of researches . Penguin Books, London, England 1989, ISBN 0-14-043268-X , pp. 4-5 .
- ^ Browne, EJ (E. Janet), 1950-: Charles Darwin . Pimlico, London 2003, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 , pp. 150-151, 204-209 .
- ↑ a b "Letter 131 - Darwin, CR to FitzRoy, Robert (19 Sept 1831)". In: Darwin Correspondence Project. Accessed February 8, 2021 .
- ^ Browne, EJ (E. Janet), 1950-: Charles Darwin . Pimlico, London 2003, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 , pp. 208 .
- ↑ Phillip Parker King: Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the first expedition, 1826-30, under the command of Captain P. Parker King, RN, FRS, I. pp. 360, 385 , accessed February 8, 2021 .
- ^ John van Wyhe: "My appointment received the sanction of the Admiralty": Why Charles Darwin really was the naturalist on HMS Beagle " . In: Elsevier BV (Ed.): Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences . 2013, pp. 3 , doi : 10.1016 / j.shpsc.2013.03.022 , PMID 23664568 (English, org.uk [PDF; accessed on February 8, 2021]).
- ^ Moore, James R. (James Richard), 1947-: Darwin . Michael Joseph, London 1991, ISBN 0-7181-3430-3 , pp. 104 .
- ^ Browne, EJ (E. Janet), 1950-: Charles Darwin . Pimlico, London 2003, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 , pp. 148-149 .
- ^ John van Wyhe: "My appointment received the sanction of the Admiralty": Why Charles Darwin really was the naturalist on HMS Beagle " . In: Elsevier BV (Ed.): Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences . 2013, pp. 5–7 , doi : 10.1016 / j.shpsc.2013.03.022 , PMID 23664568 (English, org.uk [PDF; accessed on February 8, 2021]).
- ^ A b Browne, EJ (E. Janet), 1950-, Neve, Michael .: Voyage of the Beagle: Charles Darwin's Journal of researches . Penguin Books, London, England 1989, ISBN 0-14-043268-X , pp. 4-7 .
- ↑ letter: 104 - Peacock, George to Henslow, JS, (6 or 13 August 1831). In: Darwin Correspondence Project. Accessed February 8, 2021 .
- ↑ a b letter: 115 - Darwin, CR to Darwin, SE, (4 Sept 1831) . Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved February 8, 2021.
- ^ John van Wyhe: "My appointment received the sanction of the Admiralty": Why Charles Darwin really was the naturalist on HMS Beagle . In: Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences . tape 44 , no. 3 , September 2013, p. 316–326 (p. 3) , doi : 10.1016 / j.shpsc.2013.03.022 ( org.uk [PDF; accessed February 8, 2021]).
- ↑ a b c d e f Darwin Online: Darwin's field notes on the Galapagos: 'A little world within itself'. Retrieved February 8, 2021 .
- ↑ https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-105.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ a b c https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-106.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-107.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-112.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-113.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ^ Browne, EJ (E. Janet), 1950-: Charles Darwin . Pimlico, London 2003, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 , pp. 158-159 .
- ↑ a b https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-117.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ a b https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-118.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ a b https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-132.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ Autobiography # 91; 1876-4.1882] CUL-DAR26.1-121) Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker. Darwin Online. P. 49 , accessed on February 9, 2021 (English).
- ↑ a b https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-122.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
-
↑ a b letter: 123 - Darwin, CR to Henslow, JS, 9 (Sept 1831) . Retrieved November 12, 2014.,
Darwin, CR: CUL-DAR29.3.78 . darwin-online.org.uk. 1831. Retrieved November 13, 2014: "Recommendations attributed to Benjamin Leadbeater , Henslow, Yarrell, Phillip Parker King, John Lort Stokes , Robert Edmond Grant , Frederick William Hope " - ^ A b John van Wyhe ed., Darwin's 'Journal' (1809-1881). CUL-DAR158.1-76 (Darwin Online, http://darwin-online.org.uk/). P. 7 verso – 8 verso , accessed on February 9, 2021 (English).
- ↑ https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-126.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-127.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-142.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-139.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ↑ Browne, EJ (E. Janet), 1950-, Neve, Michael .: Voyage of the Beagle: Charles Darwin's Journal of researches . Penguin Books, London, England 1989, ISBN 0-14-043268-X , pp. 12 .
- ^ A b Richard Keynes: Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. 27 , accessed on February 9, 2021 (English).
- ↑ https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-119.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ^ Browne, EJ (E. Janet), 1950-: Charles Darwin . Pimlico, London 2003, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 , pp. 208-209 .
- ↑ a b https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-144.xml. Accessed February 9, 2021 .
- ^ A b Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from HMS Beagle. S. ix – xi , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from HMS Beagle. P. x , accessed February 12, 2021 .
-
↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary, pp. 4-17 and
Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II, p. 42 . - ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 19–22 , accessed February 12, 2021 (English).
- ↑ Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Journal and Remarks. 1832-1836., III. Pp. 1–7 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 22–26 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ He also collected what was described by John Gould in 1837 as the type specimen of Passer iagoensis , the Cape Verde or Jago sparrow.
- ^ Sandra Herbert: Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author . In: The British Journal for the History of Science . tape 24 , no. June 2 , 1991, ISSN 0007-0874 , pp. 159-192 , doi : 10.1017 / S0007087400027060 ( cambridge.org [accessed February 12, 2021]).
- ↑ a b c Letter 171 - Darwin, CR to Henslow, JS, May 18 & June 16, 1832 . Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved August 1, 2010: “as for the Doctor he has gone back to England. — as he chose to make himself disagreeable to the Captain & to Wickham He was a philosopher of rather an antient date; at St Jago by his own account he made general remarks during the first fortnight & collected particular facts during the last. "
- ^ The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809-1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his granddaughter Nora Barlow, London: Collins. P. 81 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Darwin, Francis & Seward, AC eds. 1903. More letters of Charles Darwin. A record of his work in a series of hitherto unpublished letters. London: John Murray. Volume 2, p. 117 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Freeman, RB 2007. Charles Darwin: A companion. 2D online edition, compiled by Sue Asscher and edited by John van Wyhe. P. 196 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 26–28 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 28–34 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ "Letter 196 - Henslow, JS to Darwin, CR, 15 & 21 Jan (1833)". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ EJ Browne: Charles Darwin . Pimlico, London 2003, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 , pp. 202-204 .
-
↑ Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 56-58 , accessed February 12, 2021 (English). , and
Charles Darwin's Beagle diary. Pp. 36–38 , accessed February 12, 2021 . - ^ EJ Browne: Charles Darwin . Pimlico, London 2003, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 , pp. 195 .
- ^ EJ Browne, Michael Neve: Voyage of the Beagle: Charles Darwin's Journal of researches . Penguin Books, London, England 1989, ISBN 0-14-043268-X , pp. 11-17 .
- ↑ Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 58-60 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 41–44 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809-1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his granddaughter Nora Barlow, London: Collins. Pp. 73–74 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. 45 , accessed on February 12, 2021 (English).
- ↑ a b c Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 48–65 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ EJ Browne: Charles Darwin . Pimlico, London 2003, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 , pp. 210 .
- ↑ Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 74-81 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Unique watercolor of Darwin on HMS Beagle tipped to fetch upwards of £ 50,000 at auction. November 25, 2015, accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 94-97 , accessed February 12, 2021 (English).
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 104-109 , accessed on February 12, 2021 (English, p. 109, Keynes notes that the site is now below the Puerto Belgrano naval base).
- ↑ Darwin Online: 'Cinnamon and port wine': an introduction to the Rio Notebook. Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ a b Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 106-107 , accessed February 12, 2021 (English).
- ^ "The Journal of Syms Covington - Chapter Three". Archived from the original ; accessed on February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ a b c d e Geological Observations on South America. Being the third part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, RN during the years 1832 to 1836. p. 84 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. 107 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ A b Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. 109 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 188 - Darwin, CR to Darwin, CS, Oct 24 & Nov 24 (1832)". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 192 - Darwin, CR to Henslow, JS, (26 Oct-) 24 Nov 1832". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
-
^ EJ Browne: Charles Darwin . Pimlico, London 2003, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 , pp. 223-224 . Extracts from letters to Professor Henslow. P. 7 , accessed on February 12, 2021 (English). James R. Moore: Darwin . Michael Joseph, London 1991, ISBN 0-7181-3430-3 , pp.
210 . "Confessions of a Darwinist". Pp. 32–53 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. 110 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ A b Geological Observations on South America. Being the third part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, RN during the years 1832 to 1836. p. 81 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Darwin and Henslow. The growth of an idea. P. 64 , accessed February 12, 2021 (English).
- ↑ Darwin and Henslow. The growth of an idea. P. 92 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ James R. Moore: Darwin . Michael Joseph, London 1991, ISBN 0-7181-3430-3 , pp. 131 .
- ↑ Darwin's encounter with the natives of Tierra del Fuego on his beagle voyage convinced him that civilization had evolved from a more primitive state.
-
↑ The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. Pp. 34–35, 180–181 , accessed February 12, 2021 . Beagle Diary 1832 December 18th. Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ James R. Moore: Darwin . Michael Joseph, London 1991, ISBN 0-7181-3430-3 , pp. 134-138 .
- ↑ a b c DARWIN'S ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, BULLETIN OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY) HISTORICAL SERIES, Vol. 2 No. 7, LONDON: 1963. In: Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), 2 (7). Pp. 271–275 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Charles Darwin and the voyage of the Beagle. Pp. 193–196 , accessed February 12, 2021 (English).
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 215 - Darwin, CR to Darwin, CS, Sept 20 (1833)". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. 193 , accessed on February 12, 2021 (English).
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 229 - Darwin, CR to Henslow, JS, 12 Nov 1833". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Darwin Online: 'Filled with astonishment': an introduction to the St. Fe Notebook. Retrieved February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Charles Darwin and the voyage of the Beagle. P. 210 , accessed on February 12, 2021 (English).
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 195-198 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 203-204 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ A b c "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 238 - Darwin, CR to Henslow, JS, Mar 1834". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ A b c Darwin Online: 'A man who has seen half the world': Introduction to the Banda Oriental Notebook. Retrieved February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Banda Oriental S. Cruz. ' Beagle field notebook. EH1.9. P. 36 , accessed February 12, 2021 (English, a typical Glyptodont tail).
- ^ Banda Oriental S. Cruz. ' Beagle field notebook. EH1.9. P. 37 , accessed on February 12, 2021 (English).
-
↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 208-214 , accessed February 12, 2021 . Darwin and Henslow. The growth of an idea. P. 84 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 217-218 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ DARWIN'S ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, BULLETIN OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY) HISTORICAL SERIES, Vol. 2 No. 7, LONDON: 1963, p. 272 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 226–227 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 222-223 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ James R. Moore: Darwin . Michael Joseph, London 1991, ISBN 0-7181-3430-3 , pp. 146-147 .
- ^ Sandra Herbert: From Charles Darwin's Portfolio: An Early Essay on South American Geology and Species . In: Earth Sciences History . tape 14 , no. 1 , January 1, 1995, ISSN 0736-623X , p. 23 , doi : 10.17704 / eshi.14.1.76570264u727jh36 ( org.uk [accessed February 12, 2021]).
- ^ Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from HMS Beagle. P. xix , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 213 - Henslow, JS to Darwin, CR, 31 Aug 1833". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Sandra Herbert: Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author . In: The British Journal for the History of Science . tape 24 , no. June 2 , 1991, ISSN 0007-0874 , pp. 174–179 , doi : 10.1017 / S0007087400027060 ( org.uk [accessed February 12, 2021]).
- ↑ The publications by FitzRoy and Darwin that emerged from the expedition were an important point of reference for the Chilean explorers of western Patagonia in the 19th century. FitzRoy's book Sailing Directions for South America prompted Chilean Navy hydrographer Francisco Hudson to investigate the possible existence of a sailing route through internal waters from the Chiloé Archipelago to the Strait of Magellan in the 1850s . Hudson was the first to realize that the Isthmus of Ofqui made this route impossible. Enrique Simpson found Fitzroy's mapping of little use instead, remarking in 1870 that "Fitzroy's map, which is fairly accurate up to this point [Melinka 43 ° 53 'S], is worthless further up ...". Therefore, south of Melinka, Simpson relied more on the sketches by José de Moraleda y Montero from the late 18th century. Simpson's contemporary Francisco Vidal Gormaz criticized the overall work of FitzRoy and Darwin on the grounds that they did not recognize the importance of the Patagonian Islands.
- ↑ Darwin's list of fossil wood specimens from the Beagle. Retrieved February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Joseph Hooker, Botanist to the Survey . British Geological Survey. Archived from the original on July 3, 2017. Retrieved January 17, 2012.
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 249-264 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ "The position of the bones of Mastodon (?) At Port St Julian is of interest". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Darwin Online: 'Hurray Chiloe': an introduction to the Port Desire Notebook. Retrieved February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from HMS Beagle. Pp. 292–303 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ James R. Moore: Darwin . Michael Joseph, London 1991, ISBN 0-7181-3430-3 , pp. 158-162 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 308-309 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Sandra Herbert: Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author . In: The British Journal for the History of Science . tape 24 , no. June 2 , 1991, ISSN 0007-0874 , pp. 187 , doi : 10.1017 / S0007087400027060 ( org.uk [accessed February 12, 2021]).
- ^ A b Gregory B. Estes: Darwin in Galápagos: footsteps to a new world . Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ 2009, ISBN 978-0-691-14210-4 .
- ^ A b Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 353–354 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Journal of Researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of HMS Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, RN 2d edition. Pp. 114–115 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ a b c Birds Part 3 No. 4. pp. 62-64 , accessed February 12, 2021 (English).
- ^ Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from HMS Beagle. P. 291 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. 356 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ A b Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. xix , accessed February 12, 2021 . "Confessions of a Darwinist". Pp. 32–53 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 357-360 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 360–367 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from HMS Beagle. P. 298 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 364–378 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 380-395 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 398-399 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 402-403 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ A b Darwin Online: 'Coccatoos & Crows': An introduction to the Sydney Notebook. Retrieved February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 408-410 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 410-412 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert Fitz-Roy, RN, II. Pp. 38-39 , accessed February 12, 2021 (English). , see before. Pp. 629-637 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 413-419 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Journal of Researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of HMS Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, RN 2d edition. Pp. 483-486 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Journal of Researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of HMS Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, RN 2d edition. Pp. 483-486 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 301 - Darwin, CR to Darwin, CS, 29 Apr 1836". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 291 - Darwin, CS & Langton, Charlotte to Darwin, CR, 29 Dec (1835)". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Darwin 1835, Darwin 1836, "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 290 - Darwin, RW to Henslow, JS, 28 Dec 1835". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 302 - Darwin, CR to Darwin, EC, June 3, 1836". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ a b c d e Darwin Online: 'Runaway Rascals': an introduction to the Despoblado Notebook. Retrieved February 12, 2021 .
-
^ John van Wyhe: Mind the gap: did Darwin avoid publishing his theory for many years? In: Notes and Records of the Royal Society . tape 61 , no. 2 , May 22, 2007, ISSN 0035-9149 , p. 197 , doi : 10.1098 / rsnr.2006.0171 ( org.uk [accessed on February 12, 2021]). Babbage, Charles: The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise (2nd ed.) . John Murray, London 1838, p.
225–227 ( org.uk [accessed February 12, 2021]). -
^ EJ Browne: Charles Darwin . Pimlico, London 2003, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 , pp. 330-331 . "A letter containing remarks on the moral state of Tahiti, New Zealand, & c". Retrieved February 12, 2021 .
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 304 - Darwin, CR to Henslow, JS, July 9, 1836". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands visited during the Voyage of HMS Beagle, together with some brief notices of the geology of Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. Being the second part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, RN during the years 1832 to 1836. pp. 89-90 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Journal of Researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of HMS Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, RN 2d edition. Pp. 486-488 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Poulton, Edward Bagnall: Charles Darwin and the theory of natural selection. Pp. 28-29 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from HMS Beagle. P. xx , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Darwin's ornithological notes. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History). Historical Series Vol. 2, No. 7, pp. 201-278. P. 262 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Hodge, Jonathan: "Darwin, the Galapagos and his changing thoughts about species origins: 1835-1837". In: Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, 61 (Supplement II, No. 7): 89-106. Pp. 93-98 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Charles Darwin's diary of the voyage of HMS Beagle. P. xiii , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 288 - Darwin, SE to Darwin, CR, 22 Nov 1835". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809-1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his granddaughter Nora Barlow. Pp. 81–82 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. 431-432 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ Charles Darwin's ecological experiment on Ascension isle . In: BBC News . September 1, 2010 ( bbc.com [accessed February 12, 2021]).
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 306 - Darwin, CR to Darwin, SE, 4 Aug (1836)". Accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. 447 , accessed February 12, 2021 .
- ^ RB Freeman, John Van Wyhe: Darwin: a companion . New Jersey 2021, ISBN 978-981-12-0820-1 , pp. 95 ( google.de [accessed on February 13, 2021] - see photos ).
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. 447 , accessed February 13, 2021 .
- ↑ "Observations of proofs of recent elevation on the coast of Chili, made during the survey of His Majesty's Ship Beagle commanded by Capt. FitzRoy RN" pp. 446-449 , accessed on February 13, 2021 (English).
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. Pp. Xviii – xx , accessed February 13, 2021 .
- ↑ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary. P. 449 , accessed February 13, 2021 .
- ^ A b Sandra Herbert: From Charles Darwin's Portfolio: An Early Essay on South American Geology and Species . In: Earth Sciences History . tape 14 , no. 1 , January 1, 1995, ISSN 0736-623X , p. 11 , doi : 10.17704 / eshi.14.1.76570264u727jh36 ( org.uk [accessed February 13, 2021]).
- ↑ Owen, Richard: Fossil Mammalia Part 1. p. 13 , accessed on February 13, 2021 (English).
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project - Letter 321 - Darwin, CR to Darwin, CS, (9 Nov 1836)". Retrieved February 13, 2021 .
- ↑ a b Owen, Richard: Fossil Mammalia Part 1. pp. 106-108 , accessed on February 13, 2021 (English).
- ↑ A description of the Cranium of the Toxodon Platensis, a gigantic extinct mammiferous species, referrible by its dentition to the Rodentia, but with affinities to the Pachydermata and the Herbivorous Cetacea. In: Proceedings of the Geological Society of London (2). Pp. 541-542 , accessed February 13, 2021 .
- ^ Owen, Richard: Fossil Mammalia Part 1. pp. 16-18 , accessed on February 13, 2021 (English).
- ^ Geological Observations on South America. Being the third part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, RN during the years 1832 to 1836. p. 92 , accessed February 13, 2021 .
- ^ Geological Observations on South America. Being the third part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, RN during the years 1832 to 1836. p. 90 , accessed February 13, 2021 .
- ^ Geological Observations on South America. Being the third part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, RN during the years 1832 to 1836. pp. 88-92 , accessed February 13, 2021 .
- ^ Geological Observations on South America. Being the third part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, RN during the years 1832 to 1836. p. 95 , accessed February 13, 2021 .