Qopuz

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Qopuz , derived name and spelling variants in several Turkic languages qobiz, kobus, chomus, khomus, kumys, komuz, qomuz , mainly refers to bail harps made of metal, which are played in popular music in large parts of Central and North Asia, especially by women and children. In some regions, shamans used to use them as magical tools to heal the sick. In the Siberian Republic of Sakha , the jaw harp is an essential element of the national musical culture.

To distinguish it from the Central Asian long-necked lute komuz , the Kyrgyz name suffix temir-komuz ("iron jaw harp") and, in Uzbek, tschang-kobus to distinguish it from the stringed lute kobys . The same area of ​​distribution also included wooden jaw harps, which have practically disappeared today.

Design

Indian morsing , classic form of an Asian jaw harp

According to the Hornbostel-Sachs system of 1914, jew's harps are one of the plucked idiophones , as the elastic tongue, plucked or struck with a finger, transmits its vibrations directly to a self-sounding bow. Another classification as a piercing reed instrument and thus as a free aerophone is possible if the focus is on the direct generation of a periodically interrupted wind current that moves around the tongue. The distinction in the Hornbostel-Sachs system of idioglottic jew's harps (in which the tongue and frame were cut out of the same material) and heteroglottic instruments (whose tongue is attached to the frame) essentially corresponds to the division into frame jew's harps that has been common since Curt Sachs (1917) and jaw harps. In the first type, which is considered to be older and occurs predominantly in Southeast Asia, especially under the name genggong in the Malay Archipelago , and in Oceania, the tongue is straight and shorter than the frame, which is why the player holds the instrument with the tongue tip at hand and it vibrates with the other hand by means of a cord attached to the frame or hits the end of the frame. The younger and more highly developed hoop jaws have a curved separate tongue protruding beyond the frame, the ticked hook-like tip of which is oriented away from the hand when playing. Bow jaw harps have been found in Europe, South Asia, Central and North Asia including Tibet and China for centuries. They are mostly made of steel, more rarely of bronze; Frame jaws are made of wood, bamboo, bone, ivory, brass or copper. Heteroglotte jaw harps are rare.

While European hoop jaws were also exported to both America and Africa with the colonial conquests, the Asian hoop jaws represent an independent, possibly older development. They can be recognized by a tongue protruding backwards over the horseshoe-shaped hoop, which is missing in today's European instruments. was also present in some examples from the 14th to 17th centuries. In Asian jew's harps such as the Indian morsing , the posterior protrusion of the tongue is often tapped into the shape of a spatula. These are likely to be inoperative, but in some cases elaborate decorations.

Apart from these areas of distribution of the two jaw harp types, frame jaws also appear in North Asia. A special find is an old Chanten (Ostjak) hooped jew's harp, which consists of a 10.8 centimeter long piece of bone, which, like the tongue, was cut out in the shape of a wedge. A thread is pulled through a hole at the base of the tongue and tied with a knot, which can be plucked, causing the lower side of the frame to vibrate. This type of jaw harp with a wedge tongue also includes a wooden Tuwiner's jaw harp , the frame of which, however, is rectangular on the outside with rounded corners. The geographer Leopold von Schrenck describes an identically constructed Niwchen (Giljak) jaw harp made from a narrow sheet of brass in the third (ethnographic) part of his work Reisen und Forschungen im Amur Lande in the years 1854–1856. The niwchischen name of the imaged very simple instrument that is supposed by the Manchu came, there Schrenck with kanga or wutschranga on. The adjacent illustration on the same page by Schrenck shows a similar flat wooden jaw harp with a bottle-like tongue, which Curt Sachs categorized as a “stepped mouth harp” except on the Yenisei , in the Chinese province of Yunnan , in the east of the Turkestan region and in parts Southeast Asia occurs. Schrenck's illustration of the stepped jaw harp shows as a special feature a hole in the middle of the tongue into which a wooden suppository is fitted. This can be changed in size and is used to tune the jew's harp to the desired keynote . A drop of resin, varnish or wax is usually placed on the tip of the tongue for this purpose. This increases the mass of the tongue, lengthens the period of oscillation and the pitch can be changed within certain limits.

The knowledge about the distribution of special North Asian jew's harps comes largely from researchers and travelers of the 19th and early 20th centuries. From this, Curt Sachs (1917) derived a classification of the different types of jew's harps, which - based on the culture of Leo Frobenius - he incorporated into an evolutionist migration theory of peoples in his work Geist und Werden der Musikinstrumenten (1929). Their starting point, determined on the basis of cultural manifestations, is said to have been in Central Asia together with the jaw harps. "We assume a regular development from raw to delicate, from clumsy to artistic." Sachs considered the numerous variants of the Jew's harp to be particularly suitable as evidence of a cultural development path defined in this way. Sachs succeeded in relating certain types of jew's harps according to their age and distribution. This does not provide any proof of the hypothesis that the jew's harp has spread from Central Asia to Europe, but it is believed to be the most likely today.

etymology

Kyrgyz musical instruments on a postage stamp. From top to bottom: choir , end-blown shepherd's flute; kobys , bowl-neck lutes; temir-komus , jew's harp ; sybyzgy , transverse flute; dambura , long-necked lute; komuz , long-necked lute.

All Turkic names of jew's harps are derived from the old Turkish word qopuz for "lute". In Central Asia, Qopuz denotes several plucked long-necked lutes as well as single and multi-stringed string instruments, only secondarily jew's harps . A similar translation of meaning is expressed in the Arabic word rabāba , with which Beduins refer to an old single-stringed fiddle with a box-shaped body. From this, several Arabic gauntlets rabāb up to the Moroccan ribāb derive their names. Since the early modern period, the Arabic rabāba has given rise to names for jew's harps that have been modified in southern European languages ​​( rébute in France, ribèba in northern Italy in the 15th century). The fact that musical instruments were not strictly typologically separated in the Turkic and Arabic languages ​​( zamr was the name of an Arabic stringed instrument, mizmar are Arabic wind instruments with the common consonant root zmr ) can be explained by the fact that it is not the type of sound generation that is decisive, but the function of the instrument was. Wind instruments ( trumpet ), percussion instruments ( drum ) and jew's harps, derived from Old High German trumba , have a comparable common name origin in Western European languages : English trump , with the transition into Slavic languages up to the Ukrainian jew's harp drymba .

Qopuz as a name for a jew's harp appears for the first time in a glossary of the work of the Herat- born, Chagataisch writer Mir ʿAli Schir Nawāʾi (1441–1501). Besides rababa also lives Temir Komuz in name via the detour of qanbūs to gambus for a Malay plucked instrument in European languages as a viol on.

With Temir Komuz related forms are qowuz, Qobuz and qobus for the region East Turkestan. In Yakut the Jew's harp is called chomus or chamys , in Turkmen depending on the spelling qobiz, kopys or kobys , in Kazakh komys , in Chuvash kabás and kupas , in Tatar kobus and kubys , in Bashkir kumys and in Tuvinian chomus (English translation khomus ). The first vowel in most word forms is "o", alternatively "a" and "u" occur, the second vowel is "u" or "y". The consonant in between is “p” in the older forms, from which the development to “b” and further to “v” has progressed. Consequently, the Uzbek kavuz is a younger form.

The classification of similar names in a context of meaning of the Jew's Harp is speculative. The Altaic word komys and the Kyrgyz komus also mean “beetle” and “cockchafer”. Similarly, the Jew's harp, called parmupill in Estonian, means “bumblebee” and the Estonian konnapill “frog”. Here, the names of many jew's harps that describe the sound are combined with their sound properties, which are suitable for imitating animal sounds. Statements can thus possibly be made about the earlier function and sound formation of jew's harps, but a clear derivation of such jew's harp names from insect names is not possible.

To distinguish the jew's harp from the string instruments of the same name, they have corresponding prefixes. In Kyrgyzstan the temir-komuz ("iron jaw harp ") and in Tajik music the tajik kobus ( changi zanona , Tajik) and tajik kawus ( ceng kavuz, Uzbek) are played. The Tuvins differentiate the temir-chomus made of iron from the yjasch-chomus (English transcription iash khomus ) made of wood. Persian chang (Turkish Çeng ), shortened from the Arabic tschangal ( čangal ) is a widely used in Asia term for stringed instruments. The name of the historical angular harp Tschang is still preserved in today's Georgian harp Tschangi . Francis W. Galpin traces the Assyrian word for harp, zak'k'al , on which the Arabic changal is based , back to the Sumerian symbol ZAG-SAL ("fame, honor", also meaning "wood"). Name variants derived from this for Jew's harps are chang in Afghanistan , changu and machinga in Nepal , morchang in Rajasthan , morsing and morshingu in southern India ( -shingu from shringa , natural trumpet).

The agach-kumys of the Bashkirs , a wooden jaw harp with a frame, is also named after the material , although a two- to three-string plucked lute is known under the same name ( agach komus ) in Dagestan . For the Tuvinians (Soyots), kulusun stands in the name of their jaw harp kulusun-chomus (also notated as kozulun-komys ) for “bamboo”, “reed”. In the Mongolian language is chuur ( chur ) or Chugur mainly for a stringed instrument, more specifically for the two-stringed Mongolian horse-head fiddle morin chuur . To distinguish them, the Mongolian jaw harps are called temür -chuur ("iron" - chuur ), aman-chuur ("mouth string instrument") or chulsan chuur ("bamboo" - chuur made of bamboo, wood, bone, horn). In Inner Mongolia , the two-stringed box- neck lute tobschuur is differentiated from the Jew's harp aman tobschur . A parallel is the Chinese word qin for "string instrument" in the name of the fingerboard zither guqin , which with the addition ko ("mouth") results in the Chinese jaw harp koqin . Gerhard Doerfer creates a connection from chuur to Mongolian quhur and qupur to qopuz . With the Manchu , chuur becomes the jew's harp kuru .

Style of play and cultural significance

The jew's harp is still widespread as an entertainment instrument in North Asia, in some regions - such as Kazakhstan - it is mainly popular with children. With the Turkmens, the boys imitate animal sounds such as barking dogs, screaming geese and trampling horses.

Central Asia and Mongolia

For Kyrgyzstan, a wooden and an iron jew's harp ( qowus ) is mentioned in 1923 alongside a clay vessel flute , a reed flute with four finger holes ( komus ) and a wooden long trumpet ( karnai ). Today's Kyrgyz temple jaw harp temir-komuz has a 10-20 centimeter long iron frame, which is 2-7 millimeters thick. To play simple melodies, the range of one octave above the fundamental is used. Even if the jew's harp is mainly a children's toy in Kyrgyzstan, there have also been concerts with jew's harp ensembles. A bizarre marionette performance described by WS Winogradow in 1939 is called tak-teke ("the jumping goat"). The actress (mostly women) holds a thread in one hand while she plays the jew's harp, with which she lets the puppet figure of a goat, which is placed on a table in front of her, dance to the rhythm of the music. A similar game is known from Turkmenistan, where a male dotar player has positioned a box in front of him on which two goat puppets face each other, which he makes to dance with two strings. In northern Afghanistan, the performance is called buz bazi ("goat game"). The Afghan performer plays the long-necked dambura and makes a goat hop up and down with a thread. The Kyrgyz jew's harp , komuz and accordion player Adamgaly Bajbatyrov went around with a puppet theater in the 1930s, performed as a singer and narrator and accompanied the performances with the jew's harp. In 1939 he founded an ensemble with Jews' harp players.

In Afghan music , the strict gender segregation is noticeable in everyday life. While professional male musicians play the plucked rubāb and dutār at public events, women enjoy several secular and religious singing styles at home celebrations, which they accompany on the frame drum dāira . They usually don't use other musical instruments. In the north of the country, women (and children) sometimes play the hoop jaw harp chang-qobuz in groups . The chang and the small blown reed flute of the shepherd nai are in some places not considered proper musical instruments in northern Afghanistan, but rather toys for children, women and shepherds. This refers to the group of “non-musicians” who are neither amateurs nor professional musicians.

Demir-chomus from Tuva

The overtone singing is a vocal tradition that in a special way by the Tuwinern is maintained, with the most famous style Khöömei also among the Mongols and Bashkirs occurs. Among the Tuwins, the kargyraa, a deeper form of overtone singing, is closely related to the style of playing on the wooden yjasch-chomus . The melodic sounds ( ostinato ) are very similar, only there is a difference in the production of the long main tone ( organ point ). The singer produces a single deep, overtone-rich fundamental tone, from which he amplifies individual overtones in isolation by shaping the oral cavity, as the jew's harp player does. While controlling the oral cavity is very similar, the breathing technique is different. As a result, the tonal variation possibilities with overtone singing are greater than with the Jew's Harp, which cannot deviate from the fundamental to which it is tuned. A good Tuvinian jaw harp player can use his instrument to convey speech that a trained listener can understand.

In the republic of Bashkortostan , west of the Urals , there is another style of overtone singing, called uzlyau , which comes from the musical tradition of the shepherds. The singer constricts his larynx so that the upper part of the throat becomes a narrow gap that creates pipe-like overtones above the fundamental. The player of the long longitudinal flute kurai comes close to this sound pattern, adding a chest voice to the noisy flute tone. Alternatively, the Bashkir jew's harp kubyz takes its place. One of the best-known male kubyz players is Ilsen Mirhaidarov, with more women playing kubyz overall . The jew's harp is used as a soloist or in small ensembles for lively folk dance melodies, for example together with the mandolin or violin , otherwise in a more modern folk music ensemble with the shepherd's flute kuray and the button accordion bayan , which is similar to the Russian garmon .

A deep throaty voice ( qobyzdybyzy ) with overtones also needs the Kazakh epic singer jyrau (comparable to the Turkish-Azerbaijani aşık and the Uzbek bachschi ), who accompanies himself on the string kobys ( qobyz ). Outside of this mythical poetry, which dates back to the 15th century, there are folk songs in which women play an essential part. Only women are allowed to play the jew's harp shan-qobyz and vessel flutes in addition to their singing, which they sing unaccompanied or to the lute dombra for entertainment . If women play the strings qobyz, to which spiritual powers are attributed and which is called qyl-qobyz ("horse hair" - qobyz ), they are shamans.

In the past, jew's harps occasionally served alongside the shaman's harp as an aid that a shaman used for magical healing of the sick, invocation of spirits or for his mystical heavenly journey. Georg Tschubinow wrote about its use as a shaman's instrument in 1914: “In some Mongol and Turkic tribes, the tones of the human voice are amplified and varied by the fact that their shamans play a special small metal instrument between their teeth from time to time by they use the oral cavity as a resonator. "

In Mongolia, a potential candidate for the profession of shaman could be tested with the jaw harp. The shamans in northern Mongolia (province Chöwsgöl-Aimag ) distinguish three ways of playing the jew's harp ( aman chuur ): A regular beat without changing the pitch ( schuud tsochilt , "direct beat") represents the shaman's journey on the street. If the tongue is moved back and forth so that different pitches are created ( chelnii tsochilt , "tongue blow"), the player imitates animal sounds and comes into contact with the animals. In the ongodiin tsochilt ("ghost blow") he imitates a trotting ungulate. This sound is supposed to symbolize the spirit removed from the shaman's body, which returns to its home.

Republic of Sakha

In the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in Siberia, a distinction is made between three ways of playing the Jew's harp chomus : With a "speaking chomus ", lovers or girls who are friends can exchange linguistic messages with one another in a semi-recitative style. In contrast to this, the “singing chomus ” reproduces common melodies. The onomatopoeic creation of animal voices (cuckoo calls) is very popular . The jew's harp is indispensable at the national spring festival essech , which goes back to a sun cult. Young men dance in a circle and sing songs, while women gather in a group on the edge and play chomus .

In the 1970s the chomus in Sacha gained a new meaning as a folk musical instrument and also found its way into art music when the Yakut composer Nikolaj Berestow first integrated a folk musical instrument into a classical work for this region in his "Concert improvisations for jaw harp and orchestra". Berestow uses a number of traditional playing techniques to create sound. Vibrato created with the tongue is an ancient way of imitating animal sounds (such as the cry of a goose). Another vibrato is created by shaping the oral cavity and the result is called ürdüh dorgoon ("high tone"), Könköloy dötü ("low tone"), uos khamsatyya ("lip vibration") or khos dorgoon ("two voices "). In addition, there are modern techniques such as clicking the tongue and a choppy game in which the jaw's harp tongue is stopped after plucking. The player can also sing a melody while rhythmically operating the jew's harp.

As a Yakut musician who performed with jew's harps at concerts in Moscow, Iwan Yegorowitsch Alexejew played a leading role in establishing a folk music scene in his homeland, which includes 300 jew's harp players. Since the 1960s he has performed with the Algus ensemble . Other Yakut jaw harp players are Anatoly Ukchanov, P. Pakhomov and Peter Ogotoyev.

Yakutia has a good reputation for making jew's harps, which are typically seven to eight inches long. After forging, the glowing stirrups are cooled in a water to which small amounts of ground beef horn and, depending on the recipe, salt and butter are added. The tongue should be hammered at dusk, accompanied by a ritual invocation. Some manufacturers try to achieve new sound effects through calculations, others decorate their instruments with gold and silver applications and sell them as jewelry.

With the fire cult at the annual Yhyakh festival in Sacha, the spirits should be in a favorable mood.
Equestrian games are part of performances of the Yakut epic epic Oloncho .

At the beginning of the 20th century, several researchers emphasized that the Yakuts were an exception because they did not use the jew's harp for shamanic rituals. Nevertheless, the Yakuts also believe that blacksmiths are endowed with magical powers , according to the Yakut proverb: "Blacksmiths and shamans are from the same nest". For the Yakuts, only blacksmiths are supposed to make jew's harps. Blacksmiths who master fire are considered outsiders in many societies in Asia and Africa because of their presumed magical abilities. They used to live on the outskirts of the village or move around as traveling blacksmiths. There is a mythical relationship between music (of the shaman) and horse breeding through the farriers, which is of great importance in North Asia. The blacksmith with his blowpipe and the musical wind instrument have been linguistically related since ancient times, as can be seen from the etymological examination of written sources ( Vedic dhmātar, "smelter"; dhm ā, "to blow").

Shamans owe their magical abilities to helpful spirits, which are particularly embodied in birds. A bird flies in front of the shaman on the ecstatic journey to heaven, whose costume includes a bird's headgear. In Siberian popular belief, not only the shaman's equipment, but also other objects, animals and natural phenomena are symbols that are related to forces in a world beyond. Shamans, the sick they treated (and supplied with amulets ) and the spirits belong to a large network of relationships based on symbols. In the Sakha Republic, the jaw harp chomus has such a healing meaning that an old word for certain magical practices is called chomusun . For the Yakuts, the jaw harp produces the voice of a loon or cuckoo and thus becomes the embodiment of these birds. In 1995 the Khomus Museum in Yakutsk , which regularly hosts jew's harp concerts, organized therapy groups with two recognized traditional healers. The 20 or so participants danced in trance - while they performed bird-like movements - to the musical accompaniment of jew's harps. At the end of a session, they reached up their hands to let the sun's energy into their bodies. Such practices are related to the worldwide movement of neo-shamanism .

The Jew's harp game is understood as an art form in the Sakha Republic. Several music groups in Yakutsk convey the old Yakut tradition in new musical styles, which fall into the category of ethno-jazz. Among them are the singer Chyskyyrai (bourgeois Valentina Romanova), who plays various rattles and shaman's drums in addition to chomus . After the turn of the millennium, Saina undertook a comparable change from a loud pop-rock singer who was oriented towards Western models to a renewer of tradition. The Ayarkhaan group performs an almost magical installation of blacksmith, shaman and jew's harp.

Discography

  • Khomus: Jew's Harp Music of Turkic Peoples in the Urals, Siberia and Central Asia. Recorded by Vyacheslav Shurov. (PAN-2032CD) PAN Records, 1995 (tracks 1–3: Gorno-Altai, 4: Kyrgyzstan, 5: Tuwa, 6–15: Bashkortostan, 16–33: Yakutia)

literature

  • Ernst Emsheimer : Jew's Harps in Siberia and Central Asia. In: Ethnos , Volume 6, 3–4, Stockholm 1941 (reprinted in: Ernst Emsheimer: Studia ethnomusicologica eurasiatica . Musikhistoriska museet, Stockholm 1964, pp. 13-27)
  • Regina Plate: Cultural History of the Jew's Harp . (Orpheus series of publications on basic questions in music, Volume 64) Publishing house for systematic musicology, Bonn 1992, ISBN 3-922626-64-5
  • Curt Sachs : The Jew's Harp. A typological preliminary study . In: Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Volume 49, Issue 4/6, 1917, pp. 185–200

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Curt Sachs, 1917, p. 196
  2. ^ Regina Plate, 1992, p. 35
  3. ^ Leopold von Schrenck : Travel and research in the Amur country in the years 1854-1856. Volume 3, third delivery. Royal Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 1859, p. 683 ( online at Internet Archive )
  4. ↑ Curt Sachs, 1917, p. 191
  5. ↑ Ernst Emsheimer, 1964, p. 17f
  6. ^ Curt Sachs, 1917
  7. ^ Regina Plate, 1992, p. 70
  8. ↑ Gjermund Kolltveit: The Jew'ss Harp in Western Europe: Trade, Communication, and Innovation, 1150-1500. In: Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol. 4, 2009, pp. 42–61, here p. 43
  9. ↑ Hans Engel : The position of the musician in the Arab-Islamic area. Publishing house for systematic musicology, Bonn 1987, p. 131
  10. ^ Curt Sachs: The musical instruments of India and Indonesia. At the same time an introduction to instrument science. Georg Reimer, Berlin 1915, p. 138
  11. ^ Hans Hickmann: The music of the Arabic-Islamic area. In: Bertold Spuler (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Orientalistik. 1. Dept. The Near and Middle East. Supplementary Volume IV. Oriental Music. EJ Brill, Leiden / Cologne 1970, p. 35
  12. ↑ Regina Plate, 1992, pp. 152f
  13. ^ Francis W. Galpin: The Music of the Sumerians and their Immediate Successors, the Babylonians and Assyrians. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1937, pp. 29f
  14. ↑ Atlas of Plucked Instruments. Middle East.
  15. ↑ Regina Plate, 1992, p. 151f
  16. ↑ Alan R. Trasher: Koqin . In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Volume 2, Macmillan Press, London 1984, p. 461
  17. ↑ Gerhard Doerfer : Turkish and Mongolian elements in New Persian with special consideration of older New Persian historical sources, especially the Mongol and Timurid times. Volume 1. Franz Steiner, Wiesbaden, 1963, p. 99; Regina Plate, 1992, p. 155
  18. ↑ Arthur Byhan: North, Central and West Asia. In: Georg Buschan (Hrsg.): Illustrated ethnology in two volumes. II. First part: Asia and Australia. Asia. Strecker and Schröder, Stuttgart 1923, p. 356 ( online at Internet Archive )
  19. ^ Mark Slobin: Kirgiz Instrumental Music. Society for Asian Music, New York 1969, p. 20
  20. ↑ Svein Westad "Tak teke". Свеин Вестад Варган и куклы. Youtube video
  21. ↑ Mark Slobin: Buz-Baz: A Musical Marionette of Northern Afghanistan . In: Asian Music, Vol. 6, No. 1/2 ( Perspectives on Asian Music: Essays in Honor of Dr. Laurence ER Picken ) 1975, pp. 217–224, here p. 219
  22. ↑ Ernst Emsheimer, 1964, pp. 21-23
  23. ^ Veronica Doubleday: The Frame Drum in the Middle East: Women, Musical Instruments and Power . In: Ethnomusicology, Vol. 43, No. 1, Winter 1999, pp. 101-134, here p. 115
  24. ^ Razia Sultanova: Female Celebrations in Uzbekistan and Afghanistan: The Power of Cosmology in Musical Rites. In: Yearbook for Traditional Music , Vol. 40, 2008, pp. 8–20, here p. 15
  25. ↑ Lorraine Sakata: The Concept of Musician in Three Persian-Speaking Areas of Afghanistan. In: Asian Music, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Afghanistan Issue) 1976, pp. 1–28, here pp. 9, 13
  26. ^ Carole Pegg: Mongolian Conceptualizations of Overtone Singing (xöömii). In: British Journal of Ethnomusicology , Vol. 1, 1992, pp. 31-54, here p. 50
  27. ↑ TO Aksenov: Tuvin Folk Music . In: Asian Music, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1973, pp. 7-18, here p. 12f
  28. ^ Theodore C. Levin, Michael Edgerton: The Throat Singers of Tuva . In: Scientific American, September 1999, pp. 80-87, here p. 87
  29. ↑ Vyacheslav Shurov: Supplement to CD Ural. Traditional Music of Bashkortostan. (Ethnic Series) PAN Records, 1995 (PAN 2018CD)
  30. ^ Jean During, Razia Sultanova: Central Asia . In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): The music in past and present . (MGG) Volume 9, Bärenreiter, Kassel 1998, Sp. 2324f
  31. ^ Georg Tschubinow: Contributions to the psychological understanding of the Siberian magician. Halle 1915, p. 55; quoted from: Regina Plate, 1992, p. 111
  32. ↑ Andrea Nixon: Aman Khuur . In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Volume 1, Macmillan Press, London 1984, p. 52; also: Marianne Bröcker: Jew's harp . In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): The music in past and present . (MGG) Volume 5, Bärenreiter, Kassel 1996, Sp. 1697
  33. ↑ Khomus: Jew's Harp Music of Turkic Peoples in the Urals, Siberia and Central Asia. Recorded by Vyacheslav Shurov. (PAN-2032CD) PAN Records, 1995, title 32: Essekh Melodies by Iwan Jegorowitsch Alexejew with the group Algus
  34. ↑ Regina Plate, 1992, pp. 204-206
  35. ↑ Mircea Eliade : Shamanism and archaic ecstasy technique. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt / Main 1980, p. 434
  36. ↑ Martin Vogel : Onos Lyras. The donkey with the lyre. (Orpheus-Schriftenreihe 16) Volume 1. Verlag der Gesellschaft for the Promotion of Systematic Musicology, Düsseldorf 1973, p. 440
  37. ↑ Regina Plate, 1992, pp. 111f
  38. ↑ Uno Harva : The religious ideas of the Altaic peoples . FF Communications N: o 125.Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Helsinki 1938, p. 504
  39. ^ Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer: Flights of the Sacred: Symbolism and Theory in Siberian Shamanism. In: American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 98, No. 2, June 1996, pp. 305-318, here p. 312
  40. ↑ 06 - Tüül (Vocal Evocations Of Sakha-Yaku, Siberia, 2008) - Chyskyyrai. Youtube video
  41. ↑ Saina Khomus Player. Youtube video
  42. ↑ Aimar Ventsel: World music routes: the modification of the Sakha musical tradition. In: InterDisciplines 1, 2014, pp. 189–211
  43. ↑ Ayarkhaan - Dedication to Kudai Bakhsy, the blacksmiths' patron. Youtube video