Multimedia learning

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Under Multimedia Learning (Engl. Multimedia learning ) the presentation of learning materials is generally based on image and text understood.

However, there is no generally applicable definition. The basic assumption here is that people learn more sustainably and better from words and images than just from words alone. It is assumed that multimedia information that has been processed with regard to the functioning of the human brain is much more likely to lead to meaningful learning than that which is not the case. In addition, texts and images contain different cognitive functions in mental modeling and adaptation.

Basics of memory psychology

In this context, several theoretical models were developed to explain multimedia learning. They relied on processes and structures of human cognition. Common to all theories is the assumption that the human brain can only process new information to a limited extent. As a result, human memory plays a central role. A distinction is made between long-term and working memory.

Long-term memory

Learning is generally defined as anchoring knowledge in long-term memory . Long-term memory is able to store large amounts of information over a very long period of time. Information is stored here in the form of schemes. Schemas are cognitive constructs that combine several smaller units of information into individual large ones. They represent connections between existing knowledge and help to classify and organize new knowledge.

The working memory

The working memory precedes the long-term memory. This means that new information is processed here first. However, the capacity of working memory is very limited in terms of duration and amount. Miller was able to prove that humans can process approx. 7 (± 2) information units at the same time. However, only 2-4 elements can be combined or weighed against each other. In addition, this information disappears after approx. 20 seconds if it is not renewed. However, it is possible to improve memory performance by grouping information into "chunks". These "chunks" are then treated as individual units.

Relationships between working and long-term memory

However, the working memory limitations only apply to new information. Knowledge that is already available as schemes in long-term memory and is called up by working memory is not subject to these restrictions there. Understanding now occurs as soon as the new information has been organized in working memory and then stored as a schema in long-term memory. For this, all relevant elements of the information must be processed in parallel in the working memory. This means that large amounts of information have to be broken down into smaller units of knowledge so that they can be organized in working memory. The new knowledge is then combined with the old knowledge from the long-term memory with the help of schemes that have been called up into working memory. This creates ever larger and more complex schemes.

Cognitive Load Theory

The Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) primarily offers a differentiated view of the cognitive load. It assumes a limited capacity of working memory and that the acquisition of knowledge is particularly related to the construction of new or the linking of old schemes. For this, the cognitive load should be kept within limits and the working memory should not be overloaded. The theory describes three types of cognitive load.

Intrinsic Cognitive Load

The intrinsic stress depends on the learning content itself, i.e. on its level of difficulty and complexity as well as on the scope of the learning material. The difficulty of the learning content is related to the interactivity of the individual learning elements. The element interactivity, on the other hand, is determined by the relationship between the components to be learned. It is high when the understanding of one element is strongly linked to the understanding of other elements, so that several of these elements have to be processed in parallel in the working memory. At the same time, the intrinsic cognitive load also depends on the prior knowledge of the learner. If they have a high level of area-specific prior knowledge, their intrinsic burden is lower.

Extraneous cognitive load

The extrinsic burden is caused by the type of performance. If the learning material contains irrelevant information and does not offer a supportive structure for the formation of schemes, this results in a high cognitive load. The aim should be to keep the extrinsic stress as low as possible. In this context, 5 effects are mentioned that can influence this stress.

Worked example effect

Learners find it easier to understand certain facts on the basis of worked out solutions than they have to work out the way themselves. As a result, the working memory is not additionally burdened by the solution process, so that faster and more targeted learning takes place.

Split attention effect

The “split attention effect” occurs when different types of visual information that must be processed at the same time are presented separately from one another in terms of space or time. In this case, the brain itself has to bring the different sources together and is thereby additionally burdened.

Modality Effect

Humans have two main channels for the perception of information. These can be transported into working memory via the auditory or visual channel. If only one of these channels is used for information transport, this can lead to cognitive overloading of this channel. When presenting a wide variety of information, both channels should therefore be used whenever possible. Especially when explaining graphics and images, it is therefore advisable to relieve the visual channel by means of an audio comment.

Redundancy Effect

The redundancy effect occurs as soon as one and the same information is transported via both the auditory and visual channels. Assuming that both information sources contain exactly the same information content for the learner, this means that one of the sources is superfluous and the cognitive load is unnecessarily increased as a result.

Expertise reversal effect

The more prior knowledge a learner has in a certain area, the less often he needs additional explanations on certain issues. If this is presented to him anyway, this redundant information additionally increases his cognitive load. This hampers his learning progress.

German cognitive load

The germane cognitive load, also called learning-related load, arises from the construction of schemata. Like the extrinsic burden, it depends on the learning material. However, this type of stress increases the learning success. Their increase is therefore quite desirable.

Conclusions

All three loads behave additively and together can overload the working memory. The design of teaching materials should therefore always take the maximum working memory capacity into account. If possible, the extrinsic load should be avoided as much as possible, while the intrinsic load cannot be changed. The learning-related load would then have to be aligned with the total load.

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Mayer's “ Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning ” (CTML) tries to explain the mechanisms of human information processing, similar to the CLT. For this purpose, five cognitive processes are identified that play a central role in multimedia learning. The theory builds on earlier theoretical concepts of cognitive perception.

Model of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2005)

Three basic assumptions

Dual-channel assumption

Based on the work on the dual coding theory by Paivio and Baddeley, it is assumed that humans have two separate channels for absorbing information. However, in the conceptualization of the two channels, there are crucial differences between the theories of Paivio and Baddeley. At Baddeley, information is processed depending on the type of sensory perception. So depending on whether they were registered via the ear or the eye. At Paivio, on the other hand, processing depends on the mode of presentation. This relates to the type of learning material. As a result, texts, regardless of whether they are written or spoken, are always verbal, images or music without song are of a visual nature. Mayer waives a decision in favor of one of these theories. Instead, he combines both models in such a way that information reaches the corresponding channel according to the type of sensory perception, but can change channels in the working memory. As a result, spoken text is perceived in the visual channel but processed in the auditory channel.

Limited capacity assumption

According to the CLT, it is also assumed here that each channel can only process a limited amount of information at the same time. Decisions are therefore required that determine which information is currently being processed and which should be ignored initially. Metacognitive strategies are used here, which are necessary for the allocation, monitoring and coordination of the limited resources.

Active processing assumption

It is assumed that learning occurs as soon as a person consciously uses cognitive processes to develop a mental model of the perceived information. So knowledge has to be structured. In this context, five different knowledge structures are mentioned.

  • Process structures - Represented as causal chains with explanations of a system based on the cause-and-effect principle.
  • Comparison structures - Represented as matrices for comparing two or more elements using multiple dimensions
  • Generalization Structures - Represented as a tree diagram with a core idea, supplemented by several subordinate details
  • Enumeration Structures - Represented as a list consisting of a collection of elements
  • Classification Structures - Represented as a hierarchical classification system with groups and subgroups

To facilitate understanding, teaching materials should have a coherent structure and provide guidance on how to set up these structures.

Three memory memories for multimedia learning

The CTML distinguishes three types of memory storage. The figure above illustrates the interaction of these memories in multimedia information processing.

Sensory memory

Text and image information that is picked up by the eyes and ears first enter the sensory memory. The recorded information is recorded here as an exact image of reality for a very short period of time. Spoken words are perceived by the ears, while written words, like images, are perceived by the eyes.

Working memory

The learner now has to choose the information relevant to him from the huge amount of information. Then they get into the working memory. In the figure mentioned, the left side represents the raw, unprocessed information, the right side the already constructed knowledge. Before information through cognitive organizational processes is available as verbal or pictorial models on the right side, it can first change channels on the left side, if necessary.

Long-term memory

Long-term memory can store large amounts of information over a very long period of time. However, these can only be actively and consciously reflected in working memory.

Five cognitive processes

Mayer identifies five cognitive processes that can take place in multimedia learning. The processes relate much more to individual sections than to the multimedia information as a whole. In addition, they usually do not occur in a linear sequence. Instead, the learner coordinates the sequence as needed.

  • Selecting Relevant Words - The learner filters the words that are relevant for him and creates an initial auditory representation of them. This applies to both spoken and written text.
  • Selecting Relevant Images - The learner directs their attention to certain parts of an image or animation and creates a visual representation in their working memory.
  • Organizing Selected Words - After an auditory representation of the words has been created, they can then be linked together to form a coherent verbal model. Since this process is also subject to the limitations of working memory, only simple structures can be created.
  • Organizing Selected Images - Corresponding to the selection of the words in the auditory channel, a pictorial model is created in the visual channel from the visual representation.
  • Integrating Word-Based and Image-Based Representations - In what is probably the most demanding process, the learner creates connections between the verbal and pictorial models as well as his prior knowledge from long-term memory.

Five forms of representation

During these cognitive processes, words and images can take on five different forms of representation.

  • Words and pictures - correspond to the multimedia information as it is presented to the learner itself.
  • Accoustic and iconic representations - correspond to real images of the information in sensory memory. They fade very quickly unless the learner focuses on them.
  • Sound and images - arise when the learner filters out a few elements from the information. They are the basic components of knowledge construction.
  • Verbal and pictorial models - arise through the organization and integration of the relevant information components into a coherent mental model.
  • Prior knowledge - The prior knowledge from long-term memory, also known as a schema, is the final form of presentation. It helps the learner with the organizational and integration processes within the working memory.

10 basic rules for multimedia instruction design

Mayer and his colleagues were able to formulate 10 principles for the design of multimedia teaching materials from the results of their 20 years of research. They summarize these principles in 3 different categories.

Reducing extraneous processing

  • Coherence principle - reduction of irrelevant information

Irrelevant information that is perhaps interesting but not relevant for the learning process increases the cognitive load and thereby reduces the learning success.

  • Signaling principle - highlighting important information

The learner's attention can be specifically directed by highlighting particularly important elements, which reduces the processing of irrelevant information.

  • Redundancy principle - avoiding subtitles for audio commentary in animations

On-screen text, which contains the same information as the audio commentary itself, forces the learner to mentally merge the two verbal pieces of information and, at the same time, to look alternately at the subtitles and the animation.

  • Spatial Contiguity principle - placing printed words next to the associated graphic

If graphics and their explanations are not placed directly next to each other, this creates an additional cognitive load, as the learner has to bridge the spatial distance by constantly changing gaze.

  • Temporal contiguity principle - simultaneous presentation of related audio comments and animations

In order to be able to mentally link related words and images with one another, they must be in working memory at the same time. Simultaneous presentation thus facilitates learning.

Managing Essential Processing

  • Segmenting principle - dividing animations into smaller segments

Animations on complex issues that consist of many interdependent elements should not be presented as a whole. Instead, it is helpful to create smaller chapters that the learner can play back one after the other according to their learning pace.

  • Pretraining principle - preliminary training on the names, location and characteristics of key components

A previous training should facilitate the control of cognitive processes during a presentation. Because the learner is familiarized with the individual components before the actual presentation, he can concentrate on creating connections during this time.

  • Modality principle - presentation of words as spoken and not as written text

Explanations of graphics should be presented through audio commentary rather than written text. Using the verbal channel makes it possible to avoid overloading the visual channel.

Fostering generative processing

  • Multimedia principle - presenting words and pictures is better than just words alone

People learn better when explanations take place as a combination of words and images rather than in pure text form. Multimedia teaching materials enable the learner to combine verbal and pictorial representations.

  • Personalization principle - design of texts in conversation style instead of formal style

When learners feel they are engaged in a conversation, they make more effort to follow what is being said.

literature

  • Baddeley, AD (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556-559.
  • Brünken, R., Plass, JL and Leutner, D. (2004). Assessment of cognitive load in multimedia learning with dual-task methodology: Auditory load and modality effects. Instructional Science, 32, 115-132.
  • Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003). The expertise reversal effect. Educational Psychologist, 38 (1), 32-32.
  • Kirschner, PA, Sweller, J. and Clark, RE (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41, 75-86.
  • Mayer, RE (2005). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In RE Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 31-48). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mayer, RE (2008). Applying the science of learning: Evidence-based principles for the design of multimedia instruction. American Psychologist, 63 (8), 760-769.
  • Miller, GA (1956). The magical number seven, plusor minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
  • Niegemann, HM, Domagk, S., Hessel, S., Hein, A., Zobel, A. and Hupfer, M. (2008). Compendium of multimedia learning. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-37225-7
  • Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Renkl, A. (2002). Worked-out examples: instructional explanations support learning by self-explanations. Learning and Instruction, 12 (5), 529-556.
  • Renkl, A. (2005). The Worked-Out Examples Principle in Multimedia Learning. In RE Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 229–245). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Sweller, J. (1999). Instructional design in technical areas. Camberwell, Vic: ACER Press.
  • Sweller, J. (2004). Instructional design consequences of an analogy between evolution by natural selection and human cognitive architecture. Instructional Science, 32, 9-31.
  • Sweller, J. (2005). Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In RE Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 19-30). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
  • Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1991). Evidence for cognitive load theory. Cognition and Instruction, 8 (4), 351-362.
  • Sweller, J., Chandler, P., Tierney, P., & Cooper, M. (1990). Cognitive load as a factor in the structuring of technical material. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119, 176-192.
  • Tinsdall-Ford, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997). When two sensory modes are better than one. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 3, 257-287.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Mayer, RE (2005). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In RE Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 31-48). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
  2. ↑ Fang Zhao, Wolfgang Schnotz, Inga Wagner, Robert Gaschler: Texts and pictures serve different functions in conjoint mental model construction and adaptation. Memory & Cognition, August 1, 2018, accessed August 30, 2019 .
  3. ^ Miller, GA (1956). The magical number seven, plusor minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
  4. ↑ Sweller, J. (2004). Instructional design consequences of an analogy between evolution by natural selection and human cognitive architecture. Instructional Science, 32, 9-31.
  5. ↑ Sweller, J. (2005). Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In RE Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 19-30). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
  6. ↑ Kirschner, PA, Sweller, J. and Clark, RE (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41, 75-86.
  7. ↑ Sweller, J. (2005). Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In RE Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 19-30). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
  8. ^ Brünken, R., Plass, JL and Leutner, D. (2004). Assessment of cognitive load in multimedia learning with dual-task methodology: Auditory load and modality effects. Instructional Science, 32, 115-132.
  9. ↑ Renkl, A. (2002). Worked-out examples: instructional explanations support learning by self-explanations. Learning and Instruction, 12 (5), 529-556.
  10. ↑ Renkl, A. (2005). The Worked-Out Examples Principle in Multimedia Learning. In RE Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 229–245). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  11. ↑ Sweller, J., Chandler, P., Tierney, P., & Cooper, M. (1990). Cognitive load as a factor in the structuring of technical material. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119, 176-192.
  12. ↑ Tinsdall-Ford, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997). When two sensory modes are better than one. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 3, 257-287.
  13. ↑ Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1991). Evidence for cognitive load theory. Cognition and Instruction, 8 (4), 351-362.
  14. ↑ Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003). The expertise reversal effect. Educational Psychologist, 38 (1), 32-32.
  15. ↑ Sweller, J. (2005). Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In RE Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 19-30). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
  16. ↑ Mayer, RE (2005). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In RE Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 31-48). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
  17. ↑ Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
  18. ↑ Baddeley, AD (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556-559.
  19. ↑ Sweller, J. (1999). Instructional design in technical areas. Camberwell, Vic: ACER Press.
  20. ↑ Mayer, RE (2008). Applying the science of learning: Evidence-based principles for the design of multimedia instruction. American Psychologist , 63 (8), 760-769.