Bed bug

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Bed bug
Bed bug (Cimex lectularius)

Bed bug ( Cimex lectularius )

Systematics
Class : Insects (Insecta)
Order : Schnabelkerfe (Hemiptera)
Subordination : Bed bugs (heteroptera)
Family : Flat bugs (Cimicidae)
Genre : Cimex
Type : Bed bug
Scientific name
Cimex lectularius
Linnaeus , 1758

The bed bug ( Cimex lectularius ), also house bug , is a bug from the family of flat bugs (Cimicidae). These are to specialize in the beds of endothermic (warm-blooded) creatures - especially people  to live and from their - blood to feed . Bed bugs are the followers of civilization and are considered classic parasites . The clinical picture associated with typical skin appearances and symptoms that is caused by bed bug bites is known as cimicosis .

The genus Cimex contains 16 species. As a second species, Cimex hemipterus , which occurs mainly in the tropics, also feeds on human blood.

features

The adult animals are initially paper-thin and reach body lengths between 3.8 and 5.5 millimeters, when fully sucked up to 9 millimeters. The bugs are hairy and red-brown in color. The hind wings are completely absent; the forewings have receded into small scales. The pronotum is cut out in a semicircle at the front. The compound eyes are very small, point eyes ( ocelles ) are missing. Their flat build makes it particularly easy for them to get into tight spaces , where they withdraw from exposure to light.

Bed bugs have an average life expectancy of 6 to 12 months.

Distribution and habitats

The bed bug is a cosmopolitan . It is at home in the north up to a little above the 65th parallel. In the Alps it can occur up to almost 2000  m . Since Cimex hemipterus has now also been detected in Moscow and Saint Petersburg, an occurrence of this species in Central Europe now seems conceivable.

Bed bugs are largely tied to humans and the animals around them. They live in human settlements, especially in apartments, and more rarely in stables. In addition, they are found in caves on bats as hosts .

Way of life

nutrition

Bed bugs are bloodsuckers . They are nocturnal. During the day, they stay in dry, crevice-shaped hiding places. By means of odorous substances ( aggregation pheromones ), which come from the defensive glands, they attract each other and form larger collections. Adult animals are insensitive to the cold and can go without food for up to 40 weeks. When alarmed, they produce a sweet smell which, as an alarm pheromone, causes the bedbugs to escape. The bug takes up to ten minutes to ingest its food, the amount of which can reach seven times the initial weight of the insect .

Since all species of the genus Cimex can be found on bats and most of them specialize in these, bats are considered the primary host of the bed bug. It is believed that they passed on to humans as new hosts as early as the Stone Age. While bed bugs occur on human hosts around the world, they are restricted to the Old World in bat hosts. Experimentally, in the laboratory, bed bugs can be grown with the blood of numerous species of mammals and birds, including laboratory mice, rabbits and guinea pigs. However, they do not occur on these outdoors. Today, apart from humans and bats, bed bugs occur on various bird species that either nest in buildings or are kept by humans, including widespread in poultry farms, from where they can pass back to humans. Wild birds with a proven presence of bed bugs include house sparrows. The closely related and morphologically very similar pigeon bug ( Cimex columbarius ) occurs on pigeons and feral city ​​pigeons , which often nest in houses , but, as far as known, no bed bugs. Bed bug and pigeon bug can be distinguished from each other mainly by the ratio of head width to length of the first antenna segment, only by specialists.

  • Bed bug when hungry

  • Prick and proboscis of the bed bug ( SEM image, digitally colored)

  • Bed bug on human skin during a blood meal

Reproduction

As with all species of the flat bugs family , the bed bugs mate in an extraordinary manner. The female is, so to speak, attacked by the male, crawling up to the female from the right behind and mating her immediately by simply piercing the body wall. Previous advertising behavior has not yet been observed.

Traumatic insemination at Cimex lectularius

The bed bug females, like all flat bugs, have a special organ on the belly side under the skin without an opening to the outside, the ribagas organ ( English spermalege ). This pocket-shaped organ, visible from the outside as a small swelling, lies between the 4th and 5th sternite and is used only for sperm absorption during copulation and not as a sexual opening. The males, usually guided through this female organ, pierce the body wall of the female at this point with a needle-shaped copulation organ , a transformed parameter, and then insert the sperm into the pocket via the aedeagus . Such a mating process, which in other animal species is also associated with piercing the female skin at any point in the abdomen , is called “traumatic insemination ”.

The sperm then pass through the hemolymph of the body cavity and then enter the sperm storage organ, which - unlike other insects - is not a receptaculum seminis . This organ is located near the ovaries . The sperm fertilize the eggs in the ovary, which is also unusual for insects. Each female lays around one to twelve eggs a day through a sexual opening that is used solely for laying eggs and around 200 during its lifetime, the highest number recorded so far was 541. The eggs are placed on rough surfaces at resting places of the animals, i.e. at hidden places Places such as in cracks in furniture, behind pictures, wallpaper, in sockets, on clothes or curtains, in bed frames, mattresses or their seams, glued and contain more or less developed embryos when they are deposited . The larvae hatch from the eggs within 7 days (at 25 ° C) and develop into an adult insect in about five weeks over five stages . The bed bug larva is very similar to the adult animal, but a little more yellow. The larvae must suckle blood at least once in each of the five developmental stages. The need for warmth is comparatively high, below 13 to 15 ° C there is no more development.

history

It is believed that the bed bug originally came from Asia , or from caves in the Middle East , where both humans and bats stayed at the same time. From there she settled the world together with the people . The bed bug has been known in the Mediterranean region since ancient times. It only reached the interior of Europe when people began to build apartments in which the temperature and humidity were suitable for bugs. This only happened in the 17th century . Since then, the bed bug has spread widely. When the respected Scottish historian and essayist Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane Welsh Carlyle moved into a new house in London in 1834, Jane Carlyle stated that her house was the only one of all her acquaintances that was free from bed bugs. Dozens of other such historical anecdotes can be found in the reviews by Boynton (1963), Reinhardt (2014), and Reinhardt (2018).

Effect on humans

The bug's saliva only causes itching after a while in most people and is roughly equivalent in strength to that of a mosquito bite. The latency period decreases with longer exposure times, and people who are often exposed to bed bug bites show an immediate reaction. The itching can last for more than a week. Contrary to reports to the contrary, bed bug bites are indistinguishable from those of other blood-sucking insects, and the statement that the bites lie in a line one behind the other is also incorrect. Also in contrast to other insects, the saliva of the bed bugs does not contain any anesthetic agents, but, as usual, anticoagulant enzymes and a substance to dilate the blood vessels. More sensitive people can experience discomfort after hundreds or thousands of stings, one report also mentions a visual disorder . Large-scale skin inflammation is due to secondary infections after scratching.

  • Skin condition in humans after bed bug bites

  • Skin reaction in humans after bed bug bites

  • Bed bug bites on human arm and hand

The adult bugs are easy to recognize, but are usually only discovered during the day with a targeted search. In the case of severe infestation, a number of small black spots remain on the bed or in cracks that serve as hiding places for the bedbugs (stains). The often reported characteristic sweet smell in the room only occurs with extreme bugging. The scent compared to the scent of coriander plant and its fresh fruits or bitter almond, on the other hand, comes from the alarm substance of the bedbugs.

In hundreds of studies, no realistic transmission of diseases could be proven. A total of 28 different pathogens were detected in the bed bugs, including the hepatitis B , hepatitis C and HI viruses , but the pathogens did not reproduce and thus did not become infectious. However, there is a lack of scientific evidence for the transmission of hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV.

An infection, especially with hepatitis B, cannot be ruled out. However, since the hepatitis B virus does not reproduce in the bug, it could only be passed on mechanically (see virus infection ). Three ways of transmission are conceivable: killing the animals by crushing them with the hand if the skin is injured, contact with the animal excretions and interrupting the sucking process, during which half-digested material can be choked out again.

Combat

Bed bug control is advice-intensive and labor-intensive. It begins with an infestation investigation.

prevention

Like mosquitoes, bed bugs are likely to be attracted to the increased carbon dioxide content of the air they breathe in humans and animals, but there is currently no scientific evidence for this. In addition, other substances excreted by mammals ( kairomone ) also seem to be detectable by the bugs; it was found that the bugs seek out already worn clothes more often than freshly washed clothes. At the beginning of 2020, France's Ministère de la Cohésion des territoires recommended that travelers search hotel rooms for bed bugs, as they can be found in bed linen, carpets, armchairs or behind picture frames, do not put suitcases on the bed or the floor and bring all clothing with them after the trip Wash at 60 degrees.

Physical procedures

Because of the harmful effects on health and the problem of resistance when using insecticides , bedbug control with physical means is again becoming more important.

In rooms without cracks or crevices, which offer bed bugs few hiding places and are easy to control, it is possible to remove the bugs manually.

In several places, it is recommended to dust the areas around the bed with kieselguhr or to scatter a small wall of kieselguhr about half a millimeter high around the bed. The chitin shell of the bed bugs is damaged by the diatomaceous earth and the bed bugs die after a few days from drying out.

Furniture can be placed with the feet in vessels with smooth walls or with water filling in order to determine the infestation and to limit the mobility of the animals. Commercially available collection vessels resemble ashtrays with a recessed ring (similar to a castle moat ) around the central hollow . The outer walls of the ring are less steeply inclined or have a rougher surface, so that the animals can get into the ring but cannot get out again. To enhance the effect, the inner walls can be lightly dusted with talc .

Thermal control can be carried out with few side effects, since all life stages of C. lectularius die off after seven minutes at a temperature of 46 ° C. For so-called heat disinfestation , the room temperature is usually increased to approx. 55 ° C over a day and a half to ensure that the critical temperature is reached in all niches, depressions and crevices.

Washing or drying textiles at temperatures above 45 ° C also kills bugs and eggs. Washing at 40 ° C kills the bugs, but only around a quarter of the eggs. When using a tumble dryer, the temperature should be held for over 30 minutes.

Alternatively, clothes and bedding can be left in the freezer or outside the home in winter for at least two hours to temperatures of −17 ° C or colder to kill bed bugs and eggs. If several kilograms of laundry are to be frozen at once, it can take up to eight hours for the entire amount to cool down sufficiently inside. To be on the safe side, the items should therefore be left in the freezer for at least ten hours. Sometimes a period of three days is also recommended.

Apparently the bedbugs do not survive increased carbon dioxide concentrations, while an almost pure nitrogen atmosphere has hardly any noticeable effect even after a longer period.

Traditional process

Another method has been used for centuries in the Balkans , especially in Bulgaria and Serbia . In the evening, leaves of the bean plant are scattered around the bed . The bed bugs that migrate towards the bed at night get stuck on the leaves and collect there. In the morning the leaves are collected and burned along with the insects attached to them. It has long been suspected that the microscopic plant hairs ( trichomes ) on the leaf surface are responsible for the amazing effect in which they get caught in the animals' legs. Electron microscopic examinations revealed that the tick-like trichomes apparently cause the animals to be held in place by two different mechanisms. With the first, rather short-term and reversible retention mechanism, the hairs only lie around the animals' legs, comparable to the mechanics of a Velcro fastener . The animals can free themselves again here, but after a few more steps they get stuck for good. The reason is that the sharp tips of the trichomes penetrate the feet of the bugs like tiny skewers - the bean leaves represent a trap for the animals from which they can no longer free themselves. Based on the example of the bean leaf, researchers are currently trying to develop an artificial bug catcher.

insecticides

For many years, the primary bed bug control strategy has been largely based on the use of insecticides . After World War II , the widespread use of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and other synthetic insecticides - mainly pyrethroids are used today - led to massive reductions in bed bug infestations in both Europe and the United States . Due to improved hygienic conditions  - apartments are cleaned more frequently and more thoroughly, even in hidden corners - it has become more difficult for bed bugs to find sheltered places to lay their eggs.

After the turn of the millennium, the populations rose again. Especially in the United States, but also in Europe, they are being observed more and more frequently, and public buildings in large cities such as hotels, cinemas and hospitals seem to be particularly affected. It is assumed that the decisive reason for the worldwide recurrence of bed bugs is that the insects have developed resistance to common insecticides in many cases.

Another reason for the increased occurrence of the parasites is the changed treatment methods. Until the 1990s, z. B. fumigates the entire room with insecticides when fighting cockroaches. Any bed bugs in the same room were thus killed at the same time. Today cockroaches are fought with bait to which bed bugs do not react.

In an announcement, the Federal Institute for Consumer Health Protection and Veterinary Medicine (BgVV) lists the agents approved for the control of bed bugs:

  • Agents with immediate, but without long-term effects (i.e. the eradicating effect usually only lasts up to two weeks) for nebulization with cold foggers with the active ingredient pyrethrum with piperonyl butoxide : trade names Detmolin P and Detia Professional Raumnebel XL, each in a dosage of 6 ml / m³.
  • Agent with long-term and, if necessary, immediate effect in pressurized atomizer cans with the active ingredient beta- cyfluthrin : trade names Responsar SC, concentration, 0.2%, application rate 50–200 ml / m² and Responsar SC 2.5, concentration 0.6%, application rate 50 to 100 ml / m². Both are particularly suitable for killing hidden pests; the hiding places and approach routes are sprayed specifically from a short distance.
  • Dust with the active ingredient Propoxur : trade names Blattanex or Baygon dust.

Until the 1990s, among other things, chlorpyrifos was used as an agent with long-term effects, but according to the EC biocide directive 98/8 / EC it was no longer allowed to be marketed from August 2008.

In the USA, sulfuryl fluoride is used for nebulization , among other things . It evaporates without leaving any residue. However, there was damage to health if residents re-entered the treated rooms before they were adequately ventilated.
A study in 2008 on three bed bug populations from chicken farms in the US state of Arkansas examined various insecticides and listed them in descending order according to their effectiveness as follows: λ-cyhalothrin , bifenthrin , carbaryl , imidacloprid , fipronil , permethrin , diazinon , spinosyn , Dichlorvos , chlorfenapyr and DDT . λ-Cyhalothrin belongs to the pyrethroids and has so far been mainly used to treat cotton plantations, so that, in contrast to DDT and other agents already used to combat it, bed bugs have not yet developed any resistance to it.

literature

  • E. Wachmann , A. Melber, J. Deckert: Bugs. Volume 1: Dipsocoromorpha, Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha, Leptopodomorpha, Cimicomorpha (Part I). Revised version of the bugs in Germany, Austria and German-speaking Switzerland, Goecke & Evers, Keltern 2006, pp. 211–215. ISBN 3-931374-49-1 .
  • Ekkehard Wachmann: watch bugs - get to know . Neumann, Neudamm / Melsungen 1989, ISBN 3-7888-0554-4 .
  • Hermann Levinson, Anna Levinson: The bed bug, an ectoparasite of bats and humans in Ice Age caves and contemporary homes. In: Research on insects and other articulated animals and their cultural history. Seewiesen November 5, 2004, revised July 6, 2008; On: hermann-levinson.de .
  • Klaus Reinhardt, Michael T. Siva-Jothy: Biology of the Bed Bugs (Cimicidae). In: Annual Review of Entomology. January 2007, Vol. 52, pp. 351-374, doi: 10.1146 / annurev.ento.52.040306.133913 , full text (PDF).
  • Bed bugs are taking over New York: First they take Manhattan . In: FAZ . dated December 7, 2006.
  • Sibylle Rahlenbeck, Jochen Utikal, Stephen W. Doggett: Cimicosis: bed bugs - on the advance worldwide . In: Deutsches Ärzteblatt . tape 112 , no. 19 , 2015, p. A870–871 ( archive 170502 and 170502 ).

Web links

Commons : bed bug  album with pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Protection from light radiation. Retrieved April 20, 2019 .
  2. ↑ Jerome Goddard, Richard deShazo: Bed Bugs (Cimex lectularius) and Clinical Consequences of Their Bites. In: Journal of the American Medical Association . (JAMA) 2009, Vol. 301, No. 13, pp. 1358-1366, doi: 10.1001 / jama.2009.405 .
  3. ^ DA Gapon: First records of the tropical bed bug Cimex hemipterus (Heteroptera: Cimicidae) from Russia. In: Zoosystematica Rossica. 2016, Volume 25, No. 2, pp. 239–242.
  4. ^ CG Johnson: The Ecology of the Bed-Bug Cimex lectularius L in Britain. In: Journal of Hygiene. 1941, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 345-461.
  5. ^ A b C. Dayton Steelman, Allen L. Szalanski, Rebecca Trout, Jackie A. McKern, Cesar Solorzano, James W. Austin: Susceptibility of the Bed Bug Cimex lectularius L. (Heteroptera: Cimicidae) Collected in Poultry Production Facilities to Selected Insecticides. In: Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology. 2008, Volume 25, No. 1, pp. 41-51 doi: 10.3954 / 1523-5475-25.1.41 .
  6. ↑ Robert L. Usinge: Monograph of the Cimicidae. In: Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America. 1966, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 1-572.
  7. ↑ MT Siva-Jothy: Trauma, disease and collateral damage: conflict in cimicids. In: Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society Biological Sciences. (Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B) 2006, vol. 361, no. 1466, pp. 269-275, doi: 10.1098 / rstb.2005.1789 .
  8. ↑ EH Morrow, G. Arnqvist: Costly traumatic insemination and a female counter-adaptation in bed bugs. In: Proceedings. Biological sciences / The Royal Society. (Proc. R. Soc. B) 2003, Vol. 270, No. 1531, pp. 2377-2381, PMID 14667354 , doi: 10.1098 / rspb.2003.2514 .
  9. ^ WHO, Vector Biology and Control Division, 1982, VI: Bed Bugs. Document WHO / VBC / 82.857
  10. ^ Gary R. Mullen, Lance A Durden (Eds.): Medical and Veterinary Entomology. Second Edition, Academic Press, Boston 2009, ISBN 0-12-372500-3 , p. 80.
  11. ^ Judith Flanders: The Victorian House: Domestic Life from Childbirth to Deathbed. Harper Perennial, London 2003, ISBN 0-00-713189-5 , p. 13.
  12. ↑ Boynton: The Bed-bug and the "Age of Elegance". In: Furniture History. 1963, Volume 1, pp. 1-25.
  13. ↑ Book Description → Klaus Reinhardt: Literäre Wanzen: Eine Anthologie; in addition to a small natural and cultural history. Neofilis-Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-943414-65-3 . From: neofelis-verlag.de , accessed on October 18, 2019.
  14. ^ Book presentation → Klaus Reinhardt: Bedbug. Reaction Books, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-78023-973-6 . In: reaktionbooks.co.uk , accessed on 18 October of 2019.
  15. ^ C. Bernardeschi: Bed bug infestation. In: BMJ. 2013, No. 346, doi: 10.1136 / bmj.f138 .
  16. ↑ How do I know if I've been bitten by a bed bug? In: cdc.gov/parasites
  17. ↑ About bed bugs and hair follicle mites. ( Memento from February 1, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (audio contribution) From: CME-Premium-Fortbildung fd med. Practice. No. 2, 2010, Springer , Heidelberg 2010.
  18. ↑ Otto Geßner: The poisonous and medicinal plants of Central Europe (pharmacology, toxicology, therapy) . Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, Heidelberg 1953, p. 437. Quote: "The fruit smells like a bug when fresh, but when dried it is pleasantly aromatic and ..."
  19. ^ Hans-Jürgen Hoffmann: Serious and strange things about bedbugs - a heteropterological panopticon. (PDF) In: Biology Center Linz / Austria. Digital literature, Denisia, also catalogs of Upper Austria. State museums , 2006, accessed December 6, 2015 .
  20. ↑ PG Jupp, SF Lyons: Experimental assessment of bedbugs (Cimex lectularius and Cimex hemipterus) and mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti formosus) as vectors of human immunodeficiency virus. In: AIDS. Sep 1987, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 171-174, PMID 2450552 : "... unlikely to occur in bedbugs under natural conditions."
  21. ^ PA Webb, CM Happ, GO Maupin u. a .: Potential for insect transmission of HIV: experimental exposure of Cimex hemipterus and Toxorhynchites amboinensis to human immunodeficiency virus. In: The Journal of Infectious Diseases. (J Infect Dis) December 1989, Volume 160, Number 6, pp. 970-977. " ... The persistence of HIV in an insect or on its mouthparts is one of many factors necessary for mechanical transmission in nature. The risk of insect transmission of HIV appears to be extremely low or nonexistent. "
  22. ↑ Pest expert Karolin Bauer-Dubau quoted in Claudia Fromme: Bugs, the enemy in my bed . In: Süddeutsche Zeitung . February 25, 2007. About bed bugs and hair follicle mites. In: CME premium training fd med. Practice. No. 2, 2010, Springer , Heidelberg 2010.
  23. ↑ PG Jupp, SE McElligott, G. Lecatsas: The mechanical transmission of hepatitis B virus by the common bedbug (Cimex lectularius L.) in South Africa. In: South African medical journal. Jan 15, 1983, Vol. 63, No. 3, pp. 77-81, PMID 6849170 (English).
  24. ↑ Dr. William Hentley: Bed bugs attracted to dirty laundry, study finds , September 28, 2017, Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield
  25. ↑ How France combats its bed bug plague. In: spiegel.de. February 21, 2020, accessed February 21, 2020 .
  26. ↑ Effect against bed bugs , Die Zeit: bed bugs
  27. ↑ Insects in the city: What is a bed bug interceptor? - Presentation and explanation of the vessels for detecting infestation and catching the bugs in English, Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center
  28. ^ A b John Gedeon: What's New? - A Bed Bug Research Update , Cuyahoga County Bed Bug Conference, November 15th, 2012
  29. ↑ Benjamin A. Hottel, Rebecca W. Baldwin, Roberto M. Pereira, and Philip G. Koehler: How to Make a Bed Bug Interceptor Trap out of Common Household Items , IFAS extension, University of Florida. Instructions in English for making suitable vessels for trapping bed bugs: A small one is placed in a larger vessel and, if necessary, fixed in the middle. Walls that are too smooth are provided with masking tape on the outside of the larger vessel and the inside of the smaller vessel to make it easier for bugs to get in. To prevent the bugs from escaping, the walls of the space between the vessels are treated with talc, baby powder or lacquer polish. The trapped bedbugs can be killed in water with ten percent detergent added.
  30. ↑ Insects in the city: Guidelines for killing bed bugs in laundry , March 3, 2010, Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center
  31. ↑ Jutta Herrmann, Cornel Adler, Godehard Hoffmann, Christoph Reichmuth: Efficacy of controlled atmospheres on Cimex lectularius (L.) (Heteroptera: Cimicidae) and Argas reflexus Fab. (Acari: Argasidae) . In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Urban Pests. Grafické Závody, 1999. (abstracted from a poster presentation in Prague, 19–22 Jul)
  32. ^ MF Potter: The history of bed bug management — with lessons from the past . In: Amer. Entomol. . Vol. 57, 2011, pp. 14-25.
  33. ↑ Felicity Barringer: How a Leafy Folk Remedy Stopped Bedbugs in Their Tracks . In: The New York Times . dated April 9, 2013; On: nytimes.com  ; last accessed on April 13, 2014.
  34. ^ HH Richardson: The action of bean leaves against the bedbug . In: Journal of Economic Entomology (J. Econ. Entomol.) . Vol. 36, No. 4, 1943, pp. 543-545.
  35. ↑ a b M. W. Szyndler et al .: Entrapment of bed bugs by leaf trichomes inspires microfabrication of biomimetic surfaces . In: Journal of the Royal Society Interface . Vol. 10, No. 83, 2013. doi : 10.1098 / rsif.2013.0174 .
  36. ↑ CJ Boase: Bedbugs-back from the brink . In: Pesticide Outlook . Vol. 12, No. 4, 2001, pp. 12, 159-162. doi : 10.1039 / B106301B .
  37. ^ VL Saenz: Genetic analysis of bed bug populations reveals small propagule size within individual infestations but high genetic diversity across infestations from the eastern United States . In: J Med Entomol . Vol. 49, No. 4, 2012, pp. 865-875. PMID 22897047 .
  38. ^ JH Harlan: Bed bug control: challenging and still evolving . In: J Med Entomol . Vol. 18, 2007, pp. 57-61. doi : 10.1564 / 18apr04 .
  39. ^ MF Potter et al .: Bugs without borders: defining the global bed bug resurgence . In: Pest World . , Pp. 8-20.
  40. ^ A. Romero et al .: Insecticide resistance in the bed bug: a factor in the pest's sudden resurgence? . In: J. Med. Entomol. . Vol. 44, 2007, pp. 175-178.
  41. ↑ K. S. Yoon. et al .: Biochemical and molecular analysis of deltamethrin resistance in the common bed bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) . In: J. Med. Entomol . Vol. 45, No. 6, 2008, pp. 1092-1101. PMID 19058634 .
  42. ↑ Claudia Imfeld: Bedbugs on the Rise. In: Tages-Anzeiger . dated November 29, 2006.
  43. ↑ Announcement of the tested and recognized means and procedures for combating animal pests according to Section 10c of the Federal Disease Act, from January 1, 2001. Act for the reorganization of epidemiological regulations (New Epidemic Law Act - SeuchRNeuG), Article 1 Act for the prevention and control of infectious diseases in humans ( Infection Protection Act - IfSG), Federal Health Gazette Part A: Arthropods (disinfestation), 17th edition, as of October 20, 2000
  44. ↑ DIRECTIVE 98/8 / EC (PDF) OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of February 16, 1998 on the placing of biocidal products on the market, published on April 24, 1998 (PDF)
  45. ↑ Declaration by Frowein GMBH & Co. KG on the discontinuation of the production of agents containing chlorpyrifos, accessed in September 2016
  46. ↑ Data sheet Vikane from the manufacturer Dow Agrochemicals, accessed in September 2016
  47. ↑ See the corresponding article on Wikipedia