Magenza

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Letter of homage from the Jewish community in Magenza to celebrate the election of Emmerich Joseph von Breidbach zu Bürresheim as Elector of Mainz on July 5, 1763

Magenza has been the Jewish-Hebrew name for the city of Mainz since the Middle Ages . A Jewish community in Mainz is assumed to have existed as early as Roman times, but only reliable evidence is provided by a source from the second half of the 10th century, which, however, already speaks of a flourishing community.

In the Middle Ages, Magenza was one of the centers of Ashkenazi Judaism in Central Europe. The city, together with Speyer and Worms, belonged to the so-called ShUM cities . Gerschom ben Jehuda , one of the most important Jewish fellow citizens of Magenza, founded one of the most important Talmud schools here towards the end of the 9th century , the decrees of which had a great influence on the other Ashkenazi communities.

Over the centuries, Jewish life in Mainz was repeatedly hindered or destroyed by pogroms and persecution. The worst incidents of this kind were the pogrom of 1096 and the period of National Socialism from 1933 to 1945. During National Socialism, a total of 1300 to 1400 Mainz Jews were murdered. After the Second World War, a new Jewish community was established in Magenza in October 1945, but it stagnated for a long time and only grew slowly to around 1,000 members. With the inauguration of the new synagogue in 2010 at the location of the former main synagogue in Hindenburgstrasse, the Jewish community of Magenza is once again present in today's cityscape.

History of the Jewish Community

Until the 11th century

Gravestone of Jakob ben Jakar

The origins of the Jewish community in Mainz are not clear. It is assumed that the Jews came to the Middle Rhine with the Romans, i.e. before the 5th century. However, proof of this assumption has not yet been provided. As an indication of the existence of a community, it is stated that Mainz was already an important trading center in the 7th century and that the Jews of that time were carriers of long-distance trade, endowed with episcopal privileges and freedom from significant trade restrictions. Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , an envoy of the Caliph of Cordoba Abd ar-Rahman III. reported on his trip to Eastern Franconia about Mainz as such a trading center. However, the first reliable evidence of a Jewish community comes from a tradition of rabbinical legal opinions from the second half of the 10th century, although a flourishing community already existed at this time. The immigration of Jewish families from southern Italy and partly also from southern France began in the 10th century. Mainz became the most famous center of Ashkenazi Judaism.

The most famous scholar of that time was Gerschom ben Jehuda , who was born around 960 in Mainz and died there in 1028 or 1040. He was the founder of a Jewish college ( yeshiva ) and thus established a Judaism that was independent of the tradition of Babylonian religious schools. Simeon bar Isaac was a rabbi and leader of the Mainz Jewish community.

The oldest archaeological evidence of the Jewish community in Mainz comes from the 11th century. A synagogue is first mentioned in 1093 , which was located on the corner plot of Schusterstrasse / Stadthausstrasse, i.e. in the immediate vicinity of today's Quintinskirche . The oldest gravestone on the Judensand , until 1880 the only Jewish cemetery in Mainz, dates from 1049 and is therefore the oldest in Central Europe. At that time, the Jewish settlement area was on the banks of the Rhine between the Fischtor and the Carmelite Church . The medieval Jewish quarter was not a ghetto, in fact most of the residents there were non-Jews, although this mixed dwelling was banned by a synod in Mainz in 1310.

11th century

As already mentioned, the Mainz Jews were mainly active in long-distance trade. The Jewish quarter of that time was strategically located, because south of it was the Am Brand trading center , the city's most important marketplace for goods that came by ship. In addition, there was a spatial proximity to the archbishop's court. The archbishop was the protector of the Jews at that time. From Mainz the Jews traded in spices, silk, furs and metal goods. They also worked in the banking sector. They also owned vineyards inside and outside the city. The Jews were considered free and defenseless and were allowed to keep non-Christian slaves and live according to their own law, which until the beginning of the 13th century was based on the law of non-Jews.

The community was led by Parnasim , the rulers, and elders who together formed the Judenrat.

The privileges for Jewish merchants regulated in Jewish law were the subject of hostility as early as the 11th century. As early as 1012, Jews were expelled from Mainz by King Heinrich II. In 1084, after a fire in the Jewish quarter, disputes broke out that led to Jews leaving for Speyer , where the local bishop granted them a privileged privilege.

Pogrom of 1096

The most momentous event, however, was the pogrom of Jews in 1096. After Pope Urban II had called for a crusade in 1095, loose armies soon gathered throughout the empire who wanted to follow the Pope's call. Soon, however, the slogan came up that one had to fight the unbelievers in one's own homeland before doing the same in the Holy Land. This was primarily aimed at the Jews who were accused of having died on the cross of Jesus Christ. As a result, pogroms soon broke out all over the empire. The Franconian aristocrat Emicho gathered an army on the Middle Rhine , which soon moved to the cities of Speyer and Worms, where they destroyed the local Jewish communities. The army then moved to Mainz, where it arrived on May 25, 1096. The ruling Archbishop Ruthard and the Mainz burgrave promised protection to the Jews and let them into their castles. The crusaders began to siege the city. Mainz citizens opened the city gates on May 27th. The archbishop, who was also threatened by the crusaders, fled the city, leaving the Jews to their fate. Very few Jews chose compulsory baptism to avoid death. The others were murdered or committed ritual suicide. With the help of the archbishop's guard, 50 Jews managed to escape to Rüdesheim, where they were arrested again and finally murdered. After storming the archbishop's castle, the crusaders moved on to the burgrave's residence, where the remaining members of the Jewish community were also murdered. The number of victims is estimated at 700 to 1300. The chronicler Solomon bar Simson wrote a report in Mainz around 1140 on the Jewish communities in Germany during the First Crusade in Hebrew, and Elieser ben Nathan from Mainz also described the event.

Archbishop Ruthard then fled to Thuringia because the emperor wanted to hold him accountable for his failure to provide assistance. In addition, he had to put up with the charge of enrichment because he had taken money from the Jewish community for the protection agreement.

The pogrom of 1096 marked the end of the wedding of the Jewish community in Mainz. It never reached its earlier prime in the future either. In the Jewish liturgy, the victim of this massacre is commemorated under the name Gezerot Tatnu ("persecution of the year 4856" [according to the Jewish calendar]).

New beginning 11th to 14th century

Map of Central Europe, showing capitals in which pogroms against the Jews took place in 1348–1349 .
Mainz: August 22,
Frankfurt am Main: July 24,
Worms: March 1,
Speyer: January 22, 1349

Nevertheless, together with the communities in Speyer (Schpira) and Worms (Urmaisia), Mainz Jewry soon formed the center of Ashkenazi Jewry again. The three cities formed the Federation SCH-UM (Schpira, Urmaisia, Magenza), the rabbinical reports of the SCH-UM had the highest authority among the German Jews. This was made possible by Henry IV's Jewish policy , who not only renewed the protective rights, but also allowed the forced baptized to return to their original faith.

This close protective relationship soon led to a relationship of subordination to the emperor and his economic administration. The emperor was therefore also responsible for taxing the Jewish population, a right that the archbishop benefited from in Mainz as an imperial fief. After obtaining city ​​freedom in 1244, the right passed to the city of Mainz in 1295.

All further crusades led to riots against the city's Jews, but they did not reach the dimensions of the pogrom of 1096. In the 14th century, however, the anti-Jewish currents condensed again. On August 28, 1349 there was a major pogrom in Mainz, which only a few Jews survived and as a result parts of the Jewish quarter burned down. The city council confiscated the property left behind by the dead and the refugees.

Only in 1356 did Jews return to the city. The council rented them the buildings it managed under the name “Jewish heirs”. Charles IV granted the returnees an extensive protection privilege. Unlike in the past, the municipal authority now consisted of the municipal rabbi and three heads elected at the beginning of the year.

The conditions of the Jewish community were constantly threatened, both economically and physically. High taxes, debt relief and economic restrictions left the traders and bankers on the verge of ruin. In addition, the municipalities were only tolerated for the period of validity of letters of defense issued by the council. The oldest document of this kind that has been handed down dates from 1365.

Expulsions in the 15th century

In the 15th century, the previously applicable interest prohibition for Christians gradually relaxed . As a result, many cities and territories expelled their Jewish populations, on whose services they believed they were no longer dependent.

In Mainz this loosening occurred at the time of the dispute between patricians and guilds who were fighting for power in the city council of the Free City . The victory of the guilds worsened the situation of the Jews, as the guilds, in contrast to the patricians, were hostile to Jews.

In 1438 the city council ordered the Jews to leave until July 25, 1438. The cemetery on the Judensand was desecrated and the synagogue was converted into a coal store. However, the city was already in high debt at that time, which prompted the council to recall the Jews in 1444. July 25, 1445 is considered the day of the re-establishment of the Jewish community of Mainz. At that time it comprised between 100 and 130 people who made up between 1.7 and 1.9% of the total population.

Since the Jews, like many other citizens , were probably supporters of Diether von Isenburg during the Mainz collegiate feud , they were expelled from the city by Diether's opponent Adolf II von Nassau after his victory, along with other supporters of Diether. In 1463 Adolf II brought them back before he expelled them from the entire electoral state in 1471. The Jewish property passed into state property; the synagogue was rededicated as a chapel .

Resurgence of the community from the 16th century

On June 3, 1507 , Jakob von Liebenstein ordered a general expulsion of Jews from the archbishopric . In 1510 Uriel von Gemmingen protested as Archbishop of Mainz against the actions of Johannes Pfefferkorn , who also had Jewish books confiscated and burned in Mainz. Emperor Maximilian I set up a commission of inquiry, and Uriel von Gemmingen was appointed chairman. Above all, Johannes Reuchlin, who was appointed to the commission, sharply condemned the Pfefferkorns company initiated by the Dominicans and advocated an understanding approach to Judaism.

However, the expulsions did not mean - as previously assumed - the complete end of Jewish life in the city. Records from Archbishop Berthold von Henneberg's tenure show that Jewish citizens took care of the mikveh and had to accommodate Jews passing through. In addition, they were responsible for the funeral service for Jews on the Judensand, which could only mean Kurmainzische Jews. In 1517, Archbishop Albrecht von Brandenburg accepted numerous Jews into the archbishopric. In 1594 there was again a synagogue in the city, and in 1614 an appraisal book speaks of six Jewish families in the city. There was no rabbi at that time, which is why the Jews turned to the rabbis of Worms and Frankfurt on religious questions. In 1602 the Mainz Jews were assigned to the rabbis in Bingen. In 1630 the community had its own rabbi again for the first time.

In 1639 a new synagogue was consecrated in Klarastraße, at the corner of Stadionerhofstraße, and was expanded in 1649. In 1644 there were 40 house owners and tenants and 15 sub-tenants in the city. The dwellings were in Langgasse, Bleiche , Emmeranstrasse, by the Franciscan Church , in Betzelstrasse, on Schillerplatz , on the fish market, by Christophskirche and on Karmeliterplatz .

The Jewish policy of the electors in the 17th and 18th centuries

The Jewish policy of the Electors of Mainz from the 17th century onwards represented a deep turning point in Jewish life. After complaints from shopkeepers about the unpleasant competition from Jewish traders, the Archbishop of Mainz and sovereign Johann Philipp von Schönborn dismissed all Jewish families up to to 20 out of the city and also assigned the remaining families an alley as a residential area, which they had to close on Sundays. Activity in a guild trade was no longer permitted. The decree proved to be unenforceable, which is why the elector issued another decree in 1671 that limited the number of families to 10 and assigned them the old Judengasse near the Armklarenkloster as a residential area. According to the "Diplomatic History of the Jews in Mainz" written by Karl Anton Schaab in 1855, this was the worst area of ​​the city. However, the resettlement took place in the course of a city expansion planned by the archbishop anyway (construction of the Bleichenviertel), which was accompanied by major development measures and the erection of representative buildings. The land was given to the Jews free of charge, and the elector, like the Christians, granted them discounts on craftsmen and building materials. In addition to what was then called the Vordere Judengasse, another street was soon added, the Hintere Judengasse. From 1684 on, the new synagogue, which was not very attractive, was located in its center. The restriction to ten families was not enforced. In 1687 about 250 Jews lived in Mainz, which corresponded to 1% of the total population. In 1717 the synagogue was enlarged.

Despite all these restrictions, the Jewish community enjoyed a fairly wide range of autonomy. It kept its own seal and had the status of a corporation. The parish council was made up of five heads, takers and deputies, the office of Parnas Hachodesch (praeses) changed monthly. The board itself collected the taxes from the members of the community, which it paid to the electoral administration. The first instance judiciary was exercised by the rabbi. The court of appeal was the electoral court.

In 1710 the Jews acquired land adjacent to Offene Judengasse and built more houses there. In 1768, Elector Emmerich Joseph von Breidbach zu Bürresheim allowed the construction of further houses outside the two Judengassen. This ended the spatial expansion of the ghetto.

Finally, under Elector Lothar Franz von Schönborn , the number of protective families was limited to 101. In addition there were the rabbi, the cantor, the school clerk , the doctor and the court factor, protective widows, the servants and the rabbi's pupils. Admission into the Jewish community was only allowed if the number of 101 families was not exceeded. The admission fee and taxation of the Jews was much higher than that of the rest of the Mainz citizenry.

With the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, there were also reliefs for the Jews. Under Elector Friedrich Karl Joseph von Erthal , concrete considerations arose for the first time with regard to improving conditions in the Jewish ghetto. The opening of the guild professions for Jews was rejected, however. Trades and manufactories that were not reserved for the guilds and required neither journeymen nor apprentices were allowed to be established by all Jews. In addition, the authorities felt that the reform of the education system and the elimination of the pressing housing shortage in the district inhabited by 848 Jews were a priority. To this end, the children were recommended to attend Christian schools. In addition, a rescript from the Elector urged the authorities to give Jews and Christians the same speedy justice. However, the old estates could not imagine emancipation of the Jews.

Emancipation during the French rule

The emancipation of Jews therefore only came about after the defeat of the Reich in the Revolutionary Wars and the occupation of the city by the French in 1792 . Since all Jews in France had full civil rights since 1791, this suddenly also applied to the Mainz Jews in the Mainz Republic . When the freedom tree was erected on November 3, 1792, Jews appeared on an equal footing with clergymen, guild members, doctors and lawyers.

Nevertheless, Jews were hostile to the newly founded Jacobin Club in Mainz . Entry Jews were banned from synagogues. When asked to take an oath on the revolutionary French constitution in 1793, only 18 Jews complied, which was 15% of the heads of households. But anyone who refused to take the oath was threatened with deportation. After the imperial troops had enclosed the city in 1793 , the “unconscious”, including many Jews, had to leave the city. The Jews were then satisfied with the return of the German authorities. The reason for the skepticism of the Jews towards the Jacobins was, on the one hand, a skepticism towards innovations per se. In addition, there were the reservations of the Mainz Jacobins towards the Jews and the fear of the Jews that entering the bourgeoisie could pose a threat to religious observance of the law.

After the French reoccupied the city in 1797, however, such concerns were dispelled, which was also due to the changed zeitgeist. In 1798, Ludwig Bamberger was the first to have a Jew on the city council . In the same year the Jewish guard at the old ghetto was torn down. Jews were now allowed to settle in the whole city as citizens.

Even under Napoleon, Jewish life was not free from regulations. Napoleon decreed a centralized community system. A consistory was established in each department , which was subordinate to the central consistory in Paris. The consistory consisted of two rabbis and three lay people who had to be confirmed by Paris. Responsible for the entire consistorial administration was a Grand Rabbi with his seat in every departmental capital, including Mainz, which was the capital of the Donnersberg department . The Mainz chief rabbi was Samuel Wolf Levi (1751–1813). In addition, an imperial decree of March 17, 1808 stipulated that a Jew would not be allowed to trade for ten years if he did not have a corresponding patent. In these patents, the mayor's office certifies that the person concerned was not guilty of usury and the Jewish community that he had behaved righteously and faithfully fulfilled his obligations ("moral patents"). This regulation remained in place even after the withdrawal of the French.

Development of emancipation after 1816

Synagogue of the Israelite Religious Congregation

After Napoleon's defeat and the withdrawal of the French from Mainz, the city became part of the Grand Duchy of Hesse- Darmstadt in 1816 . Initially, the new government did not change the status quo. It was not until 1847 that the morality patents were abolished. State service was still denied to the Jews.

As early as 1819, the Jewish community reintroduced the rules governing the 1750 board elections. The board consisted of five people, chaired by the president. An ordinance of 1830 stipulated that the district office had to appoint the board members after hearing the mayor's office. The congregations now bore the official designation "Israelite religious congregations" and had the right to levy contributions from their members. In 1831 a new synagogue regulation came into force, in 1832 a new funeral regulation. In 1850 there were 2,125 Jews in the city, out of a total population of 37,000.

Division of the community

However, the reforms and emancipation also raised fears that Jewish identity might be lost through assimilation. Reforms that penetrated deeply into the cult, such as the replacement of the Barmitzwa by a confirmation in 1840, the planned abolition of the separate women's synagogue and other ideas led to serious disputes, at the end of which in 1849 the Jewish community was split into an Orthodox and a liberal Judaism with separate Jews Administration, own community life, own synagogue, own schools and institutions came. However, both communities continued to form one corporation. Joseph Aub switched to the rabbinate in Mainz on December 4, 1852 and remained rabbi of the liberal Mainz community until 1865; the Orthodox community was led by Marcus Lehmann .

New heyday

The new main synagogue from 1912
Haus Walpodenstrasse 17. Jewish citizens were isolated here until they were evacuated.

Despite the split, the period from the second half of the 19th century to 1933 can be seen as the second heyday of the Jewish community in Mainz. The new synagogue buildings, above all the construction of the magnificent main synagogue in 1912, the prosperous community, a lively club life and generous charity for all kinds of institutions in the city, such as the municipal theater and various sports clubs, including the 1st FSV, testify to this Mainz 05 . The anti-Semitic parties that already existed in the 19th century had no notable successes in Mainz. The Eastern Jews who immigrated after the First World War , who had founded the "Israel Humanitarian Association" as the third subgroup of Mainz Jews in 1908 , were materially worse off . The arrival of the group, alienating the mentality of the Rhenish Jews, intensified the differences between liberals and orthodox in the community.

Fall of the community during the Nazi era

With the takeover of power by the National Socialists, the process of the creeping disenfranchisement of Judaism began in Mainz. Dismissal from the public service, boycott of Jewish businesses, expulsion from schools, expropriation and disenfranchisement were the visible signs. The main synagogue and the synagogue on Flachsmarktstrasse were burned down during the Reichspogromnacht from November 9th to 10th, 1938. The main synagogue was then blown up, the costs of which had to be borne by the Jewish community. However, some of the Jewish libraries were saved. It is now on loan from the Protestant theological faculty of the University of Mainz and comprises around 5500 volumes.

The deportation of the Mainz Jews began in 1942. On March 30, 1942, 450 Jews were brought to Piaski near Lublin, and another 450 Jews were brought to Theresienstadt on September 27. Three days later, 117 Jews were deported to the General Government in Poland. During the last transport on February 10, 1943, 15 Jews were deported from Mainz, making a total of 1092 people. Then there are those who were brought out of the city outside of the large transports. 1420 Jews from Mainz were able to leave Germany on time.

When the US Army took the city on March 22, 1945, 61 Jews were still living in the city. These were Jews who lived in " privileged mixed marriage I ". These were mixed marriages from which children had emerged. On July 10, 1945, two survivors from Theresienstadt returned to Mainz. However, most of them no longer took up residence in the city.

New beginning after the Holocaust

On October 17, 1945, the Mainz head of culture and surviving Mainz Jew Michel Oppenheim applied to the French military government to re-establish the Mainz Jewish community. The permit was given on the same day. On November 9, 1945, 20 Jews gathered in the town hall decided to re-establish the building. Services were not held again until September 10, 1947, when a new synagogue was inaugurated in the Feldberg School . In 1948, the community erected a memorial at the entrance to the Jewish cemetery on Untere Zahlbacher Strasse . Another memorial is the erected columns in the entrance hall of the large main synagogue that was destroyed in 1912.

The development of the community was very slow after the war. The main problem was the small number of members, which is why the construction of a new synagogue was postponed for many years until a new building began on November 23, 2008 at the old location . This was inaugurated on September 3, 2010. The Jewish Community of Mainz has been a public corporation since 1959.

Jewish community today

New synagogue of the Jewish community in Mainz Neustadt. Building by Manuel Herz , inaugurated in 2010

Today's Jewish community in Mainz has around 1000 members (as of 2015), many of which come from the countries of Eastern Europe .

literature

  • Anton Maria Keim : From Süssel Hechtsheim to David Kapp. The Hechtsheim Jews. Hechtsheim Local History Association, Mainz 1994 (= Hechtsheim Local History, Issue 4).
  • Magenza: the history of the Jewish Mainz; Festschrift for the inauguration of the new administration building of the Landes-Bausparkasse Rheinland-Pfalz / [ed. from the Landesbausparkasse Rheinland-Pfalz]. Rolf Dörrlamm. - Mainz: Schmidt, 1995. - 124 p .: numerous. Ill., Graph. Darst .; 29 cm. - ISBN 3-87439-366-6 .
  • Gabriele Ziethen: Archeology of the 20th century in Mainz. Hinteres Synagogenstrasse 7 (Lit D. 396) and 9 (Lit. D 395) . In: Mainz magazine . Year 87/88 (1992/93), Zabern-Verlag, Mainz 1995, ISBN 3-8053-1711-5 , ISSN  0076-2792 . (with several illustrations (which are over 100 years old and therefore suitable for wikipedia) and many references)
  • Karl Anton Schaab Diplomatic history of the Jews in Mainz. Mainz 1855.
  • Friedrich Schütz , Magenza, the Jewish Mainz, in: Mainz - The history of the city.
  • Chaim Tykocinski: The persecution of the Jews in Mainz in 1012, A. Favorke, Breslau, 1916.
  • Günter Christ, Erzstift und Territorium Mainz, in: Friedhelm Jürgensmeier (ed.), Handbuch der Mainz Kirchengeschichte, Vol. 2, pp. 28f
  • Eugen Ludwig Rapp: Chronicle of the Mainz Jews. The Mainz grave monument. Published by the Mainz Jewish Community, Mainz 1977.
  • Publication flyer : Magenza - 1000 years of Jewish life on the Rhine , mainzplus citymarketing, 2013.
  • Literature on Jewish Mainz

Remarks

  1. ↑ The reason for this name from the 16th century is not clear. According to Schütz, Mainz - Geschichte der Stadt, p. 686, no Jews previously lived in Judengasse.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e Schütz: Magenza, the Jewish Mainz ; in: Mainz - The history of the city, p. 679
  2. ↑ a b Hedwig Brüchert : Magenza - the history of Jewish Mainz 1000 years of Jewish Mainz - an overview Complete revision of the version on the CD: 2000 years of Mainz - history of the city digital, created May 28, 2018
  3. ^ Günter Prinzing : The medieval Mainz and Byzantium. In: Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 91.Volume 1, 2009, p. 53.
  4. ^ Stefan C. Reif, Andreas Lehnardt, Avriel Bar-Levav: Death in Jewish Life: Burial and Mourning Customs Among Jews of Europe and Nearby Communities. de Gruyter, 2014, ISBN 978-3-11-033861-4 .
  5. ↑ Dry lamb: Magenza. P. 63.
  6. ^ Schütz: Mainz - history of the city. P. 680.
  7. ↑ Schütz, Mainz - History of the City, p. 681
  8. ↑ Chaim Tykocinski: The persecution of the Jews in Mainz in 1012 , A. Favorke, Breslau, 1916
  9. ↑ a b c Schütz: Magenza, the Jewish Mainz ; in: Mainz - The history of the city, p. 682
  10. ↑ a b c d Schütz: Magenza, the Jewish Mainz ; in: Mainz - The History of the City, p. 683
  11. ↑ a b c Schütz: Magenza, the Jewish Mainz ; in: Mainz - The history of the city, p. 684
  12. ↑ a b c d Schütz: Magenza, the Jewish Mainz ; in: Mainz - The history of the city, p. 685
  13. ↑ Dörrlamm, Magenza, p. 22
  14. ↑ Dörrlamm, Magenza, p. 68
  15. ↑ a b Schütz: Magenza, the Jewish Mainz ; in: Mainz - The history of the city, p. 687
  16. ^ Günter Christ, Erzstift und Territorium Mainz, in: Friedhelm Jürgensmeier (ed.), Handbuch der Mainzer Kirchengeschichte, Vol. 2, pp. 28f
  17. ↑ Schütz, Mainz - History of the City, p. 688
  18. ↑ Schütz, Mainz - History of the City, p. 689
  19. ↑ a b Schütz: Magenza, the Jewish Mainz ; in: Mainz - The history of the city, p. 690
  20. ↑ Schütz, Mainz - History of the City, p. 691
  21. ↑ Micheline Gutmann: Membres du Grand Sanhédrin. In: GenAmi.org. Retrieved January 24, 2019 (French). Fritz Reuter: Samuel Wolf Levi (1751–1813), rabbi in Worms and Mainz. In: Mainzer Zeitschrift , Vol. 96–97, 2001–2002, pp. 163–168.
  22. ↑ Schütz, Mainz - History of the City, p. 694
  23. ↑ Schütz, Mainz - History of the City, p. 695
  24. ↑ Eugen Ludwig Rapp: Chronicle of the Mainz Jews. The Mainz grave monument. Published by the Mainz Jewish Community, Mainz 1977
  25. ↑ Schütz, Mainz - History of the City, p. 698
  26. ↑ Schütz, Mainz - History of the City, p. 699
  27. ^ Schütz, Mainz - History of the City, p. 700
  28. ↑ a b Schütz: Magenza, the Jewish Mainz ; in: Mainz - The history of the city, p. 701

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