Virginia Algonquin

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Distribution of the tribes in Virginia around 1610.

The Virginia Algonquin are a group of culturally related Indian tribes who lived on the tidal rivers of Virginia on the east coast of North America in the early 17th century . They belong to the southeastern tribes of the Algonquin language group, but their language is now extinct.

Residential area and environment

In the west, their traditional residential area was bordered by the so-called Piedmont , a plateau up to 300 meters high in front of the Appalachian Mountains. Tribes related to the Sioux lived here and were hostile to the coastal peoples. To the south lay the Great Dismal Swamp , which separated the Virginia Algonquin from their linguistically related groups in North Carolina , while to the north the Potomac River formed the boundary of their residential area.

The coastal plain of Virginia consists of alluvial land that rises up to 100 meters above sea level and is partially covered by extensive swamps and marshland. Four tidal rivers flow into Chesapeake Bay , namely the Potomac, Rappahannock , York, and James Rivers , dividing the area into four large peninsulas.

The subtropical climate of the region extends beyond its northern border and ensures warm, humid temperatures with sufficient rainfall in summer. Extensive oak and pine forests thrive to the north of the James River, while predominantly moist pine forests in the south. Many species of fish live in the coastal and inland waters, edible clams are found in lower Chesapeake Bay, and oyster beds are found in many of the estuaries. In addition to the resident bird species, there are various waterfowl that winter in Virginia. Mammals are mainly deer, bear, fox, raccoon, opossum, beaver, otter, squirrel and puma.

language

The list of words of John Smith , the founder of Jamestown, and William Strachey's vocabulary are the main sources that exist of the Virginia-Algonquin language; in these, however, place names and proper names are underrepresented. However, the evidence available is sufficient to classify the Virginia Algonquin into the subgroup of the Eastern Algonquin language . At least two dialects can be clearly distinguished on a phonetic basis, but they cannot be associated with particular areas.

Virginia Algonquin tribes

After the arrival of the English in 1607, all of the tribes on the James River, York River and Payankatank River and their tributaries, with the exception of the Chickahominy , became part of a centrally ruled alliance under Powhatan as chief chief. However, some of the most recently joined tribes, such as the Chesapeake and other tribes from southern Virginia, were never fully integrated into the empire.

The independent Chickahominy tribe alternately allied with their Powhatan neighbors or the English to maintain their independence. The Powhatan Group broke up after the Second Powhatan War from 1644 to 1646. The tribes on the James River in particular could no longer be ruled by the Pamunkey, who had dominated until now. The Weanock were at war with the Nansemond, Potchayick, and Powhatan. Although the colonial government reduced their attacks, the Pamunkey were no longer able to maintain control of the Chickahominy. The growing isolation of the Indians in the areas inhabited by whites contributed to the disintegration of the former confederation.

group tribe residential area
Powhatan Confederation Chesapeake Chesapeake Bay
Mattaponi Chickahominy River
Nansemond Nansemond River
Pamunkey Pamunkey River
Powhatan James River
Werowocomoco York River
and 25 other tribes
another Virginia Algonquin Chickahominy Chickahominy River
Rappahannock Rappahannock River

Demographics

After the arrival of the English in 1607, all the tribes on the James, York and Payankatank Rivers and their tributaries, with the exception of the Chickahominy, became part of a centrally ruled confederation under Powhatan as the highest chief.

Seventeenth-century populations are recorded by contemporary sources and show the decline in numbers of the Virginia-Algonquin, but are obviously underestimated, except for Strachey's numbers. Calculations on proven cases place the population of the Virginia Algonquin in the range of 14,000 to 21,000 people. If you factor in the early population losses from imported infectious diseases and armed conflict, then the total population was likely to be larger.

Tribes Smith
1608 		Strachey
1611 		Hening
1669 		Beverley
1703
2000 census
Powhatan 3,925 10,380 780 265 1,342
Chickahominy 835 1,000 200 55 1.007
Cuttatawomen 100 100 - - -
Matchotic 335 335 - - -
Moratico 265 265 135 - -
Nansatico 500 500 165 - -
Potomac 665 535 - - -
Potopaco - - 200 17th -
Rappahannock 335 335 100 some families 269
Secacawoni 100 100 - - -
Tauxenent 135 135 - - -
Wicocomoco 435 435 235 10 -

Culture in the 17th century

Livelihood

The life of the Virginia Algonquin was determined by the procurement of food, with hunting, fishing and collecting wild herbs for about three-quarters of the needs, while the rest came from horticulture. The annual cycle began in winter when the tribes moved upstream to their hunting grounds. Often up to 300 hunters took part in organized, joint hunts. The game was driven into the shooting range of the hunters with fire or chased into a river and killed from boats.

Land around the village was prepared for garden cultivation by means of slash and burn . From April to June maize was planted and weeds were weeded by women and children. The men were obliged to work in the chief's fields. In addition to maize, two types of beans, melons, pumpkins, passion flowers and tobacco were grown. Until the harvest in August to October, the trunks divided into small groups. While the gathering of roots, nuts and acorns was women's work, the men used river weirs to fish from reed, fishhooks, nets and arrows that were connected to the bow with lines. Attempts by the English from around 1650 to introduce cattle breeding among the Indians had little success. Some Native Americans raised pigs around 1673, but most groups preferred to prey on the animals of their English neighbors.

Meat, fish and shellfish were cooked to make a soup. Corn flour dough, ground in wooden mortars , was either baked or cooked in the form of balls or flat cakes. Well known was a thick maize porridge, the Hominy was called. Young corn was used in several dishes and even roasted and powdered corn on the cob was eaten. Bread and soup were also made from acorns, chestnuts and grass seeds. The ashes from hickory trees and other plants served as a salt substitute. Before the introduction of alcohol, water was the only drink. To a limited extent, food supplies were stored on racks or in pits. Only the chiefs were able to store large quantities of corn, beans, dried meat, fish and oysters in their stores.

The English colony had a major impact on the local economy. In the early days of the settlers, large quantities of corn were bought or stolen from the Indians. After the Jamestown massacre in 1622, the English tactic was to punish the Indians by burning their fields each summer. Later the reserves often proved to be too small for a living as the soil was quickly depleted by growing maize, but the right to hunt, fish and collect wild plants outside the reserve had to be approved by the colonial government.

Materials management

Tools were made of stone, bones, shells, wood, or metal. Trees were cleared by fire or made to die by peeling the bark. The woodworking was done with angular stones and mussel shells. The brains of animals were used to tan hides and skins. Women were skilled potters who decorated their pottery, hardened with ground shells, with invented motifs. Women also made baskets and mats from rushes and Indian hemp. A simple drill served as a fire lighter, and moss, dry leaves, and rotten wood were used as tinder . In addition to pots, woven bags and baskets, pumpkins, wooden and stone bowls and leather bags served as containers. A so-called cradle board served as a baby carrier. Dugout - canoes to 17 meters in length were paddled on the waterways or poled. Bridges made of wooden, split posts and walking boards spanned streams and swamps, and easily recognizable paths crossed the woods.

The tools of the indigenous people, such as knives made of reed splinters, scrapers made of stone and shells, engraving tools made of bear teeth, awls and needles made of bones, wooden hoes and stone axes with wooden handles, were replaced early on by iron tools of European origin. Iron tomahawks replaced the previously common wooden, saber-shaped clubs with a spherical head that was reinforced with stone or metal points. Simple bows made of maple, acacia or hazelnut branches were covered with twisted leather strips or casings. The arrows had a shaft made of wood or reed, two feathers behind for stabilization and a tip made of stone, bone, turkey claws, bird's beaks and shells. Despite the ban, the Indians soon learned to use firearms. Pipes were made of clay and decorated with dotted patterns or inlaid copper.

The villages mostly consisted of several neighboring hamlets that were lined up along the rivers. Few villages, particularly in Northern Virginia, were protected by palisades . The square-shaped houses were around 9 meters wide and 17 meters long, consisted of a framework of curved poles and were covered with mats made of bark or reed. They had two doors made of movable mats, a hole in the ceiling for a smoke outlet and an open fire in the middle. Mat-covered raised platforms along the walls served as sleeping quarters. There were also supply stores, sweat lodges , temples, and the chief's house and the meeting house. During the hunting season, the women built small huts covered with mats that were only inhabited temporarily.

dress

All Indians in Virginia wore a kind of loincloth in the warm season , which consisted of a belt and an apron made of leather or vegetable material. Most of the children ran around unclothed, only with the older ones a bundle of moss was used to cover the genitals. In winter, clothing consisted of simple deerskin moccasins and leggings that were attached to the belt. The upper garment made of deer or raccoon fur was fastened over one shoulder or wrapped around the body, it was often set with fringes and painted or decorated with shells and copper beads. In addition, there were feather coats, which consisted of turkey feathers attached to a net and were mainly worn by members of the upper class. Standard European fabrics, preferably red, gradually replaced leather clothing. The hairdresses to mark rank and class were varied, they were decorated with colored tufts of deer hair, individual feathers, feather caps, copper ornaments and woven ribbons with shell beads, antlers were used as headdresses. Priests identified themselves through specific items of clothing and jewelry.

Life cycle

The name given to a child shortly after birth was not final; it could change in the course of life. A Virginia Algonquin could acquire additional names that corresponded to particular merit or ability. Infants were regularly bathed in cold water early in the morning. During puberty, some young people had to undergo the Huskenaw rite . Some suitable boys between the ages of 10 and 15 were selected by the chief and priest, ritually separated from their parents and then lived for nine months in seclusion in the woods, where they were trained as priests or advisers.

Before the wedding, the groom paid a bride price to the bride's family . A man could marry as many women as he could support, but generally only one of the upper class was wealthy enough to support more than one woman. After the marriage, the woman moved into her husband's house. Powhatan sometimes loaned his wives to befriended tribal leaders, for example to consolidate the alliance.

After death, property was passed on to the male line. Mourning was the task of women who blackened their faces and mourned the dead for 24 hours. The deceased was wrapped in mats or hides and buried or buried on a scaffold, with the decayed meat later removed. The body of a chief called Weroance was preserved by cleaning the bones and putting the original skin back on and sewing it up. Then he found his final resting place on scaffolding in the western part of a temple, of which there was at least one in every tribal area.

Social organization

The household, probably some kind of extended family, was considered the smallest unit of the Virginia-Algonquin and had around 6 to 20 members. One or more villages formed a tribe led by a Weroance. The female line was decisive for the inheritance of the chief's rank.

Status or wealth could be acquired by any member of the tribe through success in war or personal economic achievement. As a result, the social organization of the Virginia Algonquin was characterized by complexity. However, there were restrictive measures to maintain the ruling class. Part of the economic income was subject to tribute and this had to be paid to the Weroance and the priest. The chief's fields had to be worked by members of the tribe and profits from trade monopolies were reserved for the ruling class. Social promotions were made by the upper class. Good warriors or other deserving people were awarded material goods and titles by Werowance. Besides the Werowance, his advisors and priests belonged to the upper class. Although women could become chiefs, all advisors and priests were men. Powhatan's state is referred to as a “confederation,” but a small-scale monarchy would be more appropriate . The membership of the tribes within the group was not voluntary, but took place through inheritance or submission of the chief chief. Political and economic coercion held the state together.

The first years after European contact were characterized by a policy of the colonists, through which Powhatan's position as supreme chief and the position of the werowances among the tribes were to be strengthened. The chiefs gained trust through the development of trade links and their prestige increased when the British recognized their leadership qualities in disputes within the tribes. While the role of werowance remained important, the position of supreme chief later disappeared as the fragmentation of the tribal territories continued. In the council meeting, priests had the final decision about a campaign and the Weroance or a deputy was given the leadership position. It was common to capture scalps and head trophies. Powhatan's bodyguard consisted of at least 50 warriors and formed a kind of standing army in peacetime .

religion

Quiyoughcosuck was the name for a priest and at the same time for a lowly, well-meaning deity. In contrast to a vicious opponent named Tagkanysough , a terrible murderous god also called Oke , whose image was kept in the temple and taken into battle. Dead werowances and priests were believed to live on in the shape of an oke. Another deity was Ahone , a peace-loving god to whom no gifts were brought. According to the ideology of the upper class, only chiefs and priests could expect a kind of afterlife. In general, however, the people believed in rebirth and an afterlife for all. Gifts of pearls, copper, tobacco or red paint were brought to the god Oke on stone altars in the woods.

The priests, of whom there were at least two classes, lived in the temples, where they kept an eternal fire and recorded the past in picture writing. They organized ceremonies from September to mid-November, managed the treasures of the werowances, acted as magicians and doctors, trying to cure the disease with magical procedures and the use of medicinal herbs. In their rituals, the priests used a language that was incomprehensible to the common people.

history

Sixteenth century

Old Spanish maps indicate that there was contact with the Virginia Algonquians on the Chesapeake Bay around 1525. Around 1560, a Spanish ship took an Indian from the Kiskiack tribe on board, who turned out to be a member of a chief family on the York River. He was baptized in Mexico in the name of Don Luis after the Spanish viceroy Luis de Velasco and brought up in Cuba and Spain. In September 1570, Don Luis led a small group of Spanish Jesuits and a Spanish boy to the Kiskiack near what is now Jamestown , Virginia, to establish a mission there. Soon after his return, Don Luis had assumed his position as chief of the tribe. There were conflicts with the missionaries. In the spring of 1571 he turned against his former teachers and incited his tribal brothers to murder the missionaries. The Spanish boy survived and was adopted by Don Luis' brother. In 1572 a Spanish punitive expedition appeared off the coast, rescued the boy and killed at least 40 Indians.

Chief Powhatan in a longhouse in Werowocomoco (detail from map by John Smith, 1612)

Don Luis' family ruled the tribes along the lower York River in 1570. Chief Wahunsonacock, possibly the son of Don Luis' sister, inherited this land between 1572 and 1597 as well as the area on the James River below the falls. In 1597 he conquered Kecoughtan and before 1607 incorporated almost all other tribes on the James and York Rivers into the Powhatan Confederation . Wohunsonacock, later called Powhatan by the English, eventually ruled over 31 tribes and around 13,000 people. It is likely that contacts with Europeans encouraged the emergence of such large political entities.

The English colonists from Roanoke in what would later become North Carolina had their first, albeit hostile, contact with the Virginia Algonquin in 1584. In 1588, Spaniards reached Chesapeake Bay again in search of the English colony.

Seventeenth century

In May 1607 three English ships docked in the Chesapeake Bay near the mouth of the James River. 104 men, sent by the London Virginia Company , established the Jamestown colony here . With the establishment of a permanent English colony, all neighboring tribes immediately sensed the presence of the settlers. Fear caused by previous traumatic experiences with whites and the hope for advantages through relationships with technically superior people are characteristic of the mixed feelings with which the settlers were treated. The Indians often changed their minds on whether to trade and ally with them or destroy the strangers. This vacillating attitude allowed the English to survive the first few years and even to learn from the Indians how to grow corn, how to fish, and how to build bark huts.

Captain John Smith

Captain John Smith , the third president of Virginia, proved to be the strong leader the colony needed. Trade with the Indians flourished and relations with Chief Wahunsenacawh (also called Powhatan (approx. 1545 – approx. 1618)) improved. A new recruitment campaign by the Virginia Company generated new inflows of capital and investors. Between March 1608 and 1609, more than 600 colonists ventured across the Atlantic to Virginia.

The English colonists made alliances with several tribes and the Chickahominy had even recognized James I as their king. The marriage of the daughter Wahunsenacawh, Pocahontas , to the Englishman John Rolfe in April 1614 was a symbol of the new peace between the two peoples.

Pocahontas statue in Jamestown, erected in 1922

By 1622, both sides tried to get control of the other. With minor skirmishes, the Indian population was displaced from large parts of the Virginia Peninsula. When the Indians saw that time was working against them, their priests easily managed to stir up their feelings against the invaders. On March 22, 1622, the Powhatan Confederation, supported by Chickahominy and some tribes from the Potomac River, led the first concentrated attack against the colonists. It came to the so-called Jamestown massacre , in which 347 settlers were killed. A decade of interrupted wars followed , in which the Indians suffered heavy losses.

When the Powhatan tried for the second time on April 18, 1644, to expel the English, they faced 15,000 colonists and their Indian allies. After two years of war, a peace was made that placed the Virginia Algonquin under English control and cost them all of the land between York and Blackwater River . Although the English were nominally forbidden to enter Indian land, they soon occupied large areas there. After 1650, warriors of the Pamunkey and Chickahominy fought for the English against invading Iroquois. However , anti-Indian sentiments were mobilized during the Bacon's rebellion in 1676. This led to the attack on the uninvolved Appamatuck, Chickahominy and Pamunkey tribes. In 1677 a new treaty was signed by which the Indians lost their remaining land and were crammed into small reservations for which they had to pay tribute to the colonists on top of that.

Opechancanough, Powhatan's younger brother

Despite the lip service of the English to educate and Christianize the Indians, nothing was done throughout the seventeenth century. Few Indians spoke English around 1700 because the administration was usually handled by interpreters. In closer contact with European civilization came mainly those Indians who worked as hunters, scouts or servants of the colonists. Relations between Algonquin tribes and their traditional enemies, the Sioux and Iroquois , remained tense, but lost their original meaning under the influence of the whites. In 1685 a treaty was signed with the Five Nations that would end their raids in Virginia.

Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

The Weanock, Appamatuck, Potopaco, and Rappahannock have been considered extinct since 1722, although the Rappahannock persisted on their reservation, established in the late seventeenth century, into the twentieth century. The same goes for the Chickahominy, who disappeared from the public eye before 1760, and the Nansemond, who shared their fate after they sold their reservation in 1786. The Nansatico story ends abruptly in 1705 when the entire tribe was deported to Antigua after a murder committed by tribesmen . Only the Pamunkey and Mattaponi retained their tribal status in reservations, but their size continued to shrink. Trustees were appointed for the Nansemond in 1744 and for the Pamunkey in 1759 to prevent the Indians from being cheated on land sales.

The increasing adaptation to European culture led to conflicts between traditionalists and English-oriented groups. Both sides met the same fate, because even the greatest possible assimilation to white norms did not lead to recognition as white.

Mixed marriages with whites and blacks outside the reservations promoted isolation. Refugee black slaves and whites who were dissatisfied with life in their own society occasionally lived with the Indians and were often married to them. On the other hand, Indians living among whites were often forced to mix with blacks. Some Indians later claimed to send their children into slavery. In fact, however, racial intermingling opened the way to racial discrimination after the Indians were classified in the category of colored people in 1705. Marriages with whites, on the other hand, were considered prestigious and a little later became an important part of tribal history if one could prove a white ancestor.

Adaptation to the white diet was slow. Maize was also grown, hunted and fished. Cotton was planted and harvested by women. However, around 1850 the men began to occupy themselves with agriculture. Bows and arrows or rifles were used in hunting and a wide variety of traps were in use. Eventually cattle breeding was introduced and part of the Indian economy. Chickens and cows were kept close to the houses, while cattle and pigs had more space and were only caught for fattening.

Houses made of logs or boards gradually replaced bark or mat-roofed huts. Dugout canoes were replaced by plank boats. The clothing consisted mainly of woven fabrics that were spun or bought. Men preferred long hair to distinguish themselves from black people. In addition to two reservations, the formal tribal organization dissolved, but tribal awareness was retained in the face of external pressure. The group bond also continued through marriage within the community. Tribal laws on the reservations prohibited marriages to black people, a restriction that was later adopted by groups outside the reservations. Polygamy was practiced until 1712 and then disappeared with the Indian religion, opening the way to Christianization. Most groups professed the Baptist faith even before 1800 . The doctrine of Indian medicinal herbs, formerly a domain of the priests, was passed down as general knowledge.

Twentieth century

By 1900 only the Pamunkey and Mattaponi lived on their reservations and had retained their tribal identity. Since 1900 attempts have been made to determine the number of people with Indian status and how they have changed. While the number of Indians in eastern Virginia increased, it dwindled in the reservations due to a lack of income. Since 1960, the Indians living in rural areas have been outnumbered by those living in metropolitan areas. Some of the Indians living in cities or suburbs were still affiliated with their tribe, while others were not even considered descendants of the Virginia Algonquin. More than half of the approximately 3.7 km² Pamunkey Reserve consists of forested swamps and is unsuitable for agriculture. While the arable land is divided among the residents, the rest is divided into six areas or hunting areas and leased annually to the highest often non-Indian providers. The Mattaponi reserve covers only 0.5 km².

Agriculture remained an important source of income for the Indians until after the Second World War. Group hunting, trapping, and fishing with nets, leashes, and fishing rods continued, although various previously used methods were prohibited by state hunting and fishing laws. During the fishing season, the Pamunkey and Mattaponi sold their catch to a company in Richmond on a daily basis . Many Indians commuted to jobs in cities such as Richmond, Fredericksburg or Washington, where they worked in various professions. Some of the traditional manufacturing techniques found in eastern Virginia endured into the twentieth century. Baskets made of shavings from the white oak were widely used. The Rappahannock also made baskets from rush, while the Mattaponi used honeysuckle stems. The Pamunkey's pottery art was revived in 1932 by a state-established pottery school. The products are still fired in electric drying ovens, painted with bright colors and glazed. These and other products are sold at a trading post on the reserve.

Although mixed marriages with whites became more common around 1950, marriage with other Indians is still preferred. Mixed marriages with blacks generally resulted in expulsion from the tribe. Regardless of this, Indians were discriminated just as often as blacks, especially through the application of the "Virginia Racial Integration Act" of 1924. A large number of relatives marriages were known from the Chickahominy. At the time of racial segregation, most Indians were denied access to white schools and they in turn refused to attend “colored” schools. The small private schools of the Chickahominy and Upper Mattaponi, as well as the state reservation school of the Pamunkey and Mattaponi only offered classes up to the seventh grade. After 1950, higher classes were added at some schools. The Rappahannock and Nansemond never had schools of their own, but the Nansemond were admitted to white schools. Teachers were mainly of Indian descent and Indian arts and techniques could be learned there.

Most of the Indians of eastern Virginia are Baptists, except for the Methodist Nansemond. The oldest church is the Pamunkey Indian Baptist Church from 1865. However, the majority of the congregations are cared for by white clergy. The Chickahominy Fall Festival has been held on September 4th every year since around 1950 . Organized by the Western Chickahominy, who are also actively involved in Pan-Indian politics, the event features Native American dances and other activities to enliven relationships with Indians outside of the state.

Todays situation

Today eight Indian tribes living in Virginia have been state recognized by the state of Virginia. Seven of them belong to the Virginia-Algonquin, the eighth tribe, the Monacan Indian Nation, belong to the eastern Sioux.

The Virginia-Algonquin tribes are ruled by a chief and a council of four to eight members. Elections take place every four years and there is no limit to re-election. With the reservation Indians only the men have the right to vote. The council is the tribe's executive branch. In the reserve, the council also regulates business with the reserve land and selects the tribe's trustees from among suitable white citizens of the area to assist the council if necessary. The chief represents his tribe externally and is always chosen according to his personal abilities, although he can also be the son of a previous chief.

Most of the Indians of eastern Virginia are Baptists, except for the Methodist Nansemond. The oldest church is the Pamunkey Indian Baptist Church from 1865. However, the majority of the congregations are cared for by white clergy.

  • Chickahominy

The majority of the Chickahominy tribesmen live in Charles City County in Virginia, where the tribe was already at home around 1600. Today the tribe is led by a council of twelve (tribal council) including a chief and two deputies, who are all elected by the tribe members. Today there are around 875 members who live within an 8 km radius of the tribal center. A few more hundred chickahomini can be found in other parts of the United States. The tribe received state recognition in 1883 and has been seeking federal recognition since 1996. The Chickahominy chief is currently Stephen Adkins. The Chickahominy Fall Festival has been held on September 4th every year since around 1950 . Organized by the Western Chickahominy, who are also actively involved in Pan-Indian politics, the event features Native American dances and other activities to enliven relationships with Indians outside of the state.

  • Eastern Chickahominy

Today's tribal center is about 25 miles east of Richmond, Virginia. The tribe, which was officially recognized in 1983, bought around 166,000 m² of land in 2002 in order to build a tribal center and a museum there. The current chief of the Eastern Chickahominy is Gene Adkins.

  • Mattaponi

The members of this tribe live on a reservation that is on the banks of the Mattaponi River in King William County, Virginia. The Mattaponi Indian Reservation was established as early as 1658, but has lost size over the years. Today it only covers an area of ​​around 0.6 km² (150 acres). Although 450 members are registered in the tribal register, only 75 people currently live in the reservation. The tribe is led by a council of nine including a chief and a deputy, all elected by the tribe members. The Mattaponi chief is currently Carl Custalow.

Nansemoon family in Norfolk County, Virginia about 1900
  • Nansemond

The members of the Nansemond Indian Tribal Association live on the Nansemond River in the urban area of ​​Suffolk, Virginia, where they were already at home before the arrival of Europeans at the beginning of the 17th century. The tribe received state recognition in Virginia in 1985 and plans to build a tribal center with an attached museum on traditional tribal land on the Nansemond River. The annual Powwow takes place in August. The chief of the Nansemon is currently Barry W. Bass.

  • Pamunkey

The nearly 5 km² (1,500 acres) Pamunkey Indian Reservation lies on the Pamunkey River and borders on King William County. There are 31 tribal families here and more can be found in neighboring Richmond, as well as throughout the state of Virginia and the United States. The reserve has existed since 1677. The tribe is led by a chief and a six-member council, who are elected every four years by the tribe members. The 2000 US census found 347 tribesmen. The Pamunkey chief is currently Kevin Brown.

  • Rappahannock

In 1682, the Rappahannock in Indian Neck on the Rappahannock River were assigned around 14 km² of land on which their descendants still live today. In 1983, the tribe received state recognition as one of the historic tribes of the Commonwealth of Virginia, and in 1996 state recognition was sought. In 1998, the Rappahannock elected the first female chief since the 17th century, G. Anne Richardson, who is still in office today. Traditionally, on the second Saturday in October, the Harvest Festival is celebrated in the Indian Neck cultural center. The US census 2000 counted 269 tribesmen.

  • Upper Mattaponi

The current residential area of ​​the Upper Mattaponi in King William County corresponded to the location of the village Passaunkack on the map of Captain John Smith from 1612. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Upper Mattaponi were called Adamtown Indians because many of them were named Adam . It wasn't until the early 20th century that they changed the name to Upper Mattaponi Indian Tribe . The tribe received state recognition in 1883 and has been seeking state recognition since 1996. He bought his own land on which to build a tribal center and hold cultural events. The tribal powwow takes place annually in the last week of May. The current chief of the Upper Mattaponi is Kenneth Adams.

literature

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Chapter: Virginia Algonquians, page 253.
  2. ↑ a b Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Chapter: Virginia Algonquians, pp. 257–25.
  3. ↑ a b c Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Chapter: Virginia Algonquians, pp. 258–25.
  4. ↑ a b c Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Chapter: Virginia Algonquians, pp. 259–25.
  5. ↑ Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Chapter: Virginia Algonquians, page 260.
  6. ↑ a b c d e Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Chapter: Virginia Algonquians, page 262.
  7. ↑ a b Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Chapter: Virginia Algonquians, page 261.
  8. ^ A b Alvin M. Josephy jr .: 500 Nations. Page 182f. Frederking & Thaler GmbH, Munich 1996. ISBN 3-89405-356-9
  9. ↑ a b c d Alvin M. Josephy jr .: 500 Nations. Page 202ff. Frederking & Thaler GmbH, Munich 1996. ISBN 3-89405-356-9
  10. ↑ Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Chapter: Virginia Algonquians, page 257.
  11. ↑ a b c Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Chapter: Virginia Algonquians, page 262ff.
  12. ↑ a b c d e f g Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Chapter: Virginia Algonquians, page 265ff.
  13. ↑ Chickahominy, story. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on February 6, 2007 ; Retrieved January 15, 2009 .
  14. ^ Eastern Chickahominy, History. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on February 6, 2007 ; Retrieved January 15, 2009 .
  15. ^ Mattaponi, History. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on July 5, 2012 ; Retrieved January 15, 2009 .
  16. ↑ Nansemond, History. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on February 6, 2007 ; Retrieved January 15, 2009 .
  17. ↑ Pamunkey, History. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on January 30, 2009 ; Retrieved January 15, 2009 .
  18. ^ Rappahannock, History. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on January 15, 2009 ; Retrieved January 15, 2009 .
  19. ↑ upperMattaponi, history. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on January 15, 2009 ; Retrieved January 15, 2009 .