Mandarin (title)

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Mandarin of the Qing Dynasty in traditional court dress

In Western parlance, Mandarin is a civil official of the Chinese state administration of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) and the Qing Dynasty (in China 1644–1911). Occasionally the officers of the imperial military are also referred to with this term.

Mandarins were scholars , judges, and officials who served in all areas of Chinese administration. Their office and the associated titles and ranks were bestowed upon them after years of elitist training. In doing so, they were subjected to a rigorous selection and examination system, which was supposed to guarantee that the administration of the country was only carried out by the most learned and capable minds. The exercise and qualification of each mandarin was regularly and strictly controlled. In the lowest rank they worked as teachers in schools , in the highest ranks they were influential and highly respected administrators , advisers and scholars, but also heralds and diplomats in the name and on behalf of the emperor. The most important administrative centers were the capital Beijing ( 北京 ) and Nanking ( 南京 ), which was intended as a replacement capital . Mandarins are known to this day for their magnificent silk court costumes , which were embroidered with heraldic animals and adorned in strictly prescribed colors, thus showing their rank and position at court. The traditional patriarchy influenced both the Office beings and the family life ; Women were not allowed to serve as mandarins. The power and influence of the mandarins, as well as their strict and strict management system, formed the backbone of the Chinese empire , which grew and prospered with this institution for more than five centuries.

etymology

A Chinese mandarin accepts a petition (woodcut from 1596).

The word Mandarin is probably through the mediation of the Portuguese from the Malay word mantari , counselors, administrators, ministers', which in turn of equivalent hindust. mantrī ( मन्त्री ) < Sanskrit mantrín- is borrowed and was widely used as a title for civil servants and dignitaries in South and Southeast Asia, but not in China. It was not until the Portuguese sailors of the 16th century, who first reached India and Malaya , then China, that the word was transferred to the Chinese administration. The change from t to d was probably based on the Portuguese mandar 'command'. The word found its way into the European languages in the form mandarim , later mandarin , Dutch also mandarijn , mandorijn . The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) dates the first use in Portuguese to the year 1514, the Hobson-Jobson to the year 1522.

In China itself at that time it was customary to address officials at court with lǎoye ( 老爷 ; to dt. 'Dear sir'), the word guān ( 官 ) was used as a general name for an official .

history

Screening officials through exams was a tradition in China that dates back to the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), but it was not until the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) that this practice came into being highest bloom. Emperor Hóngwǔ began his reign with far-reaching purges that killed tens of thousands, including nobles and high-ranking officials. In 1380 he reorganized the central administration of the empire. The previously existing institutions were disempowered, the main office was dissolved, and six ministries remained at the top, each with equal ministers, who were directly subordinate to the emperor. The previous central military commission was also dissolved and divided into five units; each was independent, its commanders equal among themselves.

The approximately 5000 civil servant posts that existed at the time when Hóngwǔ came to power were initially filled on the recommendation of the regional nobles whose countries had been integrated into the empire. As far as possible, the recommended were summoned to the capital for a survey and then assigned to a post in the central or provincial administration. From 1368 onwards, agents were sent to the provinces of the country to find suitable candidates. Imperial edicts called for “intelligent and sincere”, “worthy and honest”, “loyal and incorruptible” persons to be proposed for a civil service post. Even when the examination system was already in place in the first half of the 15th century, officials were occasionally appointed to their posts on the recommendation of nobles or high-ranking dignitaries. This practice only came to a complete standstill after 1440.

After 1440, taking the selection examinations was the only way that enabled a career to the highest official post. The first Ming Dynasty selection exams began between 1368 and 1371 and produced 120 metropolitan alumni in 1371. First of all, the examination system was abandoned, as the emperor ultimately only saw the graduates as “thrashers”. In the years 1384/85 there were again exams, and from then on up to the end of the dynasty a total of 90 times. Almost 25,000 candidates successfully passed the final and most demanding exam in the capital during the dynasty. A quota of how many candidates could pass the final exam in the capital was not specified. The number of successful degrees fluctuated between 32 and 472 over the course of time, with an average of 276 candidates successfully completing the examination every three years. The provincial exams passed around 100,000 during the Ming Dynasty, so that there was just a sufficient number of suitable people available for the 25,000 civil administration posts at the end of the Ming Dynasty.

During the Qing dynasty, the examination system changed only marginally (see: Chinese official examination during the Qing dynasty ). The city exams, which take place every three years, produced fewer graduates on average than in the previous dynasty (239 graduates every third year). However, since the practice of additional exam dates, which emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, B. on the occasion of the imperial birthday, was continued, a far larger number of people received the formal status of a graduate of the capital examination. These graduates, the ( 進士  /  进士 , jìnshì ), gradually filled all of the approximately 25,000 positions in civil administration. After 1660, it had become nearly impossible for someone who had only passed the provincial level exam to rise to the rank of official.

Increasing social prosperity caused the number of those who had the prerequisites for a civil service to rise. To limit the oversupply of candidates, the government reduced the quota for the number of graduates of the provincial exams, which take place every three years, and tightened the examination conditions towards the end of the 18th century. Yet by 1700, out of a population of 200 million, there were approximately 500,000 men eligible for provincial exams. A century later, around 1800, 2 million candidates took each biennial local exam (out of a total population of 300 million). Around 1900, towards the end of the Qing Dynasty, between 1.6 and 1.9 percent of the total population had scholarly status acquired through examinations, but without an office as a civil servant.

The official examination system was finally abandoned in 1905, a few years before the end of the German Empire and the establishment of the Republic .

Offices

Administrative structure of China

Portrait of the senior official Jiang Shunfu (1453–1504), Nanking Museum . The crane emblem on his chest reveals that Jiang Shunfu was Mandarin 1st rank.

The administration of China during the imperial era consisted of three areas: the military, divided into five main departments or military commissions, the general civil administration, divided into six ministries, and the censorship authority. Each of these components had three levels: an upper one at the capital level, a middle one at the provincial level and a lower one at the prefectural and county level. Above all, the emperor was ultimately responsible. There has not been a Council of Ministers and a Prime Minister since Hóngwǔ came to power. In their place, he created the "Grand Secretaries" in 1382: scholars from the Hanlin Academy who acted as personal advisers to the emperor and each of whom had his own area of ​​responsibility assigned by the emperor. There were nominally six of these “grand secretaries” whose positions were not always filled over time, but rarely were there less than three at the same time. From 1424, the "Grand Secretaries" were appointed as the highest-ranking officials and the associated honorary title (rank 1 a and 1 b). They took precedence over all other civil administration officials. At the same time, they retained their offices and titles that they held at the Hanlin Academy. They were the only officers holding two offices at the same time.

The six ministries (personnel, finance, rites, war, justice and public works) were each headed by a minister (up to 1380 rank 3 a, then rank 2 a) and a vice minister (rank 3 a). Each of the ministries had between four and 13 offices. Each of these offices had one or more directors (rank 5 a) and one or more vice directors (rank 5 b). All offices had secretaries (rank 6 a). The general administration in the ministries was subordinate to administrative heads (rank 9 b). In addition, there were numerous clerks and auxiliary clerks who had no rank.

Each ministry had an office in Beijing and one in Nanking. The ministries controlled other agencies such as B. the “Directorate for Astronomy” ( 欽 天 監 , qīntiānjiān ), the “Directorate of the Imperial Gardens” ( 上林苑 監 , shànglínyuànjiān ) and the “Imperial Academy of Medicine” ( 太 医院 , tàiyīyuàn ). An independent institution was the Hanlin Academy, the Chancellor of which was ranked 5 a. All agencies had a second branch in Nanking, which was supposed to act as an auxiliary capital in the event that Beijing was conquered by a foreign power.

The administration in the provinces was organized through branch offices, each of which was led by two government representatives in rank 2b. This included the administration in the prefectures (rank 4 a), sub-prefectures and districts.

The general administration, the military administration as well as the entire court were controlled and monitored by the censorship authority with two senior censors in rank 2a at the top.

The prerequisite for being appointed to one of the offices of general administration and the censorship authority was at least passing the provincial level examination. Exceptions were the positions in the "Directorate for Astronomy" and in the "Imperial Academy of Medicine". The posts, but not the ranks, in these institutions were inheritable within a few families, even if the post-holders were nominally members of the civil administration. All higher-level posts were reserved for graduates of the capital examination. Only the best who were employed at the Hanlin Academy could take on the rank of “Grand Secretary”.

Occupation of offices

3rd civil rank: peacock , mandarin cloth, late 19th / early 20th century

After passing the exam and if a suitable position was available, the graduate was assigned this by the Ministry of Personnel. Each post was assigned a certain rank ( 品 , pǐn ). There were nine basic ranks, numbered from 1 for the highest to 9 for the lowest. Each rank was divided into two grades, upper ( 上 ) and lower ( 下 ) rank (abbreviated in Western nomenclature a and b ), and for each rank a certain robe , salary and a special title was given. The ranks could be distinguished from one another based on the type and color of the robes. Anyone other than the incumbent was prohibited from wearing the robes.

Mandarin in official costume

As Amtstracht wore tangerine precious dragon robes of black, dark blue or emerald green silk , satin and brocade stiff Lǐngtóu pile collar, about a medal occupied overskirt . The typical round mandarin hats came in two designs. In the summer, conical , pointed caps without a rim were worn. They were made of braided strips of bamboo , covered with silk (for high-ranking office holders) or braided straw (for lower-ranking people), and from their tips hung fine strands of silk or horsehair . The winter hat with a wide, all-round brim was made of silk, mink or seal fur . On ceremonial occasions, the hats were often adorned with peacock feathers that hung down at the back. Matching boots and accessories such as signet rings and long, hanging chains were worn with robes and hats . The robes and ranks were also characterized by heraldic animals . These were artistically embroidered on large, square emblems , the so-called mandarin cloths , at chest height. The highest rank of civil administration during the Ming Dynasty was that of the crane ( 仙鹤 , xiānhè ), followed in descending order by golden pheasant ( 锦鸡 , jǐnjī ), peacock ( 孔雀 , kǒngquè ), wild goose ( 云雁 , yúnyàn ), silver pheasant ( 白 鹇 , báixián ) Seidenreiher ( 鷺鷥 , LuSi ) Xichi ( 鸂鶒 , xīchì ), one of Mandarinente similar waterfowl, oriole ( 黄鹂 , Huangli ), and quail ( 鹌鹑 , ānchún ) and lowest (9) rank. During the Qing Dynasty was the order as follows: crane , golden pheasant , peacock , Mandarin Duck ( 鸳鸯 , yuānyāng ), silver pheasant , egret , Xichi , quail and Sperling ( 蓝雀 , lánquè ).

The court rank of a mandarin was recognized on the one hand by the ornaments on his robe and on the other hand by a precious jewel on his hat. Mandarin robes, which showed the 1st (highest) to 3rd rank, were decorated with Máng seals, of which there were a total of nine. They were in the shape of embroidered dragons, eight of which were always symmetrically emblazoned on the front and back; a ninth dragon was attached to the inside of the robe. Tangerines of the 4th to 6th rank wore a robe with eight four-clawed dragons , the symbol of the emperor. The robes of the owners of the 7th to 9th (thus lowest) rank were embroidered with only five dragon figures. But it seems that these were rarely worn as they were already too expensive for simple mandarins. And if they were worn, then apparently only for imperial ceremonies . The already mentioned jewel was right at the top of the round hat. It rested on a pedestal and could be blue, red, yellow, or white. They were either real gemstones such as sapphires or rubies , semi-precious stones such as rock crystal , lapis lazuli and light opal , or coral and glass . The same rank designations were given to all administrations and agencies. Ranks 1 to 3 were high, ranks 4 to 7 were medium and 8 and 9 were more or less insignificant ranks.

The positions assigned to the graduates were based on the results obtained in the exams. The first three of the capital examination began their careers as “ compilers ” in ranks 6b and 7a in the Hanlin Academy . The next best of the examination were also referred to the academy as young scholars to continue their studies there for another three years. If they passed an examination again after three years, they were also given a position as a “compiler” in the academy, the others were distributed to the departments and agencies of the capital and in any case had the prospect of further rapid advancement. The other capital city graduates also began their service in ranks 6 and 7, but did not have the opportunity of a rapid rise to higher positions. Many beginners, especially younger graduates from the capital, did not receive a permanent appointment straight away, but were assigned to different agencies in the central administration. They had the status of a trainee and after a certain period of time they were made available again to the Ministry of Personnel in order to be seconded from there to the next agency.

3rd military rank: the leopard, mandarin cloth from the late 19th century (silk)

Graduates who had only passed the provincial examination could get positions in the 6th rank in a prefecture administration or in the 7th rank in the administration of a county. In rare cases they were given the post of sub-prefecture magistrate in the 5th rank, but only in very remote areas and with little prospect of promotion. The worst possible post was that of a teacher in one of the state schools in the 9th grade and at the same time meant that promotion was next to impossible. However, the office of teacher was the only one allowed to be exercised in the home province, which was forbidden for other officials.

Normally, regular promotions took place after nine years of service at a post at the earliest - unless the supervisor noticed the candidate for particularly outstanding performance: then promotion could also be considered earlier. In principle, no official could be promoted more than two ranks in one step. Until 1530, a proposal from an office holder of the 1st to 3rd degree was required for the promotion. It then took place on the proposal of the Ministry of Personnel, which had to select suitable persons for vacant positions in a "large selection" based on the files prepared.

Statistical evaluations showed that provincial officials held an average of 1.3 different positions over the course of their careers. Most of them had only one job throughout their lives. Officials who had passed the capital examination had an average of two different offices. However, it was common for the highest-ranking officials to hold ten different offices.

When an officer was promoted to a rank above fifth, usually after decades in the service, career progression no longer depended on the decisions of the Department of Personnel. Nomination groups set up specifically for each case from the emperor's environment decided on the higher posts, who had to confirm every suggestion, but could also reject people he did not like.

Privileges and rewards

Mandarin from Saigon ; Photograph from 1870.

Already with the achievement of the status of a “blossoming talent” ( 秀才 , xiùcaí ) the graduates were granted a number of privileges: They were allowed to wear the robe of a scholar, received partial exemption from tax payments for themselves and their families and were also partially exempt from public work obligations freed. Once they became civil servants (guān) and came under the Ministry of Personnel, they had further privileges, even if they had not yet been officially appointed to a post. She and her immediate family were completely exempt from taxes and work duties. There were no restrictions on the size of their houses or their furnishings, they were allowed to ride horses and use litter, which ordinary people were forbidden.

Holders of the 1st to 3rd degree were legally immune, not even investigations against them could be initiated - but this did not apply to investigations by the censorship authority. Judicial investigations and proceedings against them could only take place on the express orders of the emperor. Proceedings against holders of the 4th and 5th degree required the express permission of the emperor. If incumbents below the 5th degree were affected, the corresponding judgments had to be confirmed by the emperor before they were carried out.

For special merits, the officials could be awarded honorary titles ( 散 官 , sǎnguān ) and titles for merit ( 考 , kǎo ), which then also applied to their fathers and grandfathers. The award took place in connection with the triennial assessments. There were a total of 42 such honorary degrees, which corresponded to the gradations of the ranking.

The state paid the wages and was graduated according to rank. Originally the pay was set as a contribution in kind in rice. For example, a “grand secretary” in rank 1 a 1044 and a school teacher in rank 9 b were entitled to 60 dàn ( 擔 ) rice per year (1 dàn corresponded to approx. 70 kg rice). Only for a short time was the wages actually paid in rice; Even before the end of the 14th century, the value of rice was partially converted into other natural references such as silk, paper and silver as well as paper money. The conversion rate for the travel allowance was to the disadvantage of the officials. Paper money in particular lost its value more and more due to inflation. According to figures from the 19th century, a “grand secretary” in the 1st rank received 189 tael ( 两 ) and 90 dàn rice per year, a “district administrator” in the 7th rank 45 tael and 22.5 dàn rice. In addition, however, bonuses were paid for incorruptibility, which amounted to between 600 Tael for the lower and 20,000 for the upper ranks.

If an officer's parent died, they were expected to leave the service for three years. During this time he received no pay. In individual cases - as a special grace of the emperor - half of the pay was granted during this time. However, esteemed officials could be released early from the period of mourning and recalled to the service.

Officials who fell ill could, with the permission of the Ministry of Personnel, take leave of absence for up to three months while continuing to pay their salaries. The normal age for leaving office was 70 years. If there was physical or mental decline, retirement from 55 was possible. If the former incumbent threatened poverty in both cases after leaving, he received a pension of four dàn Reis a year and was provided with service personnel. After death, particularly deserving officials of the highest ranks could be given a name of honor by the Ministry of Rites, which put them on an equal footing with a duke, but this did not entail any claims for the heirs.

Marriages and families

Manchurian bride of a mandarin, photo from 1871

A mandarin could have several wives, the family life of a mandarin was strictly androcratic . In addition to the main wife, there were often married concubines and concubines . In general the women of mandarins lived more or less in secret; They were expected to bear as many sons as possible to their husbands or landlords in order to honor the dynasty of the house . Mandarins, to which only daughters were born, earned public pity and were treated as if they were still childless. Wives, concubines and concubines who repeatedly gave birth only to daughters fared all the worse: They were reviled by their mothers -in-law and ridiculed by the entire household.

The women of a mandarins usually lived together in specially furnished apartments and chambers in which they performed their everyday duties. This included the upbringing and teaching of the children up to school age, the care of the mother-in-law and mother of the landlord as well as the complete housekeeping . Wealthy women were fond of elaborate wall decorations, they could stroll freely and undisturbed in expensive courtyard gardens and card and board games were played in secluded salons. One of the absolute highlights included elaborate embroidery of all kinds, whether pillowcases , fitted sheets or tablecloths. Often these were made by the women themselves. Because of the embroidery and sewing skills of particularly talented women, wealthy mandarins had their own concubines and / or concubines made for their holiday wardrobe. For them it was a welcome opportunity to prove themselves to their husband / master and to rise in his favor. And since Chinese emperors like Kangxi , Yongzheng, and Qianlong generously sponsored the arts in general, Chinese embroidery arts flourished in the early Qing dynasty and a veritable embroidery industry soon established itself.

In public, women could only be seen shopping or on ceremonial occasions. In the case of the former, they mainly wore simple robes, on festive occasions they wore magnificent dragon robes (màng aò) , a richly decorated stole (xia pei) and a small crown or diadem . There was no specific dress code, but very few surviving documents show that Ming costumes were worn with great preference. However, on public ceremonial occasions, the material and color of the women's robes played a major role: the main wife and mother-in-law wore red and gold robes, those of the concubines or second wives were blue and those of the concubines were green. A rigid belt was worn around the waist and fastened to the jacket with concealed loops. The belt itself was wrapped in red silk and decorated with emblems similar to those of the mandarine, so that one could recognize the rank of the husband. Particularly wealthy women, especially those of the court officials, indulged in colorful, jeweled fans and lots of jewelry, which was always worn in a matching color to the robes.

As already mentioned, what school and professional career determined childhood and adolescence depended on the sex of the offspring. While boys soon went to a public or private school, followed in their fathers' footsteps and were able to pursue a career as a civil servant, girls continued to receive private education and married into a different mandarin family at a young age.

Military administration

Sīng Bō T'īng , a high-ranking, young Mandarin, here with a traditional summer hat (photograph from 1870).

The military provided by far the largest part of the government personnel during the Ming and Qing dynasties: in 1392 there were 1.2 million soldiers with around 16,500 officers ; by the mid-17th century there were around 4 million soldiers and approx. 100,000 officers. The administration of the military personnel and the control of the tactical operations of the military had been under the civil administration's Ministry of War since around 1400, but were otherwise completely independently organized. Within the military, the status of both officer and common soldier was hereditary. The inheritance system was monitored by the War Ministry, which had to ensure that every heir was assigned the appropriate post that enabled him to advance accordingly.

The rise to the rank of officer was also possible for ordinary soldiers through special probation in combat. However, such a promotion was regularly only considered for soldiers who belonged to a personal retinue of an officer. Every officer had such a following. Their relatives mostly came from their own circle of relatives and they consisted of at least three men. The promotion took place at the suggestion of the same officer. Likewise, officers of the lower ranks could be proposed for promotion by their superiors.

Another avenue for promotion to officer was that of exams, which was organized similarly to the selection process for civil servants, but never achieved the same importance as that. The military examination procedure was only introduced in practice in 1464. The examinations initially took place at irregular intervals, before they were also carried out every three years from 1504 onwards. Essentially, the test participants were recruited from the officers' followers. They were authorized to train in the military schools and attend the Confucian schools maintained by the military commissions in all major garrison locations. All ordinary soldiers could apply to these schools, but had to prove that they had the necessary reading and writing skills.

The military exams required a basic knowledge of the Confucian tradition and knowledge of the most important texts on war strategy, in addition they required high skills in archery and horse riding . In principle, these exams were also open to everyone. In practice, however, they only offered advancement opportunities for men who lived in a military environment. Occasionally, younger officers with inheritance rights also took part in the exams, who hoped for a faster promotion if they passed the exam. The military examinations produced 50 graduates every three years, so that nothing fundamentally changed in the practice of the hereditary officer status. The purchase of a military rank, which was theoretically possible from around the year 1500, actually only took place in a few cases and also did not change the existing practice.

Young men who had inherited officer status had to prove themselves in military organization and combat to possibly maintain the same rank as their ancestors. A provisional appointment to a post was made on the basis of a proposal by a senior officer. If the candidate proved himself, preferably in combat, the appointment was then final. Appointments to the highest ranks were made by the emperor, usually on suggestion from the ranks of the nobility and other high-ranking officers.

Unlike plainclothes officers, officers did not have a set term in an assigned post. It was customary for them to demonstrate their archery and horse riding skills every three years. Every fifth year, their performance in office and their physical condition were assessed by their supervisor. In the highest ranks they had to judge themselves.

If an officer failed in his duties or was unsuccessful in military action, he could be demoted and first had to prove his skills again by successfully performing another task.

The officer ranks were divided into six grades during the Ming Dynasty, and nine grades with the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, each divided into an upper and a lower grade or a and b; each of these degrees comprised between two and three levels. In addition to the ranks, officers could be awarded other honorary titles for special services, of which there were a total of 30. As a further distinction, the emperor was able to raise the rank of nobility, which in special cases was also hereditary.

Even military ranks were characterized by heraldic animals. During the Ming Dynasty, the highest rank was that of the lion ( 狮 , shī ) (1st rank), followed in descending order by the tiger - leopard ( 虎豹 , hǔbào ) (2nd rank), the bear ( 熊 , xióng ) (3rd rank) . Rank), the young tiger ( 彪 , biāo ) (4th rank), the rhinoceros ( 犀牛 , xīniú ) (5th rank) and the seahorse , a mythical, underwater animal ( 海馬 , hǎimǎ ) (6th rank ). The designation during the Qing Dynasty was: Qilin ( 麒麟 , qílín ), lion , leopard ( 豹 , bào ), tiger ( 虎 , hǔ ), bear ( 熊 罴 , xióngpí ), young tiger , the rhinoceros for the 7th and 8th rank and the sea ​​horse as a designation of the 9th officer rank.

In the early Ming period, officers were allowed to retire at 50; for the rest of the dynasty, 60 was the normal retirement age. If an officer died on duty and had no sons or younger brothers to inherit his status, his widow or living parent received full pay for three years and then an unlimited amount of half pay. If he had sons or younger brothers who were too young for the service, they received half the pay until they were old enough to take up the service.

The wages of the officers corresponded to those of the civil servants: the highest rank received 1044 dàn and the lowest 96 dàn rice per year. As with the civil servants, parts of the wages were paid in materials other than rice, which, however, had a higher real value than rice. Officers at comparable hierarchical levels always had a rank higher than comparable civil servants - e.g. For example, a chairman of one of the military commissions was ranked 1a, while a minister of civil administration was ranked 2a. Since the senior officers were all aristocratic, civil servants always had to give them priority in joint meetings, regardless of their rank.

Training, selection and assessment of civil administration officials

Pre-school education

During the Ming dynasty, a ramified school system emerged in China : There were military and medical schools as well as community schools for elementary education in villages and urban districts. Most importantly, the system of Confucian schools, which were fully financed by the state, existed in all regions, sub-prefectures and prefectures and whose task was to prepare young men for employment as civil servants. The state school system was set up by Hóngwǔ in his second year in office, and the number of teachers and students supported by the state was predetermined. Before the end of the Hóngwǔ government, the Confucian school system had a total of 4,200 teachers. For every five teachers there were 40 “government students” in the prefectural schools (60 in the most important prefectures), four teachers for every 30 students in the sub-prefectural schools and three teachers for every 20 students in the district schools. The number of students grew steadily, and not all students received state scholarships  - at the beginning of the 17th century large schools had up to 2,000 students, and even the smaller schools had 700 to 800 students. Towards the end of the Ming period, numerous clan , ancestral and temple schools emerged that competed with the state schools and where training was subject to a fee.

The public school system was not designed for mass education, rather it was intended to recruit a political elite . A prerequisite for access to one of the state or private schools was a classic previous education, which had to be achieved privately. The school system was limited to young people who had learned to write the classical characters and who had mastered classical standard Chinese : regardless of which of the Chinese languages ​​the test candidates grew up with, they had a special standard language for the examination ( 官 話  /  官 话 , guānhuà  - "" Official language "") to learn. This high-level language was based on the classical texts of ancient Chinese, contained linguistic short forms and thousands of uncommon characters. And it had numerous archaic grammatical forms that set it apart from the other Chinese languages. So it was equivalent to a foreign language for the budding civil servants. To this day, standard Chinese is also referred to as "Mandarin Chinese" in European languages. The schools prepared for the later civil service exams, they did not teach reading and writing.

Learning the classical texts began at the age of three (according to the western count). By the age of eight years when the children entered in one of the schools they had the " Thousand Character Classic " ( 千字文 , qiānzìwén ), the " Hundred Surnames " ( 百家姓 , bǎijiāxìng ) and the " Three-character classics ”( 三字經 , sānzìjīng ) learned, so a total of about 1500 different characters in these three texts. At the same time, training in calligraphy took place , which was intended to promote learning of the characters.

School education

Black and white photo of a mandarin from 1890.

School education was memorizing the " Four Books " ( 四書  /  四书 , sì shū ), reading the ' Five Classics "( 五經  /  五经 , wǔjīng ) along with a selection neo-Confucian continued writings. The minimum requirement for classical education was knowledge of 2000 characters. Students regularly had to master more than 10,000 characters; In total there were around 48,000 characters in the dictionaries.

The students were regularly examined: not only by their teachers, but also by local officials and changing agents of the central censorship authority ( 御史台 , yùshǐtái , later 都察院 , dūcháyuàn ) and, after 1436, by educational officers appointed at the provincial level, whose only task was to ensure the quality of every single school. The length of time students spent in schools is not clearly recorded, but a period of ten years does not seem to have been unusual.

Subsequent studies

The Confucian schools were able to send students to the universities in Beijing and Nanking (two per year for each prefectural school, three for each sub-prefectural school every two years, and one for the county schools ), so-called “tribute students” , according to specified quotas . Before entering the university, they had to pass entrance exams. If they failed, the head of the sending school was punished. In addition, the education officers based in the provinces were entitled to propose particularly talented students for study at universities. In total, there were about 1,800 candidates for the degree from the Confucian schools alone every year. In addition to the “tribute students”, there were other groups admitted to study: the “official students”, mostly sons from the nobility and civil servants. Until 1467 all officials of the 1st to 7th rank were allowed to propose a son or grandson as "protected" who was directly admitted to the service as a civil servant or could enroll at a university. After 1467 this privilege was limited to nobles and officials of the 1st to 3rd rank. But even their heirs had to pass admission tests from then on and could only enroll at universities; they were no longer directly admitted to civil service.

Other "official students" were "students out of gratitude": sons of heroes who had fallen in battle or subordinate princes from Korea , from the inner-Asian tribes, the Ryūkyū Islands and from other kingdoms of Southeast Asia. From 1450, university places were also sold. Initially, their number was limited to 1,000 per year, but tens of thousands of such places were sold in the 16th century as the state got increasingly into financial difficulties. However, only a few eligible students have actually enrolled at the universities, and most were content with a subordinate position in the administration.

After enrolling in the university, students spent three to ten years studying. The curriculum included the in-depth study of the "Four Books", the "Five Classics", neo-Confucian scriptures and Chinese history. Constant attendance was mandatory and ongoing exams were the order of the day. After completing the curriculum and passing the final exams, the graduates were transferred to the Ministry of Personnel to be considered for official admission to an office.

In the 15th century, graduating from one of the universities was of great importance for acquiring civil servant status. At the beginning of the 16th century, between 5,000 and 10,000 students were enrolled at Beijing University each year. In the period from 1412 to 1574, approximately 52 percent of the candidates who passed the entrance exam in the capital had previously been students at national universities. After 1600 the number of students decreased steadily; at the time of Wanli (1563-1620) there were just 600 students in Nanking. University teaching standards continued to decline, and a university degree to prepare for a civil service career became unattractive.

System of competitive examinations

Central to all exams: the writings of Confucius

The curricula of the state schools and universities were coordinated with the content requested in the state exams. Even students who were directly qualified for civil servant careers after passing their university degree often saw participation in the state selection tests as an advantage for their careers. Even those who came from aristocratic families and had hereditary claims to a title had little chance of a successful civil servant career if they did not take the exams.

From the Ming Dynasty onwards, the state exams were theoretically open to almost all male Chinese. The traders and craftsmen who had been banned since 1105 were allowed to take the exams again. Women were excluded from the exams, although there was no official law on this - only in stories women disguised as men also took part in the state exams. Beggars and vagabonds , entertainers and serfs were officially excluded . In fact, however, 90 percent of the population were excluded from the tests from the outset. Craftsmen and other lower classes generally had no access to the necessary training and educational opportunities to survive in scholarly, political and moral discourses . Successful graduates of the tests came in most cases from scholarly families with a long tradition of education. It was only in the course of the Qing Dynasty that wealthier merchants also invested in classical training for individual descendants, as they saw this as a way to greater prosperity and higher social standing.

Admission requirements for the first stage of the exams were the successful completion of one of the state, Confucian schools or the achievement of comparable qualifications through private teachers or through training at a private school. In any case, the appropriate knowledge had to be confirmed by state school inspectors or by the education officers of the provinces . For this purpose, all-day admission tests ( 通史 , tōngshǐ ) took place every two years in the counties , sub-prefectures and prefectures . The candidates each had to write an essay on a selected passage from the "Four Books" and the "Five Classics". In addition, political questions and, after 1756, a question from the field of poetry had to be dealt with. The results of locally conducted admission tests had to be sent to the educational officers and checked by them. The local candidates, who were approved by the educational officers , were called “ budding talents” ( 秀才 , xiùcaí ). This status had to be confirmed every two years through a new examination ( 岁 考 , suìkǎo ) and could be revoked if the level of scholarship was not maintained or if the candidate behaved immorally.

Test cells (approx. 7500 pieces) near Guangdong , around 1873

The talent status was not linked to the right to take part in the next stage of the selection test ( 鄉試  /  乡试 , xiāngshì ). The educational officer selected the most highly qualified from the group of talents and named them as candidates for the first stage of the exams. These took place every three years in the provincial capitals, for the candidates from the urban regions in Beijing or Nanking. Around 4,000 candidates in each of the provinces took part in these exams. The "Great Competition" ( 會 試  /  会 实 , huìshì ) was held in the eighth lunar month and extended over the entire month, including the celebrations for the candidates who passed. The age of the test subjects was usually between 17 and 37 years, but could be higher in individual cases.

The examinations themselves were carried out and supervised by proven officials specially dispatched for this purpose by the central government. Three full-day exams took place within a week. The examination took place in a closed building, in which the candidates each had to write their work in a separate cell. Soldiers monitored that no hidden literature was used and that the examinees did not make contact with one another. Until 1757, the candidates had to interpret passages from the "Four Books" and from a selected volume of the "Five Classics" on the first day. On the second day, three essays had to be written on history, morals and the legal system. The third day consisted of five essays on current government issues and their strategic handling. Between 1757 and 1787, a classic poem had to be written and a question from the field of poetry answered. The former was no longer applicable after 1787. From 1792 the examination conditions were tightened: Instead of a question from a selected volume of the “Five Classics”, questions from all five had to be dealt with. After each examination section, the work of the examinees was transcribed and given a code so that the examiners could not be influenced by either the handwriting or the name of the candidate. After each test, the weaker candidates were sorted out and sent home. This continued until there were twice as many candidates left as could pass. The quotas for each province were specified centrally.

The names of the successful candidates ( 學員  /  学员 , xuéyuán ) of the province were published in the order of their results and the graduates were publicly honored. Upon graduation, they could apply for a low-ranking post in the provincial administration. Alternatively, they could take the next stage of the exam.

The "Big Competition" took place every third year in the second month of the year following the provincial exams in the capital Beijing. All successful provincial candidates from the previous year and also the graduates of the state universities who wanted to increase their reputation by successfully completing this examination before embarking on a career as a civil servant were able to participate. All previous candidates from previous examination cycles who had not yet passed the examination in the capital and had not yet accepted an administrative post in a province or prefecture were also invited to participate. For the latter, a pre-test was introduced at the end of the 16th century, which was supposed to exclude those candidates whose knowledge had been lost over the years from the further tests. The metropolitan examination was carried out under the responsibility of the Ministry of Rites. The auditors were selected from among proven and experienced officials in the central government. On average, between 1000 and 2000 test items took on the challenge. There are no statistics on the age at which the capital city graduation was achieved, but biographical records of Ming period officials indicate that they must have been in their late 20s to mid-30s.

Test subjects wait for their test results to be announced. Painting by Qiu Ying (仇 英; ca.1540).

Following the example of the provincial examinations, the candidates had to undergo all-day examination sections on three days. The task on the first day of the exam consisted of interpreting three passages from the “Four Books” and four passages from the “Five Classics”. On the second day, seven state documents on given topics or problems had to be written in given stylistic formats. On the third day at least three, better five, essays on current government affairs had to be prepared with suitable examples from the classical principles and with reference to historical examples. In all essays, the candidate was expected to have a thorough understanding of the classical and historical texts and to agree to their orthodox interpretation. With the exception of the years between 1757 and 1787, no literary or poetic skills were tested, but the formally correct composition in the rhetorical pattern of the " eight-leg style " ( 八股 文章 , bāgǔwénzhang ) was expected .

Those who passed the examination had attained the status of scholars (jìnshì) and were summoned to the Imperial Palace on the first day of the third month of the same year to take the so-called palace examination ( 殿试 , diànshì ). The palace examination consisted of writing a single essay on a current political problem and answering a few questions put by the emperor or his personal agents.

The main purpose of this final exam was to put the examinees in a final order based on which office they were assigned first. All graduates of the capital examination were publicly honored and their names were made public. A special honor was given to the best of the imperial examination at court, the "Optimus" ( 狀元 , zhuàngyuán ).

The graduates who had taken one of the top three places after completing the palace examination were usually referred to the Hanlin Academy as junior scholars , where they were ultimately trained for service in the “Grand Secretariat” ( 內閣  /  内阁 , nèigé ) to be prepared for a ministerial position in the Ministry of Rites ( 禮部  /  礼部 , lǐbù ) or in the Ministry of Personnel ( 吏部 , lìbù ).

All other graduates from the capital were promised positions in one of the numerous institutions of the central civil administration. In most cases, the promise could be kept, as the three-year examination cycle was always associated with the departure of older civil servants from their offices. Those who failed the exam could apply for jobs in the provinces. Most of the time, they were encouraged to continue their studies at one of the state universities and to take the capital city exam again in three years.

Regular reviews

Tangerine from Guangdong Province ; Photo from 1902.

After the successful graduates of the capital examination entered service, they came under the Ministry of Personnel. A first appointment was usually made for a period of one year. If the new officer was deemed suitable by his superiors, he was given a permanent appointment for an additional three years. As a rule, this appointment was repeated twice, so that the first post assigned remained filled for a total of ten years. Then he was made available again to the Ministry of Personnel. Over the course of ten years, an extensive file had been drawn up on him, the content of which determined his future. Every permanent official at every administrative level was assessed annually by his superior and every three years an assessment was made as to whether he was above average, average or below average. The triennial appraisals went to the Department of Human Resources, which could consider an early promotion if it was above average and a downgrade if it was below average. An overall evaluation was carried out after nine years: At least two above-average and one average assessments were required for a promotion. If two were average and the third below average, a downgrade occurred. A demotion by up to three ranks was possible.

In addition, there was another three-year monitoring cycle called the “Great Bill” ( 大計  /  大计 , dàjí ). The heads of every state office and agency outside the capital were required to send monthly reports on their subordinates to their respective superiors. They had to compile an annual summary of the monthly reports for each individual employee in their area of ​​responsibility. Criteria such as greed , inhumanity, carelessness, inappropriateness, senility , illness, weariness and inaction were assessed. On the basis of this data and all other special features, reports for the Ministry of Personnel and the central censorship authority were drawn up every third year by the provincial officers.

There are e.g. B. the results of such an assessment from the year 1385. Of 4117 provincial officials examined, ten percent were promoted because of above-average evaluation, ten percent demoted and another ten percent dismissed from service for misconduct and incompetence and handed over to the judiciary. In the years 1424 to 1434, 261 officials were demoted after a complaint with the censorship authority, between 1620 and 1627 691 officials suffered this fate.

In the capital, such evaluations initially took place irregularly. From 1500 onwards, they were carried out every six years. All officials below grade 4 were assessed by their superiors. All higher ranks had to judge themselves according to the same criteria. All reports were also sent to the Ministry of Personnel and the Censorship Authority, where they were carefully checked and submitted directly to the Emperor for final evaluation.

Independent of the regular evaluations, the officials could be evaluated at any time by officials of the censorship authority. The reports of these irregular checks were included in the files on which the regular assessments were based. The censors were required to conduct interrogations strictly. Anyone with complaints about an officer could turn to them. All censors could turn to the emperor directly in the event of misconduct by any official, regardless of their rank. In the event of misconduct, the censors were also entitled to punitive measures.

It was normal for civil servants to have their salaries withheld for up to a year, and other, more severe penalties were not uncommon. There were repeated flogging of officials at the imperial court, including ministers, and sometimes it took months for them to recover from the punishment. In 1519, after a protest against the extravagances of Emperor Jiajing , 146 capital city officials were flogged and eleven died as a result. In 1524, 134 capital city officials were imprisoned and whipped, 16 died. Again and again, as in the 1520s and 1620s, there were purges within the civil service, to which numerous officials fell victim.

Statistics covering the entire duration of the Ming dynasty recorded 725 people in the top ranks (grand secretaries, ministers in one of the six ministries or senior censors in the censorship authority). For 244 of them their office ended prematurely: 14 were demoted, 133 dismissed from office, 38 banished as simple soldiers to a distant border station, 39 were imprisoned and 20 were sentenced to death.

Well-known tangerine

The following list names the most famous mandarins and their historical achievements as well as special abilities through which they distinguished themselves during their lifetime.

Other well-known mandarins were: Wan Hu , Wei Yuan , Wu Qijun , Xu Guangqi and Zeng Guofan .

literature

  • Walter Demel : Administration in China and Japan from the perspective of early modern Europe . In: Ralf Walkenhaus et al. (Ed.): State in Transition: Festschrift for Rüdiger Voigt on his 65th birthday . Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-515-08826-1 , pp. 445-466.
  • Valery Garrett: Chinese Dress: From the Qing Dynasty to the Present . Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo 2008, ISBN 0-8048-3663-9 .
  • Denis Crispin Twitchett (Author), John King Fairbank , Frederick Warden Mote (Eds.): The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644. Part 2. (= The Cambridge History of China , Vol. 8). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK) 2008, ISBN 0-521-24333-5 .
  • Willard J. Peterson (Author), John King Fairbank, Frederick Warden Mote (Ed.): The Ch'ing Empire to 1800. (= The Cambridge History of China , Vol. 9). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK) 2002, ISBN 0-521-24334-3 .

Web links

Commons : Mandarin  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Mandarin  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g Valery Garrett: Chinese Dress. Pp. 64 & 68-82.
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g Richard Yeo: Edinburgh Encyclopedia . Pp. 238-244.
  3. ↑ a b c d e f Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 31.
  4. ^ Wilhelm Schott : Mandarin and Bonze . In: Magazine for Foreign Literature 12: 2, 1837. P. 492.
  5. ↑ Wolfgang Pfeifer et al., Etymological Dictionary of German , 4th edition of the paperback edition, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-423-32511-9 , p. 832 sv tangerine .
  6. ↑ OED Online , s. v. mandarin, n.1 . Oxford University Press, 2008. online , restricted access, accessed February 21, 2013.
  7. ↑ Sir Henry Yule: Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive . J. Murray, London 1903. p. v. mandarin (pp. 550-552).
  8. ↑ Etymology of Mandarin on etymonline.com (English); last accessed on October 24, 2012.
  9. ^ A b c Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 35.
  10. ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 52.
  11. ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 75.
  12. ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 29.
  13. ^ A b c d Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 30.
  14. ↑ a b c d e f g Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 38.
  15. ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 39.
  16. ^ A b c Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 383.
  17. ^ A b Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 386.
  18. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 382 f.
  19. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 370 and p. 426.
  20. ^ A b c Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 362.
  21. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 361.
  22. ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 72.
  23. ^ A b Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 77.
  24. ^ A b Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 83.
  25. ^ A b Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 86.
  26. ^ A b Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 87.
  27. ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 89.
  28. ^ A b c Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 48.
  29. ^ A b Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 388.
  30. ^ A b c d Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 41.
  31. ↑ a b c d e f g Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 42.
  32. ↑ Schuyler Cammann: Birds and Animals as Ming and Ch'ing Badges of Rank . In: Arts of Asia . P. 89.
  33. ↑ Schuyler Cammann: Chinese Mandarin Squares, Brief Catalog of the Letcher Collection . In: University Museum Bulletin , Volume 17, No. 3 (1953). Pp. 8-9.
  34. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 389.
  35. ^ A b c d e Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 53.
  36. ^ A b c Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 46.
  37. ^ A b Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 47.
  38. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 37.
  39. ^ A b c d Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 49.
  40. ^ A b c Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 51.
  41. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 424.
  42. ^ A b c d e Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 54.
  43. ↑ a b c d Valery Garrett: Chinese Dress . Pp. 93-99.
  44. ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 56.
  45. ^ A b c Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 57.
  46. ^ A b c d e Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 58.
  47. ^ A b Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 59.
  48. ^ A b Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 60.
  49. ↑ Schuyler Cammann: Birds and Animals as Ming and Ch'ing Badges of Rank . In: Arts of Asia . P. 89.
  50. ↑ Schuyler Cammann: Chinese Mandarin Squares, Brief Catalog of the Letcher Collection . In: University Museum Bulletin , Volume 17, No. 3 (1953). Pp. 8-9.
  51. ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 61.
  52. ^ A b c Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 372.
  53. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 365.
  54. ↑ See: Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 371.
  55. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 371.
  56. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 365.
  57. ^ A b Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 32.
  58. ↑ a b c d e f Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 33.
  59. ^ A b Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 39.
  60. ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 34.
  61. ^ Herbert Franke, Denis Twitchett: Alien regimes and border states, 907-1368. (= The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 6). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK) 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5 . P. 140.
  62. ↑ a b c d e f g Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 36.
  63. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 364.
  64. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 377.
  65. ^ A b Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 378.
  66. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 381.
  67. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 367.
  68. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 409.
  69. ^ Willard J. Peterson: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 9, p. 412.
  70. ^ A b c d Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 40.
  71. ^ A b c d Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 43.
  72. ^ A b c Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 44.
  73. ^ A b c Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 52.
  74. ^ A b Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 45.
  75. ^ Denis Crispin Twitchett: The Cambridge History of China . Vol. 8, p. 93.
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on March 8, 2013 in this version .