Little noctule
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Little noctule ( Nyctalus leisleri ) |
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| Nyctalus leisleri | ||||||||||||
| ( Kuhl , 1817) |
The lesser noctule or Leisler ( Nyctalus leisleri ) is a bat species from the genus of Noctule . The medium-sized species is distributed over large parts of Europe from Scotland and Ireland across the European continent south of the North Sea and Baltic Sea to the south to the Mediterranean and east to western Russia and some areas of North Africa and Asia. As a habitat, it particularly prefers open forests with old stands, as it needs tree hollows as quarters.
The bat reaches a head-trunk length of 48 to 72 millimeters with a tail of 35 to 48 millimeters in length. In terms of its physique and appearance, the noctule bat largely corresponds to the noctule bat and differs from it, apart from its body size, primarily through its two-tone dorsal fur.
The noctule bat is predominantly nocturnal and feeds primarily on small, nocturnal and crepuscular insects. Butterflies and two-winged birds make up the majority of the prey. Mating takes place from late July to September, with individual males each forming a harem with up to ten females. From April 20 to 50, rarely significantly more females live together in nurseries. Parts of the populations migrate from the northeast to the southwest in late autumn. All animals hibernate from October to April.
As the closest relative of the only on the will Azores living Azores Noctule ( Nyctalus azoreum ) considered that temporarily was considered a subspecies of the Little Noctule. The scientific species name honors the German naturalist Johann Philipp Achilles Leisler (1771–1813). The species is assessed globally as "not endangered" due to its large distribution area and population size. In most European countries, however, the noctule bat is viewed as regionally endangered and is entered in the Red Lists of Endangered Species and protected accordingly by national legislation.
features
general characteristics
The noctule bat is a medium-sized bat with a head-torso length of 48 to 72 millimeters and a tail of 35 to 48 millimeters in length. The wingspan is 26 to 34 centimeters with a forearm length of 39 to 47 mm. Compared to the great noctule ( Nyctalus noctula ) it is significantly smaller, but especially large females come close to the very small forearms of the great noctule with a minimum forearm length of 48 mm. The body weight is between 8 and 20 grams and the females are usually slightly larger than the males. Geographically, only very small differences in body size were found, but there is a tendency towards a longer forearm length with increasing height.
In its physique and its appearance, the noctule bat largely corresponds to the great noctule bat and differs from it, apart from its body size, primarily through its clearly two-colored dorsal fur. This consists of two-tone hair that is dark to black-brown at the base and significantly lighter at the tips. The animal's yellow-brown belly is slightly lighter than the back. In May and August there is a seasonal hair change, which is associated with a slight change in coat color. In summer, the back fur is rather dark reddish brown to mahogany in color, the reddish tinge disappears in winter and the fur becomes dark gray to dark brown, and the belly side is also a little grayer than in summer. Young animals are dark gray in their first year of life. In addition to these generally valid color differences, individual melanistic animals were observed in Ireland and some albinotic animals in Germany.
The top hair of the animals is highly differentiated, the hair scales (cuticular scales) being laid out in a frizzy manner and partially toothed at the edge. This serves to reduce air resistance during flight and increases the effectiveness of the flight. The hair has a maximum diameter of 12 to 13 micrometers and is 5.9 to 6.7 millimeters in the middle of the back and 5.0 to 6.1 millimeters long on the belly side.
The wings are comparatively long and narrow, as with other noctule swifts. The membranes are densely hairy along the back and arms. The tail protrudes about one to two millimeters from the tail membrane. The ears are broad and triangular at the base, the tips of the ears are rounded. They are 11.2 to 16.5 millimeters in size. On the outer edge, the auricle has four to five transverse folds. The tragus is short and mushroom-shaped and thus corresponds to that of other noctule bats. Compared to the great noctule bat, the snout is conspicuously pointed with a slanted mouth gap. The number of bristly sniffing hairs on the face (facial vibrissae, vibrissae labii superiores) is six in the noctule bat and seven to eight in the noctule bat.
Features of the skull and skeleton
The skull of the noctule bat differs from that of the great noctule mainly in its smaller size and more delicate structure. The skull surface is smooth and more rounded with a small ridge along the lambda suture (Crista lambdoidea).
| 2 | · | 1 | · | 2 | · | 3 | = 34 |
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The type has two front teeth (incisors), a canine (canine), two premolars (bicuspids) and three molar teeth (molars) in an upper jaw half and three cutting teeth, a canine, two premolars and three molars in the lower jaw half. The animals have a total of 34 teeth. The upper incisors are small and about the same size and the upper canine is relatively robust. The third upper molar is small and almost reduced. In the lower jaw, typical characteristics are mainly limited to the structure of the chewing surfaces of the pre-grinding and molar teeth.
In the skeleton, characteristics typical of the species and genus are mainly present in the structure of the shoulders and arms, which, as in all bats, are converted into wings. In the little noctule , the raven beak extension (processus coracoideus) of the scapula is divided into two parts with a significantly longer branch. The wrist consists of eight carpal bones , in addition two sesamoid bones arise in the tendons of the hand extensor muscles of the forearm ( extensor carpi radialis brevis and extensor carpi radialis longus muscles ) as well as two further sesamoid bones at the elbow joint .
Like other bats, the noctule bat has a penis bone (baculum). This is Y-shaped with a clearly split end at the penis attachment ( proximal ) and, in contrast to the other European noctule bat, a piston-like thickened and never forked end at the penis tip ( distal ).
genetics
The noctule bat has a normal genome of 2n = 44 chromosomes and up to four extra, so-called B chromosomes . Three of the pairs of autosomes are large and metacentric , one is submetacentric and all the others are acrocentric . The medium-sized X chromosome is also metacentric, the small punctiform Y chromosome is acrocentric.
Calls
The noctule bat can be recognized with the help of a bat detector based on the characteristic search flight and hunting sounds. The frequency of these calls is between 15 and 70 kilohertz (kHz) and thus in a significantly larger range than that of the noctule bat (20 to 34 kHz). The search flight sounds are constant and only slightly decreasing with a frequency bandwidth of 5 kHz with an average end frequency of 23 kHz. The sound duration is between 9 and 14 milliseconds (ms). In the vicinity of vegetation and in the gap between trees, the sound duration decreases and the frequency increases. The repetition rate is low for a bat of its size, less than once for every two wing beats. When approaching the prey, there is a greater frequency drop in the first half of the sound and a final frequency of up to about 30 kHz that is higher than the search flight sounds. As you get closer, the sounds become shorter and fall more sharply, the longer constant ringing phase is shortened.
The repertoire of the little noctule consists of searching sounds and hunting calls as well as various social calls that are mainly used during courtship and mating times. There are essentially two calls, one of four pulses between 38 and 16 kHz and a single call with a length of 20 to 27 ms and a drop from 21 to 10 kHz, which is interpreted as a "hello" call and especially during the mating season stereotypically ejected every few seconds. Courtship calls are emitted in the early morning before dusk after the end of the hunting flights, with a total duration of between 2 and 10 minutes per night. The repertoire is supplemented by interference noises and various contact calls in the colony.
distribution and habitat
Distribution area
The distribution area of the noctule bat extends over large parts of Europe as well as some areas of North Africa and Asia. In Europe there is a contiguous distribution area that extends from Great Britain and Ireland and the Channel Islands across the European continent south of the North Sea and Baltic Sea , south to the Mediterranean and east to western Russia . The species is absent in eastern Spain , southwestern Italy and Sicily , but occurs in the Mediterranean on Corsica , Sardinia and Rhodes . No catches of the species are known from Scandinavia, but two findings of the species have been documented with a bat detector on the coast of Skåne in southern Sweden north of the Baltic Sea. The distribution area also extends to North Africa, where the species can be found in the Mediterranean areas of Morocco and Algeria , and also includes Madeira and the islands of Tenerife and La Palma, which are part of the Canary Islands . In western and southern Asia there are deposits in Pakistan and Afghanistan as far as the Himalayan region. An occurrence in the south and southwest of China is not sufficiently proven.
The altitude distribution can vary widely and in summer is between 150 and 1350 meters in Spain , up to about 600 meters in the Harz Mountains and up to 1100 meters in the Tatra Mountains . In the Austrian Alps, the species can occur between 116 and 1370 meters, whereby it usually lives below 350 meters. Migratory bats have been documented on mountain passes in the Alps at altitudes of 1923, 2204 and 2350 meters, and a noctule bat was found dead on a glacier at an altitude of 2600 meters. Other areas with very high occurrences are the Atlas Mountains , the Caucasus and the western Himalayas, and on the Canary Islands , the altitude distribution can reach up to 2150 meters.
habitat
The species prefers open forests as a habitat and is considered a typical forest bat. It uses deciduous forests as well as mixed and various coniferous forests as habitats. The habitats differ regionally in their forest composition; In Austria, for example, the bat prefers mixed oak forests, in other areas it is found in forests with a high proportion of beech, spruce and fir trees. The possible habitats are also diverse with regard to the type of management, ranging from the structurally rich plenter forest to simple age-group forests . The noctule bat needs tree hollows both as a nesting roost and as winter quarters and occurs accordingly with the greatest frequency in forest stands with a high proportion of older trees; Alternatively, however, artificial roosts such as bat boxes or bird nest boxes can also increase the attractiveness.
Forest pastures, water areas and rivers are used as hunting areas. Occasionally the noctule bat is also found in localities and even in larger cities such as Warsaw , Berlin , London or Vienna . In cities, the noctule bat roosts mostly in parks and only rarely in buildings.
Way of life and ecology
The noctule bat is a nocturnal bat. The evening excursion from the quarters begins comparatively early, on average around 10 to 40 minutes after sunset. Just 90 minutes after leaving the roosts, the first animals return and animals that fly in and out can be observed throughout the night. They fly out on a hunting flight two to three times a night. While a large proportion of the bats return in the dark and then remain in the roost, the last animals return a few minutes before sunrise.
nutrition
As an opportunistic hunter , the noctule bat feeds on insects , which it catches almost exclusively in flight ("aerial insectivore"). Its diet consists of small, nocturnal and crepuscular insects, whereby butterflies (Lepidoptera) and two-winged birds (Diptera), especially mosquitoes (Culicidae), flies (Tipulidae) and mosquitoes (Chironomidae) make up the main part of the diet. Other insect groups that occur in different proportions in the diet are caddis flies (Trichoptera), reticulated flies ( Neuroptera) such as diurnal flies ( Hemerobidae) and lacewings (Chrysopidae), mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and beetles (Coleoptera). The composition of the food can vary regionally and in different time periods depending on the food supply. While in Germany and Switzerland the proportion of butterflies and netflies is usually very high at 36 to 63% and 67% in Switzerland, respectively, data are available from Great Britain according to which regional two-winged flies and especially the yellow dung fly ( Scatophaga stercoraria ) were identified as the main prey at 29 to 55%. In these areas, the main hunting areas for bats were in the area of pastures. A frequently significant component in Central Europe are insects with aquatic larvae such as caddis flies, mayflies, midges and other mosquitoes, which represent 4 to 39% of the prey animals depending on the habitat and region. In Russia and the Ukraine the proportion of beetles is very high, especially cockchafer ( Melolontha spec. ) And June beetle ( Amphimallon solstitiale ) are frequent prey there. In Italy the food composition corresponds to that in Central Europe, however two-winged birds dominate in the summer months from June to August.
The hunting flight of the animals is very fast and agile and takes place mainly at the height of the treetops and treetops. The flights take place at a comparatively high altitude, low flights are rare and the animals never fly deeper than about one meter. Part of the hunting flight are flight maneuvers in the form of an ellipse as well as occasional dives into ascending prey. The hunt for night butterflies in this species can also take place in the light of street lamps. The fighter flight can begin in the afternoon in autumn.
Summer quarters, reproduction and development
Little noctule bat occupy different types of roosts in spring and summer. While the males usually live individually or in smaller groups in summer, the females form nurseries relatively early in summer . Tree caves such as abandoned woodpecker caves or putrefactive caves in deciduous trees are primarily used as roosts. Nest boxes and crevices on buildings also serve as quarters for the little noctule. In their roosts they can be associated with other species, such as the great noctule bat , Bechstein's bats ( Myotis bechsteinii ), pipistrelle bats ( Pipistrellus pipistrellus ), rough-skin bats ( Pipistrellus nathusii ) and water bats ( Myotis daubentonii ). As a competitor to quarters occur mainly starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ), and swifts ( Apus apus on).
The mating season of the little noctule takes place from the end of July or the beginning of August to September, with the peak at the end of August. The start of the mating season depends on the arrival of the females from the nursery, which can vary depending on the weather. The males form mating quarters and a harem with up to ten females. Mating takes place in these mating roosts, which are very often created in bat boxes. A single male can occupy several mating roosts and create mating groups. In 1987, a male was observed that formed a total of four mating roosts with a total of 14 females, two roosts each containing six and the other two each containing a single female. To attract the females courting the males in the form of "Sing flight" or an increased waiting by ejecting simple mating calls in a falling pitch from 18 kHz to 10.5 kHz.
As with many other bats, the actual gestation period is delayed, as the nesting of the egg in the uterus by the females is delayed over several weeks or months, and the gestation period and birth are therefore seasonally adjusted. It takes at least 45 to 50 days after the egg cell is implanted. The females form their nursery roosts in tree hollows, more rarely in buildings or in bat boxes , with 20 to 50 females. Maternity roosts with 800 to 1,000 animals have already been found in buildings in Ireland. The maternity roosts consist exclusively of females and their young, whereby in addition to sexually mature females there are also not sexually mature females from the previous year’s litter. The nursery societies often consist of several small groups, especially with larger numbers of individuals, which also change the nursery roosts in the course of the summer. The young animals are transported by the mother animals during these changes.
The young are born in the year after mating in the nursery from mid-June, with the females giving birth to one or two young. The young animals can be born within a span of a few weeks, so that young animals in different stages of development appear in nurseries. The growth in length of the forearms and fingers is complete by mid-August, but the body weight of the young animals is then still well below that of adult bats. The females become sexually mature within their first year of life , probably already at the first reproductive time after about three months. For the males, the age of sexual maturity is not fully understood; in other species of the genus it occurs between 3 and 16 months.
The maximum age of the little noctule is probably more than nine years. The mortality compared to other bat species, especially the noctule, the greater mouse ear , the water bat and the Pipistrelle , somewhat less, whereby the average life expectancy is slightly higher than these types.
Hikes and winter quarters
The noctule bat is one of the European bat species for which extensive migrations have been documented. They move from the northeast to the southwest in autumn, where they overwinter. The furthest documented migration was completed by a female marked in East Brandenburg in August 1993, which was found a month later in southern France at a distance of 1,052 kilometers. The migrations only affect sub-populations from the northwest, who migrate to climatically more favorable regions in late summer and return in April to May. Individual animals were already far from the known distribution area, such as B. on the Shetland Islands found.
The animals hibernate from October to March or April, or more rarely into May , although the times can vary from region to region. They spend the winter in small groups or as individual animals in tree hollows, in crevices in and on buildings as well as in bat boxes and bird nest boxes. Hibernating little noctule bats are rarely found in caves; crevices in the rock are probably accepted. A socialization in winter quarters with species such as the rough-skin bat and the great noctule bat has been proven. The species often overwinters individually.
Enemies and parasites
The predators of the noctule bat include mainly owl species such as the tawny owl ( Strix aluco ), the barn owl ( Tyto alba ), the long-eared owl ( Asio otus ), the little owl ( Athene noctua ) and the eagle owl ( Bubo bubo ) as well as late-hunting birds of prey . Due to the very fast flights and the great flight altitude, however, conditions must be particularly favorable for an owl to capture a noctule bat, and accordingly the noctule bat is usually one of the bats that are seldom captured by owls. The little noctule is also occasionally hunted by the carrion crow ( Corvus corone ). Among the mammals, the house cat in particular plays an important role as a predator . There is evidence for Afghanistan that a snake of the species Coluber rhodorachis captured a noctule bat .
The parasites of the noctule bat are essentially the same as those of the great noctule bat. At least several species of fleas are documented, such as Ischnopsyllus elongatus , Ischnopsyllus intermedius , Ischnopsyllus octactenus , Ischnopsyllus variabilis and Nyteridopsylla longiceps , as well as flat bugs of the species Cimex pipistrelli , Cimex lectularius and Cimex dissimilis as well as the bat flies Nycteribia pedicularia . Macronyssus flavus , Staetonyssus spinosus , Spinturnix acuminatus and Calcarmyobia miniopteris as well as the tick species Argus vespertilionis were detected among the mites .
In addition to these ectoparasites, intestinal parasites are often found. These include the species Plagiorchis vespertilionis , Lebrabascus semisquamosus , Lecithodendrium linstowi , Prosthodendrium aelleni , Prosthodendrium chilostomum , Pygnoporus megacotyle , Pygnoporus heteroporus meh and Ophiaccios , which belong to the suction worms . Added tapeworms as Vampirolepis acute and the nematodes counting species Molinostrongylus skrjabini , Molinostrongylus vespertillionis , Capillaria italica , Skjabinocapillaria eubursata , Ascarops strongylina and Physocephalus sexalatus . Spirochetes and trypanosomes could also be detected in the blood of the little noctule , whereby the trypanosomes are transmitted by the bat bug Cimex pipistrelli and have no known effects on the bats.
The rabies pathogen from the genus Lyssavirus that occurs in bats has not yet been detected in the noctule bat . However, a coronavirus ( bat coronavirus BtCoV / BNM98-30 / Nyctalus leisleri / Bulgaria / 2008 ) from the genus Alphacoronavirus that occurs specifically in this species was identified, which shows a high degree of sequence correspondence even in geographically widely separated populations between Europe and Asia and has its own , special clade of bat coronavirus BtCoV / BNM98-30 forms.
Systematics and fossil record
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Phylogenetic system of the genus Nyctalus
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The little noctule was discovered by the Frankfurt Medical Councilor Johann Philipp Achilles Leisler , but he died in 1813 before he could describe the species. This was done by his pupil Heinrich Kuhl in his monograph Die Deutschen Fledermäuse in 1817. Kuhl named the species ( Vespertilio dasykarpos ) described by Leisler as “very hairy bat” after Leisler as Vespertilio leisleri . Later it was transferred to the genus Nyctalus created by Thomas Edward Bowdich in 1825 .
The noctule bat is assigned to the genus of the noctule bat ( Nyctalus ), which comprises a total of eight species. According to an analysis by Salgueiro and colleagues (2007), the closest related species is the noctule bat ( Nyctalus azoreum ), which only lives on the Azores and is therefore endemic , which was at times considered a subspecies of the noctule bat and probably originated from a European population of the noctule bat developed towards the end of the Pleistocene . Both together represent the sister group of a taxon , which is formed from the great noctule bat ( Nyctalus noctula ), the giant noctule bat ( Nyctalus lasiopterus ) and the Asian species Nyctalus aviator . The species Nyctalus plancyi , which is also native to Asia, is the most primitive species and thus the sister species of the remaining noctule species. The mountain noctule bat ( Nyctalus montanus ), which was previously also considered a subspecies of the noctule bat , and Nyctalus furvus were included in this study not considered.
There are two subspecies within the species. The distribution area of the subspecies N. l. verrucosus is restricted to the island of Madeira , while the nominate form N. l. leisleri occurs throughout the rest of the distribution area. The population on Madeira, like the Azores noctule bat, developed from a population of European origin while the population of the Canary Islands, which is not regarded as a separate subspecies, comes from a population from North Africa.
Fossil finds of the little noctule are rare. The oldest finds were found in southern Spain and come from the lower to middle Pleistocene . Other finds come from the Neolithic layers of Dowel Cave in England.
Hazard and protection
The species is globally assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) as "Least Concern" due to its large distribution area and population size. There is no known decline in the population or a serious threat to the species, and there is no evidence of a decline in the population. Potential causes of danger primarily include disturbances and destruction of the roosts in trees and buildings as well as changes and loss of habitat. Habitat loss occurs primarily through the felling of trees with tree hollows, which are used by the noctule as both nursery and winter roosts. The modern commercial forest has only a low density of tree hollows and thus offers the animals only a small number of suitable roosts.
To protect the species, as with other bats with tree roosts, it is required that deciduous and mixed forests with a high proportion of old wood and dead wood be protected or developed. If woodpecker cave trees and deadwood trees are felled, a control of the trees to be felled for bat population is required in areas where the species occurs. Trees occupied by the species and other bat species must not be felled. If there are only a few suitable roost trees in an area, the installation of bat boxes is recommended as a temporary solution.
The noctule bat is listed nationally and regionally in most European countries in the Red Lists of Endangered Species and is accordingly protected by national legislation. In Germany, for example, it is protected as a particularly endangered species by the Federal Species Protection Ordinance. Cross-border protection takes place via the EU Species Protection Ordinance , and the Agreement on the Conservation of European Bat Populations (EUROBATS), according to which the deliberate trapping, keeping and killing of bats is legally prohibited in the contracting states , exists for bats in particular .
In addition, the noctule bat is listed in Appendix IV of the European Fauna-Flora-Habitat Directive . In Annex IV of the Fauna-Flora-Habitat Directive, the EU lists species that are to receive special protection outside of designated protected areas. They cannot be effectively protected simply by designating protected areas, e.g. B. because of scattered or unstable occurrences, special or particularly large-scale habitat requirements and dependence on special land use practices. With species such as the little noctule from Appendix IV, their habitats such as nurseries , feeding areas and winter quarters must not be impaired or destroyed - regardless of where they are. This also applies, for example, to nurseries in buildings. In practice, this makes the implementation of construction projects such as road construction and other interventions on areas that are habitats much more difficult. Destruction of habitats that would threaten a local population is only possible if special compensatory measures under species protection law (so-called CEF measures , "Continuous ecological functionality measures") are carried out. In contrast to normal compensation measures (due to the intervention regulation in nature conservation law), first of all, proof of success is necessary here and not only a success prognosis as with other interventions, but the compensatory measures must be carried out before the intervention, e.g. B. the construction project.
literature
- W. Bogdanowitz, AL Ruprecht: Nyctalus leisleri (Kuhl, 1817) - Northern bat. In: Franz Krapp (Ed.): The bats of Europe. Extended special edition from the Handbook of Mammals in Europe. AULA-Verlag, Wiebelsheim 2011, pp. 717-755, ISBN 978-3-89104-751-4 .
- Monika Braun, Ursel Häussler: Little Noctule Nyctalus leisleri (Kuhl, 1817). In: Monika Braun, Fritz Dieterlen (Hrsg.): Die Säugetiere Baden-Württemberg. Volume 1: Bats (Chiroptera). Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2003, pp. 623-633, ISBN 3-8001-3282-6 .
- Jürgen Gebhard: Bats. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel 1997, ISBN 3-7643-5734-7 .
- Wilfried Schober, Eckhard Grimmberger: The bats of Europe - know, determine, protect. 2nd updated edition, Franckh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH, Stuttgart 1998, pages 149–152, ISBN 3-440-07597-4 .
Web links
- Nyctalus leisleri inthe IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011.2. Posted by: AM Hutson, F. Spitzenberger, S. Aulagnier, J. Juste, A. Karataş, J. Palmeirim, M. Paunović, 2008. Accessed March 6, 2012.
- Little noctule at NABU Schleswig-Holstein
supporting documents
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Description Section, pp. 718–723.
- ↑ a b Braun & Häussler 2003 ; Section “Description”, p. 623.
- ↑ a b c d e Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Section “Characteristic Variation”, pp. 728–729.
- ↑ a b Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Diagnostics Section, pp. 717–718.
- ↑ a b c d e Braun & Häussler 2003 ; Section “Food Ecology”, p. 630.
- ↑ a b c Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Section “Acoustic behavior and echo pillars”, pp. 740–741.
- ↑ a b c d e f Braun & Häussler 2003 ; Section “Reproduction,” pp. 630–632.
- ↑ Distribution map for Nyctalus leisleri at the IUCN
- ↑ a b c d Nyctalus leisleri in the Red List of Threatened Species of the IUCN 2011.2. Posted by: AM Hutson, F. Spitzenberger, S. Aulagnier, J. Juste, A. Karataş, J. Palmeirim, M. Paunović, 2008. Accessed March 6, 2012.
- ↑ a b c d Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Dissemination Section, pp. 723–727.
- ↑ Braun & Häussler 2003 ; Section “Habitat”, p. 623.
- ↑ a b Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Habitat Section, pp. 731–732.
- ↑ a b Gebhard 1997 ; Section "Habitat", p. 364.
- ↑ a b c d e f Braun & Häussler 2003 ; Section “Summer Quarters”, p. 630.
- ↑ a b c d e Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Food and Nutrition Section, pp. 731–732.
- ↑ a b c Gebhard 1997 ; Section “Biology”, p. 364.
- ↑ a b Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Section “Reproduction,” pp. 732–733.
- ↑ a b c Schober & Grimmberger 1998 .
- ↑ a b c d e f g Braun & Häussler 2003 ; Section “Population Dynamics”, pp. 632–633.
- ↑ Braun & Häussler 2003 ; Section “Hikes”, p. 632.
- ↑ Braun & Häussler 2003 ; Section “Winter Quarters and Hibernation”, p. 632.
- ↑ a b c Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Section “Predators”, p. 736.
- ↑ a b c d e f g Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Parasites Section, pp. 735–736.
- ↑ JF Drexler, F. Gloza-Rausch et al .: Genomic Characterization of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus in European Bats and Classification of Coronaviruses Based on Partial RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase Gene Sequences. J. Virol. (2010) 84 (21): pp. 11336–11349 PMC 2953168 (free full text)
- ↑ a b c d P. Salgueiro, M. Ruedi, MM Coelho, JM Palmeirim: Genetic divergence and phylogeography in the genus Nyctalus (Mammalia, Chiroptera): implications for population history of the insular bat Nyctalus azoreum. In: Genetica. Volume 130, No. 2, 2007, pp. 169-181.
- ^ Heinrich Kuhl: The German bats . Hanau 1816. Second publication in: New annals of the Wetterauische Gesellschaft for the entire natural history. 1819, pp. 11-49, 185-215. He describes the little noctule bat as Leisler's bat on pages 46 ff.
- ↑ a b Braun & Häussler 2003 ; Section “Naming”, p. 623.
- ↑ Don E. Wilson & DeeAnn M. Reeder (eds.): Nyctalus. ( Memento of the original from February 3, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed).
- ↑ Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Section “Subspecies Systematics”, pp. 729–730.
- ↑ Bogdanowitz & Ruprecht 2011 ; Section “Paleontology”, p. 728.
- ↑ Braun & Häussler 2003 ; Section "Species Protection", p. 633.
- ↑ MUNLV: Protected species in North Rhine-Westphalia . Düsseldorf 2007. Art chapter Little Noctule. Pp. 76-77.
- ↑ a b Fauna-Flora-Habitat Directive and Bird Protection Directive - Areas and Species in Germany. Natura 2000; List of the species occurring in Germany in Annex IV and V of the Fauna Flora Habitat Directive
- ↑ a b The legal basis in Germany results from Section 44 Paragraph 5 i. V. m. Section 15 of the Federal Nature Conservation Act (intervention regulation).
