Women's suffrage in sub-Saharan Africa

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Africa southern of the Sahara

The development of women's suffrage in sub-Saharan Africa was largely shaped by colonial history. Before colonization, women had influence at the family and local levels but had no official authority. However, there are numerous examples of female tribal chiefs and women's organizations that had political weight because of their central role in agricultural production and the marketing of goods. During the colonial period, the power of women was significantly curtailed because those in power were of the opinion that women belong in the house and have no place in politics. When Africa was decolonized, a democratic constitution without women's suffrage was hardly imaginable. The women's suffrage was one of the measures that input into a modern Constitution found the Independent States. The retreating colonial powers did not block it, and the new political elite welcomed it. In the decades after decolonization, however, authoritarian regimes destroyed hopes for democracy in many African countries.

Historical lines of development

Ethel Tawse Jollie, Rhodesian publicist , writer and political activist, was the first female MP in the British Empire outside of Britain (from a 1907 publication)

Before the colonial era, the main concerns of women in Africa were marriage rules, access to education and food shortages, not women's suffrage. At the family and local level, they had influence, but no official authority. Nevertheless, there are numerous examples of female tribal chiefs and women's organizations who have had political influence because of their central role in agricultural production and the marketing of goods. Women have often been able to get rid of unpopular local laws and taxes by putting pressure on men in positions of power. Audrey Chapman Smock characterized the roles of women and men as different and complementary, but saw no superiority or subordination.

The forerunners of political colonization were the trade expeditions of the Europeans. The beginning of political claims to power is often tied to the demands of the Congo by the Belgian King Leopold II in 1879. The British, French, Germans, Spanish, Portuguese and Italians followed, and after 25 years almost the entire continent except Ethiopia and Liberia was controlled by Europeans. The goals of the colonial powers were control of raw materials, the development of new markets for goods produced in Europe and an expansion of their own power and size. The proclaimed claim to civilization of the African continent included the end of slavery as well as the spread of Christianity. The alleged traditional underprivileging of women was used as an argument for the need for civilization. Monogamy and marital fidelity were promoted. Although girls and boys went to school, the numbers differed significantly: In Ghana, for example, in 1918 there were six boys for every girl in public schools, in the Basel mission schools the ratio was 1: 3. During the colonial period, the power of women was significantly curtailed because those in power were of the opinion that women belong in the house and have no place in politics. Women resisted this plunge into insignificance by participating in collective actions such as resistance to taxes in Nigeria and Tanzania and involvement in liberation movements, for example in Eritrea, Guinea-Bissau, Namibia and South Africa. Some educated women, such as Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti from Nigeria or Constance Cummings-John from Sierra Leone , became politically active, were able to bring their political concerns to parties and advocate women's suffrage. The still existing tribal structures ensured that there were no major disputes over women's suffrage; and wherever they were, the population was predominantly Islamic .

In the post-colonial era, political power became centralized and political life tended to drift away from its local roots. Therefore - with a few exceptions such as South Africa - it is still difficult for women to gain access to the political sphere. The keys to political success are a high level of education and paid employment. The rise of dictatorships made the situation worse for women, but there are certainly African women who held government offices. Ghana is representative of the African continent in that women played no role in the post-colonial political system. While women were not excluded from high government offices, women held few significant political offices.

Investigation of possible influencing factors on the political representation of women

Armed resistance against the colonial powers

Obviously, it was of no importance for the introduction of women's suffrage whether there was an armed struggle against the colonial rulers in the country or whether women were involved in it. In Zimbabwe and Mozambique, where women armed to defend themselves against the colonial powers, the struggle for women's suffrage was no better than in Ghana, where the transfer of power took place peacefully, or in Liberia, which was never under European rule. Women often played an active role within the resistance movements: they made up the majority of those who were organized in the first eighteen months of the Tanganyika African National Union ( Tanganyika , now Tanzania ); the ethnic movement of the Zulu found more than fifty percent women and in Guinea women are said to have achieved through a sex strike that their husbands join the nationalist movement.

Western concept of progress

The introduction of women's suffrage was not a reward for women for their service to the nation, but rather an expression of a Western idea of ​​progress. Women received applause when they followed the Western idea of ​​progress, regardless of the special conditions in Africa. When universal and equal suffrage was incorporated into Article 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 , a key demand of the anti-colonialist movements was fulfilled. The right to vote for women was, like a parliament building or a national airline, one of several elements of the independent states.

Form of government

Ghana is representative of the African continent in that women had little influence in the post-colonial era. While women were not excluded from high government positions, they held few high political offices. The National Council for Women and Development of Ghana wanted more women in decision-making positions in politics in the early 1970s, but also noted that the country was under a military regime as it transitioned to independence; since there were no high-ranking women in the army, it was not possible to appoint women to the government.

Education and class

Historian Audrey Chapman Smock noted that educated women showed little inclination to include their less educated women in their organizations. The leaders of the women's organizations belonged to an elite that experienced little discrimination and felt little motivation to take action against injustices and to put the organizations on a broader basis. The focus here was on solidarity with one's own class, not the commitment to women from other classes.

Women's Movements and Feminism

Even in most advanced African countries, there was no significant women's movement. Western models of women's political activity were inappropriate. For example, Florence Abena Dolphyne , after all chairwoman of the National Council for Women and Development in Ghana , did not consider herself a feminist. The feminist movement ignored the reality of African women: It was not primarily about women's suffrage, but about issues related to the development of the country, such as access to clean drinking water and more independence from the price fluctuations for agricultural goods on the world markets .

Democratization

At the time when Africa was decolonized, a democratic constitution without women's suffrage was hardly conceivable. Women's suffrage was one of the measures that found its way into a modern constitution of the independent states. The retreating colonial powers did not block it, and the new political elite welcomed it. In the decades after decolonization, however, authoritarian regimes destroyed hopes for democracy in many African countries. The old tribal orders remained untouched, even when the colonial era came to an end. Thus, no profound democratization took place.

Individual regions

The former Belgian colonies

Burundi

Women in Burundi received universal suffrage for the first time in the local elections of 1960. Even before independence, the Legislative Decree of Rwanda - Urundi (LDRU) N ° 02/269, issued by the Belgian administration of the UN Trust Territory on August 17, 1961, guaranteed women universal suffrage also at national level. It was confirmed at independence in 1962.

The passive right to vote for women was granted on August 17, 1961. A woman was first elected to the national parliament in October 1982.

Democratic Republic of Congo

The Democratic Republic of the Congo was originally administered as the Belgian Congo by a legislative assembly and regional assemblies made up of only Europeans appointed by colonial authorities. By the late 1950s there was a greater turnout of Africans, but not full voting rights until independence when the colony was renamed Zaire . The enactment law on the Referendum Act N ° 67-223 of May 3, 1967 recognized the right of all Congolese to participate in the constitutional referendum, regardless of gender.

The law on the elections to the legislative assembly and the presidential elections of April 17, 1970 gave men and women explicitly the right to stand as a candidate, as was already provided for in the 1967 constitution.

The first election of women to the national parliament took place in November 1970. 12 women were elected.

Rwanda

In the 1960 local elections, women were given the right to vote. In the Legislative Decree of Rwanda - Urundi (LDRU) N ° 02/269 , enacted on August 17, 1961 by the Belgian administration of the UN mandate area, women were granted universal suffrage at the national level. First exercised in September 1961. Universal suffrage for all adults was confirmed upon independence in 1962.

In 1961 women were given the right to be elected to all offices except for the presidency. The right to stand as a candidate for this office was only granted to them in 1978 in the new constitution.

In December 1965 women were elected to the national parliament for the first time; According to another source, the first woman sat in parliament as early as 1981.

The former Portuguese colonies

Angola

During the colonial period, there was a limited right to vote in the Portuguese Parliament and the various colonial legislative assemblies. Locals were mostly exempt from voting. In 1961, all citizens received Portuguese citizenship and had the right to vote in local elections. However, Europeans still had more civil rights than the black African population. With independence, universal suffrage for all adults was introduced on November 11, 1975.

The passive right to vote for women became effective on November 11, 1975.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament took place in November 1980.

Guinea-Bissau

Locals were excluded from voting until 1961. In 1961 all received Portuguese citizenship and were able to vote in local elections. Before independence in 1974, women had the right to vote in areas controlled by the PAIGC liberation movement . Women took an active part in the liberation struggles. In 1977 the universal active right to vote for women was introduced.

The passive right to vote for women has existed since 1977.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament took place on March 31, 1984, 22 women were elected. In 1972 Portugal had appointed MPs before independence, creating a parliament. This body became the country's first legislative body after independence. Although there was a woman on this body, she was not elected but appointed on October 14, 1973.

Mozambique

Before 1961, the right to vote in elections for the Portuguese Parliament and the various colonial legislative assemblies was limited: local people were hardly allowed to vote. In 1961, all citizens of the colonies received Portuguese citizenship and were able to vote in local and city council elections. Nevertheless, Europeans still had more civil rights than the black African population. With independence on June 25, 1975 universal suffrage was introduced.

Women's passive suffrage was introduced on June 25, 1975.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament took place on December 4, 1977, 26 women were elected.

Cape Verde

Until 1961, when everyone got Portuguese citizenship and was eligible to vote in local elections, all locals (men and women) were excluded from the right to vote. Under Portuguese administration, women voted for the first time on April 15, 1975. When the country became independent in 1975, universal suffrage was introduced on July 5, 1975. In July 1989 universal suffrage was extended to the local level.

Passive women's suffrage: July 5, 1975 at the national level, 1989 at the local level.

First election of a woman to the national parliament: Carmen Pereira , July 1975.

The former Spanish colonies

Equatorial Guinea

Political developments with regard to active women's suffrage:

The Spanish colony was made part of the Republic of Spain in 1959. Representatives were elected to the Spanish Parliament in accordance with Spanish suffrage, which at the time gave women only limited suffrage. With the Basic Law of December 15, 1963, the area under the name Equatorial Guinea was granted limited internal autonomy and self-government, and the right to vote for women was introduced. Equatorial Guinea became independent on October 12, 1968, and women's suffrage was confirmed.

The passive right to vote for women was introduced on December 15, 1963.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament took place in September 1968, two women were elected.

The former British colonies

In Great Britain, the voices for the introduction of democratic structures in the colonies grew louder in the 1930s. For example, in 1939 the Six Point Group wrote a letter to the colonial authorities in favor of granting women more rights by law. She criticized that women either were not allowed to vote at all or were so disadvantaged by the right to vote that less than one percent of women were eligible to vote. The colonial authorities replied that they would be positive about expanding voting rights in the colonies if the initiative came from there. When the departure of the British from the colonial areas was foreseeable, they committed themselves to leaving democratic structures there.

Botswana

The country was a British colony. The first elections were held in 1961. At that time, Botswana's Europeans elected 10 members to the legislative assemblies. The black population, including women, was granted ten indirectly elected members, plus two nominees from each ethnic group and ten colonial officials. Universal suffrage for all adults was guaranteed in a pre-independence constitution on March 1, 1965, and this was confirmed in 1966 when Botswana gained independence. The 1965 constitution did not come into force until independence in 1966.

Passive women's suffrage: March 1, 1965

First election of a woman to the national parliament: October 1979

Gambia

Universal suffrage was guaranteed in 1960, and this was confirmed upon independence in 1965.

The passive right to vote for women was introduced in 1960.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament took place in May 1982, three women were elected.

Ghana (formerly Gold Coast)

Under British administration, women were given the right to vote and stand for election in 1954. This was confirmed with independence in 1957.

In practice, even after the right of limited self-government (except in the north) was obtained in 1951, the complicated electoral regulations were a hindrance, and only Mabel Dove Danquah managed to get elected to the colonial legislature in 1954.

The first election of women to the national parliament took place in August 1969, two women were elected.

Kenya

Kenya had a legislative assembly since 1907. Influenced by British suffrage, white women in Kenya got the right to vote in 1919, Asian women and men in 1923. Blacks with property and education got the right to vote in 1957, but few were women. Overall, with this change, around 60 percent of the population gained the right to vote. Arab women were completely excluded from the right to vote. Arab women from Mombasa submitted a petition to the colonial government protesting the denial of the right to vote. Your petition was successful. The initiators spent the following year convincing Arab women as voters to register as voters and exercise their voting rights. Universal suffrage for everyone over the age of 18 came with independence on December 12, 1963.

The general passive right to vote for women was introduced on December 12, 1963.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament took place in December 1969. Phoebe Asoiyo received a mandate.

Lesotho

Women did not have the right to vote in the legislative assembly established in 1956. The new constitution of 1960 gave only taxpayers voting rights to the election of district councils, which then elected members of the legislative assembly. This meant that women were effectively without voting rights.

On April 30, 1965, elections were held, with universal suffrage for adults. This was confirmed with independence in 1966.

The passive right to vote for women was achieved on April 30, 1965.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament after independence took place in March 1993, three women were elected. In 1965 there was already a member of parliament.

Malawi

Prior to independence, the colonial authorities granted blacks the right to vote in the 1961 constitution, but it was limited by educational barriers and property requirements. Many women were active in the nationalist movements. In the 1961 elections, women who met education and property requirements were allowed to vote, which meant that all European women and around 10,000 black women were allowed to vote. Universal suffrage was introduced when independence was achieved in 1964.

Passive women's suffrage had existed since 1961.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament took place in April 1964, Rose Chibambo received a mandate.

Mauritius

In the British island colony of Mauritius, representation had been limited to the elite until the 1947 constitution extended the right to vote to all women and men over the age of 21 who could read and write. A new constitution in 1959 introduced universal suffrage for adults.

In 1968 the Lands became independent and the right to vote for women was adopted.

The passive right to vote for women has existed since 1956.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament took place in December 1976, three women were elected.

Zambia, formerly the Protectorate of Northern Rhodesia

Even before independence, the colonial authorities allowed blacks to vote, which was restricted by restrictions on education and property. Many women were active in the nationalist movements. The constitution of 1959 guaranteed European, Indian and black African women and men the right to vote, albeit with strict restrictions on citizenship, residence status, education and property. These restrictions created a large imbalance in favor of the white population. The first direct elections were held on October 30, 1962, with significantly expanded voting rights. These led to the independence of Zambia and were the first elections in which women voted and could be elected. In October 1964, universal suffrage for adults was achieved with independence.

In January 1964 women were given seats in the national parliament for the first time. Three women were elected and appointed.

Sierra Leone

In 1930, a small minority of wealthy, educated women who met certain property and tax requirements were given the right to vote. With independence, universal suffrage was introduced on April 27, 1961.

Passive women's suffrage was introduced on April 27, 1961.

The first election of a woman to the colonial parliament, Ella Koblo Gulama , took place in 1957.

Zimbabwe, formerly a British colony of Southern Rhodesia, then Rhodesia

Rhodesia was ruled by whites in 1919, at which time European women were given access to political power.

Men and women were allowed to vote in the 1930 elections. However, since active and passive voting rights were tied to educational criteria and financial requirements, namely to paying income tax or property, fewer than 2,000 black Africans voted.

Between 1953 and 1964 Zimbabwe was in a network with Malawi and Zambia. At that time, the right to vote in Zimbabwe was gradually extended to black women for the first time. Before 1957, only men and European women could vote. From 1957 onwards, married black women were granted limited voting rights and gradually expanded. There was a special voter list for black women, in which they were included under certain conditions (education, wealth). The women were treated in the same way as their husbands; in the case of multiple marriages, however, this privilege only applied to the first woman. Wives had to read and write the English language and be able to prove that they had attended school. To be registered for an election, an individual had to meet one of the following four requirements: an annual income of at least £ 720 or real estate of at least £ 1500; Annual income of £ 3,480 and real estate valued at £ 1,000 plus primary education that met required standards; religious leadership after the person had completed a certain training, was able to demonstrate a certain period of office and only if no other profession was exercised; political leaders (chiefs) according to legal requirements.

These complex electoral requirements were included in the 1961 constitution, which allowed blacks 15 seats in parliament. Around 50,000 blacks were able to exercise limited political power at that time. In 1965 the white-dominated Rhodesian Front Party unilaterally declared independence from Great Britain and in 1969 presented its own constitution. This curtailed the role of the black electorate, especially that of women, because half of the seats reserved for blacks were given by a male electoral body. In 1978 the general active and passive right to vote for women was introduced.

First women in parliament:

Ethel Tawse Jollie was the first African woman to sit on a parliamentary body. She was elected to the Legislative Council of Southern Rhodesia in 1920. In 1932, after the adoption of a new constitution, she was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Southern Rhodesia, where she had a seat until 1927. After independence, three women have sat in the Senate since May 1980, but it is not clear whether they were appointed or elected; Nine women were elected to the House of Assembly in May 1980.

Swaziland, officially the Kingdom of Eswatini since 2018

Swaziland's first legislative election in 1964 had two electoral rolls, one for Europeans and one for the rest of the population. Only those who paid direct taxes could vote; however, the wives of men who paid taxes were also eligible to vote. If there were multiple marriages, only one of the wives could choose. When the country gained independence in 1967, all women were given the right to vote in the House of Assembly , but the Swazi National Council , which advises the king on all matters relating to Swazi laws and customs, is restricted to male Swazis. The only exception is the Queen Mother.

Tanzania

Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika , merged with Zanzibar to form Tanzania in 1964) granted the right to vote even before independence, in gradual steps: Before independence in 1961, Tanganyika was under British administration, which in 1959 granted women active and passive suffrage. The first general elections were held in 1958 and 1959; In order to gain the right to vote, certain economic conditions had to be met, but a certain education was also necessary. This meant that all Europeans, most Asians, and a small number of blacks could vote. In the 1960 elections, there was a significantly expanded right to vote. This included the participation of women as voters and elected. Universal suffrage for adults was achieved for Tanganyika upon independence in 1961.

On Zanzibar, which has enjoyed self-government within the Commonwealth since 1955 , a working group was set up in 1959 to deal with the introduction of women's suffrage. A limited right to vote for women was introduced in 1961: All unmarried and married women of Zanzibar over 21 were given the right to vote, even if they were one of several women of a registered voter, but not if they were (economically) still dependent on their families or with someone not entitled to vote Husband, a foreigner, were married. General women's suffrage was only achieved for Zanzibar when it was united with Tanganyika in 1964.

Women first entered the national parliament in 1961. Two women were elected.

Uganda

Prior to independence, elections were not a priority in Uganda as the colonial government determined the country. At that time there were only elections to LEGCO (Legislative Council), created in 1920 by the colonial government, which was small and consisted only of Europeans. Of its 62 members, five were women who had been appointed MPs. Uganda held its first direct elections in 1958. At that time, there were voting rights restrictions in the areas of property and educational requirements. The 1961 elections were held on the basis of less restricted suffrage, allowing more women to participate. However, they did not receive unrestricted voting rights until independence in 1962. The 1995 constitution stipulates an MP for each district. Outside of this quota, which is reserved for women, politicians hardly manage to enter parliament (as of 2006).

Passive women's suffrage was introduced in 1962.

A woman, Rhoda Kalema, was elected to the national parliament for the first time in 1979 . In April 1962 (at least) one woman was appointed to parliament.

The former French colonies

Benin

According to the Loi Lamine Guèye of 1946, all citizens had the right to vote in elections to the French parliament and also in local elections. The right to stand as a candidate was not specifically mentioned in the law, but it was not excluded either. In French West Africa , to which Dahomey belonged, there was no two-tier suffrage as in other French colonies in the elections to the Paris parliament, but there was for all local elections. In 1956 the loi-cadre Defferre was introduced, which guaranteed universal suffrage in Article 10. This legal situation was confirmed when the country gained independence in 1960.

Passive women's suffrage was introduced in 1946, and general women's suffrage was introduced in 1956.

Women were first elected to the national parliament in November 1979.

Burkina Faso

According to the Loi Lamine Guèye of 1946, all citizens had the right to vote in elections to the French parliament and also in local elections. The right to stand as a candidate was not specifically mentioned in the law, but it was not excluded either. In the elections to the Paris parliament, there was no two-tier suffrage in French West Africa , to which the Upper Volta belonged at that time, as in other French colonies, but there was for all local elections.

Before independence, under French administration, women were given universal suffrage on June 23, 1956, with the introduction of the loi-cadre Defferre . This right was confirmed in the Constitution of September 28, 1958. In 1960 the country became independent.

Passive women's suffrage was introduced in 1946; the general one was passed on September 28, 1958.

A woman, Nignan Lamoussa, was elected to the national parliament for the first time in April 1978 .

Djibouti

Under French administration, Djibouti was converted from a colony to an overseas territory in 1946 . According to the Loi Lamine Guèye Law of 1946, all citizens of the Overseas Territories had the right to vote in elections to the French Parliament. However, two classes (collèges) were chosen. Only the loi-cadre Defferre of 1956 guaranteed universal suffrage; In 1977 the country became independent and universal suffrage, regardless of gender, was confirmed.

Women were first elected to the national parliament in 2003.

Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)

According to the Loi Lamine Guèye of 1946, all citizens had the right to vote in elections to the French parliament and also in local elections. The right to stand as a candidate was not specifically mentioned in the law, but it was not excluded either. In the elections to the Paris parliament, French West Africa , which included Côte d'Ivoire, did not have two-tier suffrage as in other French colonies, but there was for all local elections. In 1952, women's suffrage was introduced for the first time under French administration. On June 23, 1956, still under French administration, the loi-cadre Defferre was introduced, which confirmed universal suffrage. This was confirmed again when independence in 1960.

Women were first elected to the national parliament on November 7, 1965. Three women received mandates.

Gabon

The loi-cadre Defferre was introduced in 1956 under French administration and thus universal suffrage for adults. This was confirmed upon independence in 1960.

Passive women's suffrage was introduced in 1956.

The first woman in the national parliament was elected on February 12, 1961.

Guinea

According to the Loi Lamine Guèye of 1946, all citizens had the right to vote in elections to the French parliament and also in local elections. The right to stand as a candidate was not specifically mentioned in the law, but it was not excluded either. In the elections to the Paris parliament, there was no two-tier suffrage in French West Africa , which included Guinea, as in other French colonies, but there was for all local elections. In 1956, still under French administration, the loi-cadre Defferre was introduced, which guaranteed universal suffrage. On October 2, 1958, the country gained independence and the settlement was confirmed.

Passive women's suffrage was introduced in 1946 and general passive women's suffrage in 1956.

Women were first elected to the national parliament in September 1963. Fourteen women received mandates.

Comoros

According to the Loi Lamine Guèye of 1946, all citizens had the right to vote in elections to the French parliament and also in local elections. The right to stand as a candidate was not specifically mentioned in the law, but it was not excluded either. There was a two-class suffrage, which favored the French-born citizens.

On June 23, 1956, the loi-cadre Defferre was introduced. It was not until 1975 that the country became independent and universal suffrage was confirmed.

Passive women's suffrage: June 23, 1956

First election of a woman to the national parliament: December 1993.

Republic of the Congo (formerly Congo-Brazzaville)

According to the Loi Lamine Guèye law of May 7, 1946, all citizens of the overseas territories had the same citizenship as the people in the mother country and thus the right to vote for elections to the French parliament and for local elections; the right to stand for election is not explicitly mentioned, but it is also not excluded. But it was chosen in two classes, which gave the French population an advantage. This two-class suffrage was only abolished on June 23, 1956 by the loi-cadre Defferre and confirmed upon independence.

The law number 47-162 on territorial assemblies of August 29, 1947 established the right to vote for these assemblies. At first, universal suffrage at the national level was restricted to Europeans and Africans who could read and write. In 1951, the right was extended to anyone with a valid ID. This electoral system was renewed in 1952 and replaced in 1957 when the 1956 loi-cadre Defferre came into force. Article 4 of the Constitution of March 2, 1961 recognized the rights that already existed.

Some sources cite December 8, 1963 for the granting of passive women's suffrage. Three women received seats. Since women were first elected to parliament in December 1963, however, it is possible that this information is based on the first exercise of the right to vote, not the granting of it.

Women were first elected to the national parliament in December 1963. Three women received mandates.

Madagascar

According to the Loi Lamine Guèye of 1946, all citizens had the right to vote in elections to the French parliament and also in local elections. It was a two-tier voting system that gave citizens of French origin advantages. The right to stand as a candidate was not specifically mentioned in the law, but it was not excluded either.

In 1956 the loi-cadre Defferre was introduced and with it universal suffrage. On April 29, 1959, the right to vote was confirmed. The country gained independence on June 26, 1960, and the first elections were held in 1960.

The passive right to vote for women under French administration was granted in 1946, the general passive right to vote for women was introduced in 1956 and confirmed on April 29, 1959.

After Martin, women were first elected to the national parliament in August 1965. Two women received mandates. According to another source, it is not clear how these two women entered parliament, as some MPs were indirectly elected and others were appointed by the head of state.

Mali

In 1956, under the French colonial administration, the loi-cadre Defferre was introduced, which guaranteed active and passive universal suffrage. In 1960, when the country became independent, this was confirmed.

A woman's first election to the colonial legislative body, Aouna Keita , was in 1959. She was also the first woman to be elected to the national parliament in 1964.

Niger

According to the Loi Lamine Guèye of 1946, all citizens had the right to vote in elections to the French parliament and also in local elections. The right to stand as a candidate was not specifically mentioned in the law, but it was not excluded either. In the elections to the Paris parliament, there was no two-tier suffrage in French West Africa , to which Niger belonged, as in other French colonies, but there was for all local elections.

In 1956, with the Loi-cadre Defferre , universal women's suffrage was introduced and confirmed with independence in 1960.

Women were first elected to the national parliament on December 10, 1989. Five women received mandates.

Senegal

On February 19, 1945, under the French colonial administration, a decree was issued that stipulated that there was no difference between Senegalese and French women in voting rights; they are electoral and eligible for election under the same conditions.

In 1956, still under French colonial rule, the loi-cadre Defferre was introduced, which guaranteed universal suffrage for adults. When the country was independent in 1960, this right was confirmed.

Passive women's suffrage was introduced on February 19, 1945.

A woman was elected to the national parliament for the first time in December 1963, Caroline Diop Faye .

Sudan

According to the Loi Lamine Guèye of 1946, all citizens had the right to vote in elections to the French parliament and also in local elections. The right to stand as a candidate was not specifically mentioned in the law, but it was not excluded either. In French West Africa , to which Sudan belonged, there was no two-tier suffrage in the elections to the Paris Parliament as in other French colonies, but there was for all local elections.

In 1955 the country became independent, and in November 1964 women's suffrage was introduced in the independent state.

Passive women's suffrage was introduced in November 1964

A woman, Fatima Ahmed Ibrahim, was elected to the national parliament for the first time in November 1964 .

South Sudan

South Sudan was part of Sudan before independence, so that women had the right to vote and stand for election under the law applicable there since 1964. On July 9, 2011, South Sudan declared itself independent. Article 14 of the 2011 interim constitution stipulates that women and men are equal before the law. Article 16 provides that at least 25% women should sit in the legislature. However, as custom and traditions in South Sudan are an essential source of law and are predominantly patriarchal, women are still discriminated against.

Chad

On April 25, 1946, the Constituent National Assembly of France passed the Loi Lamine Guèye , according to which from June 1, 1946, all residents of the overseas territories, including Algeria, had the same civil status as the French in France or the overseas territories, including women and men were allowed to choose. The right to stand as a candidate was not expressly mentioned in the law, but it was also not excluded. In the elections to the French National Assembly as well as for all local elections in all of Africa except Senegal, a two-class suffrage was in effect until 1956.

Under French administration, women were given universal suffrage through the loi-cadre Defferre , which was introduced on June 23, 1956. This was confirmed with independence in 1960.

Women were elected to the national parliament for the first time in 1962. Four women received mandates.

Central African Republic

The area of ​​today's Central African Republic largely coincides with the former Ubangi-Shari , part of French Equatorial Africa . On April 25, 1946, the Constituent National Assembly of France passed the Loi Lamine Guèye , according to which from June 1, 1946, all residents of the overseas territories, including Algeria, had the same civil status as the French in France or the overseas territories, including women and men were allowed to choose. In the elections to the French National Assembly as well as for all local elections in all of Africa except Senegal, a two-class suffrage was in effect until 1956.

In 1956, still under French administration, the loi-cadre Defferre and thus universal suffrage was introduced. This was confirmed with independence in 1960. In 1960 the country became independent. Several sources cite 1986 for the confirmation of the active and passive right to vote for women after independence, a different source 1960.

Women were first elected to the national parliament in July 1987. Two women received mandates.

Former Italian colonies

Eritrea

Eritrea was originally an Italian colony and became part of Ethiopia in 1952. In the Ethiopian elections of 1957 Eritreans took part on the basis of a universal suffrage in Ethiopia from November 4, 1955. In 1993 Eritrea became independent. The 1997 constitution provided universal suffrage for both the National Assembly and the presidential election.

Passive women's suffrage was introduced on November 4, 1955.

Women first entered the national parliament in February 1994. 22 women received seats.

Former Dutch colonies

South Africa

On May 21, 1930, white women were given the right to vote and stand for election (Women's Enfranchisement Act, No. 41 of 1930). Property barriers still applied to white men, but not to women. Colored women and Indian women joined the electorate on March 30, 1984, but they were only allowed to vote for their respective chambers in the district chamber parliament. The right to vote was extended to black women in January 1994. It was not until 1994 that universal suffrage for both sexes and all ethnicities was achieved. The 1996 Bill of Rights laid down the right to vote, but women and men exercised the right as early as 1994.

A woman, Mabel Malherbe, was elected to the national parliament for the first time on April 21, 1933 . The next woman, Helen Suzman , was not elected until 1953.

Other countries

Ethiopia

The Constitution of November 4, 1955 guaranteed universal active and passive suffrage for adults.

A woman, Senedu Gebru, was elected to the national parliament for the first time in October 1957 .

Cameroon

The former German colony was divided into a British and a French administrative area after the First World War.

The French territory followed the pattern of other French colonies in West Africa: with the establishment of the French Union and the Fourth Republic, women were given the right to vote on October 27, 1946. The right to stand as a candidate was not specifically mentioned in the law, but it was not excluded either. According to the Loi Lamine Guèye , all citizens had the right to vote in elections to the French parliament and also in local elections, but voting was in two classes, which gave the population of French descent an advantage. This two-class suffrage was only abolished on June 23, 1956 by the loi-cadre Defferre and confirmed upon independence.

The British territory was administered by Nigeria until 1954. In 1954 the House of Assembly of South Cameroon was created, which in 1959 guaranteed unrestricted universal suffrage. In 1961 the southern part of the British territory joined the newly independent Federal Republic of Cameroon, the northern part of the predominantly Muslim northern part of Nigeria. As a result, women did not get the right to vote there until 1976.

Passive women's suffrage: October 1946

First election of a woman to the national parliament: April 1960.

Liberia

Originally, only male Liberians of American descent and released African slaves who had settled in Liberia were entitled to vote. The voters had to have a steady income. In 1907, male indigenous Liberians who paid taxes were also given the right to vote.

In the referendum of May 7, 1946, women were also given the right to vote and to stand as candidates if they owned land or other property or owned a hut and paid taxes for it; According to different sources, this was not decided until 1947. Although this definition formally achieved universal suffrage for both sexes, in practice the law aimed at discrimination against women. The restrictive condition was abolished in the 1970s and the 1986 Constitution guaranteed unrestricted universal suffrage.

Women first exercised their right to vote in 1951.

A woman was first elected to the national parliament in 1960, Ellen Mills Scarborough .

Namibia

The former German colony, administered by South Africa between 1919 and 1946, was incorporated into its own state by South Africa despite resistance from the United Nations . Namibia's white voters were guaranteed representation in the South African parliament from 1947 to 1977. In 1978, under great pressure, South Africa enabled elections to a constituent assembly in which black Africans were also allowed to vote. The main opposition group, which had a very strong women's wing, boycotted the elections. In 1983 South Africa took control. After a period of considerable instability and heavy diplomatic pressure, South Africa agreed to withdraw its troops in preparation for independence. In the elections on November 7, 1989, everyone was allowed to vote, and in 1990 Namibia became independent. Universal suffrage for adults became part of the constitution.

Passive women's suffrage was introduced on November 7, 1989.

The first woman was elected to the national parliament in November 1989. Five women received mandates.

Nigeria

Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti on her 70th birthday

In the regions of Nigeria the introduction of women's suffrage has been very different.

The former German colony of Cameroon was administratively divided between France and Great Britain after the First World War. Women in the southern region of Nigeria received the right to vote in stages from 1950 onwards. The area under French administration followed the pattern of other West African colonies: the loi-cadre Defferre was introduced in 1956 and autonomy was achieved in 1958. Women from the south voted in the federal elections in 1959 and could be elected. Women in the Eastern Region were given federal voting rights in 1954. In 1955 women's suffrage was introduced in the western region for women who paid taxes. In 1960, with independence, universal suffrage was introduced.

The part under British administration was administered by Nigeria until 1954. It was then that the House of Assembly of South Cameroon was introduced, which made universal regional suffrage into law in 1959. In 1961 the southern part of British territory joined the newly formed Federal Republic of Cameroon and the northern region joined the predominantly Muslim northern part of Nigeria. In 1960 Nigeria became independent and the constitution provided universal suffrage for all federal elections. However, this was not the case in the north, where women because of Muslim sensitivities did not get the right to vote at the regional and federal level until 1976, when it was ordered by a military decree. Under the new constitution of 1979, all adult Nigerians were given the right to vote.

At the national level, women were first elected in the following years:

1. Esther Soyannwo , 1964 (House of Representatives). Her election generated such controversy and violence that her party forced her to give up her seat before she was sworn in.

Second election to the Constituent Assembly: Janet Akinrinade , 1977.

3. Federal House of Representatives: 1979.

At the regional level, Margaret Ekpo was elected the first woman to serve on a regional legislative body, the Eastern House of Assembly, in 1961. Sawaba Gambo was elected to the city council of Sabon Gari , Zaria , in 1979, making it the first Muslim Nigerian to hold a seat on such a body.

Somalia

In 1958, women in Somalia voted for the first time in local elections on the same terms as men.

In 1960 the British Somaliland in the north and the former Italian Somalia in the south became the state of Somalia.

In the northern region of Somalia, women's suffrage was introduced in 1963, in the rest of the country as early as 1961. However, women from all over Somalia took part in the 1961 referendum on the constitution. In 1991 the northern half split off and declared itself the independent Republic of Somaliland . However, this is not recognized internationally by any country.

In 1991, according to Martin, a "descent into political chaos began and everything that is expected of a normal government gradually ceased to exist."

Women were first elected to the national parliament in December 1979. 18 women received mandates.

Togo

After the First World War, the former German colony was divided between Great Britain and France. After a popular vote in 1956, in which women could take part, the area under British administration became part of the independent state of Ghana in 1957 and therefore adopted universal suffrage for adults.

In the French parts of the country, since 1951, most women had taken part in the elections for the local legislative body (Conseil de Circonscription) . Before independence, women were given the right to vote in elections to the French parliament on August 22, 1945. In 1946 women took part in the elections for the first legislative assembly after Togo's application for universal suffrage was completed and the French decree of August 22, 1945 came into force. From 1956, the loi-cadre Defferre enabled women to vote in the local legislative assembly elections. Universal suffrage for adults was introduced in 1958, and the country became independent in 1960. Universal suffrage was confirmed.

Passive women's suffrage was introduced on August 22, 1945.

On April 9, 1961, Joséphine Hundt , a woman, was elected to the national parliament for the first time.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 5.
  2. ↑ Audrey Chapman Smock: Ghana: From Autonomy to Subordination. , in: Janet Zollinger Giele, Andrey Chapman Smock: Women: Roles and Status in Eight Countries. New York, John Wiley 1977, p. 180, quoted from Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 375.
  3. ↑ a b c d Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 375.
  4. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 376.
  5. ↑ a b c d e Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 393.
  6. ^ John Iliffe: Honor in African History. Cambridge, University Press Cambridge 2005, p. 312, quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 376.
  7. ↑ Ian Christopher Fletcher: Sex and Gender. Manuscript Sources from the Public Record Office. Marlborough, Adam Matthew 2002, p. 8. Quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 377.
  8. ↑ Audrey Chapman Smock: Ghana: From Autonomy to Subordination. In: Janet Zollinger Giele, Audrey Chapmann Smock: Women: Roles and Status in Eight Countries. New York, John Wiley 1977, pp. 173-216, p. 205. Quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 393.
  9. ↑ Florence Abena Dolphyne: The Emancipation of Women: An African Perspective. Accra, Ghana Universities Press 1991, p. 46, quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 394.
  10. ↑ a b c d e Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 394.
  11. ↑ Audrey Chapman Smock: Ghana: From Autonomy to Subordination. In: Janet Zollinger Giele, Audrey Chapmann Smock: Women: Roles and Status in Eight Countries. New York, John Wiley 1977, pp. 173-216, p. 208. Quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 394.
  12. ↑ a b c d e f June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 6.
  13. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. August 17, 1961, accessed September 30, 2018 .
  14. ^ A b c Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 57.
  15. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. April 17, 1970, accessed September 30, 2018 .
  16. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 88.
  17. ↑ a b c d e f g United Nations Development Program: Human Development Report 2007/2008 . New York, 2007, ISBN 978-0-230-54704-9 , p. 346.
  18. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 89.
  19. ↑ a b c - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. August 17, 1961, accessed October 6, 2018 .
  20. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 324.
  21. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 9.
  22. ^ A b c Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 8.
  23. ↑ a b - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved September 29, 2018 .
  24. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 10.
  25. ↑ a b - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved October 2, 2018 .
  26. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 161.
  27. ↑ a b c Christine Pintat: Women's Representation in Parliaments and Political Parties in Europe and North America In: Christine Fauré (Ed.): Political and Historical Encyclopedia of Women: Routledge New York, London, 2003, pp. 481–502, p 488.
  28. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 162.
  29. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 9.
  30. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 266.
  31. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 267.
  32. ↑ a b c d - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. April 15, 1975, accessed September 30, 2018 .
  33. ^ A b c Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 73.
  34. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 10.
  35. ^ A b c Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 123.
  36. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. December 15, 1963, accessed September 30, 2018 .
  37. ^ A b c d On this section: Monica Whately of The Six Point Group, November 2, 1939, and answer PROCO 323/1694/2. Quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 377.
  38. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 46.
  39. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 8.
  40. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved September 30, 2018 .
  41. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 47.
  42. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 9.
  43. ↑ Caroline Daley, Melanie Nolan (Eds.): Suffrage and Beyond. International Feminist Perspectives. New York University Press New York 1994, p. 351.
  44. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 141.
  45. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 142.
  46. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 150.
  47. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved October 2, 2018 .
  48. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 115.
  49. ↑ a b c Rosa Zechner: Mothers, fighters for independence, feminists. In: Frauensolidarität im C3 - Feminist Development Policy Information and Education Work (Ed.): Frauen * solidarität , No. 145, 3/2018, pp. 7–9, p. 8.
  50. ^ A b c June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , pp. 6-7.
  51. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 209.
  52. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 210.
  53. ↑ a b c d e f g June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 8.
  54. ↑ a b - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. April 30, 1965, accessed October 3, 2018 .
  55. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 228.
  56. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 229.
  57. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 7.
  58. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 243.
  59. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 244.
  60. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 7.
  61. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved October 5, 2018 .
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  63. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. October 30, 1962, accessed October 13, 2018 .
  64. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 428.
  65. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 376.
  66. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 339.
  67. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 340.
  68. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 441.
  69. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 437.
  70. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 272.
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  74. ↑ Caroline Daley, Melanie Nolan (Eds.): Suffrage and Beyond. International Feminist Perspectives. New York University Press New York 1994, p. 352.
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  77. ↑ a b c d June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , pp. 8-9.
  78. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 438.
  79. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved January 14, 2019 .
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  81. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 387.
  82. ↑ a b Margaret Sekaggya: Uganda . In: AfriMAP and the Open Society Initiative for Eastern Africa: Election Management Bodies in East Africa. A comparative study of the contribution of electoral commissions to the strengthening of Democracy. Open Society Foundations New York, 2006, ISBN 978-1-920677-97-8 , pp. 254-293, pp. 255.
  83. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 391.
  84. ↑ a b c d United Nations Development Program: Human Development Report 2007/2008 . New York, 2007, ISBN 978-0-230-54704-9 , p. 345
  85. ↑ Margaret Sekaggya: Uganda . In: AfriMAP and the Open Society Initiative for Eastern Africa: Election Management Bodies in East Africa. A comparative study of the contribution of electoral commissions to the strengthening of Democracy. Open Society Foundations New York, 2006, ISBN 978-1-920677-97-8 , pp. 254-293, pp. 259.
  86. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 392.
  87. ↑ Christine Pintat: Women's Representation in Parliaments and Political Parties in Europe and North America In: Christine Fauré (Ed.): Political and Historical Encyclopedia of Women: Routledge New York, London, 2003, pp. 481-502, p. 493.
  88. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Franz Ansprenger: Politics in Black Africa. The modern political movements in Africa with French influences. Westdeutscher Verlag Köln and Opladen, 1961, p. 73.
  89. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 9.
  90. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 39.
  91. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 55.
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  94. ↑ Loi Lamine Guèye , accessed January 6, 2019.
  95. ^ Franz Ansperger: Politics in Black Africa: The modern political movements in Africa with French characteristics. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH Wiesbaden, 1961, p. 68.
  96. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 8.
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  99. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 9.
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  108. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 8.
  109. ^ A b c Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 242.
  110. ↑ Bernard Lugan: Histoire de l'Afrique. Des origines à nos jours. Ellipses Editions Paris, 2009, p. 772.
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  118. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 336.
  119. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved October 6, 2018 .
  120. ^ A b c Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 360.
  121. ↑ a b Jane Kani Edward: Conflict, customary law, gender, and women's rights. In: Amir Idris (ed.): South Sudan. Post-independence dilemmas. Routledge London, New York, 2018, ISBN 978-1-138-06063-0 , pp. 57-73, p. 60.
  122. ↑ Jane Kani Edward: Conflict, customary law, gender, and women's rights. In: Amir Idris (ed.): South Sudan. Post-independence dilemmas. Routledge London, New York, 2018, ISBN 978-1-138-06063-0 , pp. 57-73, p. 57.
  123. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. June 23, 1956, accessed September 30, 2018 .
  124. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 76.
  125. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 438
  126. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 74.
  127. ↑ Christine Pintat: Women's Representation in Parliaments and Political Parties in Europe and North America In: Christine Fauré (Ed.): Political and Historical Encyclopedia of Women: Routledge New York, London, 2003, pp. 481-502, p. 487.
  128. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 75.
  129. ^ A b c Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 124.
  130. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 8.
  131. ↑ Ulf Engel: South Africa. In: Dieter Nohlen, Michael Krennerich, Bernhard Thibaut: Elections in Africa. A data handbook. Oxford University Press, New York 1999, pp. 817-842, p. 820.
  132. ↑ a b - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved October 6, 2018 .
  133. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 351.
  134. ↑ Caroline Daley, Melanie Nolan (Eds.): Suffrage and Beyond. International Feminist Perspectives. New York University Press New York 1994, p. 352.
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  137. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 8.
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  142. ^ Matthias Basedau: Liberia. In: Dieter Nohlen, Michael Krennerich, Bernhard Thibaut: Elections in Africa. A data handbook. Oxford University Press, New York 1999, pp. 507-522, p. 509.
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  144. ↑ Caroline Daley, Melanie Nolan (Eds.): Suffrage and Beyond. International Feminist Perspectives. New York University Press New York 1994, p. 350.
  145. ↑ Christine Pintat: Women's Representation in Parliaments and Political Parties in Europe and North America In: Christine Fauré (Ed.): Political and Historical Encyclopedia of Women: Routledge New York, London, 2003, pp. 481-502, p. 489.
  146. ^ Helga Fleischhacker: Party system and constitution in Africa: structures - functions - types. Wiesbaden VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2010, p. 77, note 63
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  148. ↑ AfricaNews: Elections history in Africa's oldest democratic republic: Liberia - Africanews. In: africanews.com. Retrieved January 4, 2019 .
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  155. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 439.
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