Yoke thé
Yoke thé , also yokthe thay ( Burmese script ရုပ်သေး , joʊʔ θé , "little play doll") is the Burmese name for the puppet theater in Myanmar . The 28 painted wooden dolls, which were customary in the 19th century and dressed in a costume, hung on up to 18 threads and were operated by a puppeteer. A set consisted of mythological, animal and human figures. The leading role in the ensemble was assigned to the singer and speaker of one of the two main characters. The only traditional marionette theater in Southeast Asia can be traced back to the 15th century; it reached its peak during the Konbaung dynasty (1752–1885) when it was controlled, promoted and preferred to dance theaters ( zat pwe ) with actors by the royal family . A nightly performance always began with the creation of the world, acoustically symbolized by the accompanying orchestra hsaing waing , followed by a scene in the Himawunta forest and then a scene in the palace, which symbolically corresponded to the introduction of kingship. The actual drama followed at midnight, often depicting Buddhist Jataka stories.
In British colonial rule, after the loss of traditional patronage, the puppeteers had to provide for their own living and to introduce new forms of play and characters. This could not stop the gradual decline of the puppet theater and after the Second World War there were hardly any active puppeteers left. Since the 1990s, the game has been revived , especially in Mandalay, in a different form and often as a tourist performance.
history
Influences from India and China
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The origins of puppet theater in Myanmar are unclear. After three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century, the country belonged to British India as the easternmost province from 1886 before it was granted independence in its current borders in 1948. During more than two thousand years of pre-colonial history, the peoples of Myanmar were under the cultural influence of the two adjoining large regions of India and China.
In the 3rd century BC Buddhism , which originated in India, spread among the ancestors of the Mon in Myanmar. Representatives of an Indian origin of the Burmese puppets refer to Buddhist sources from that time and to the epic Mahabharata (from 400 BC). From the Buddhist assembly Therigatha , which was first handed down orally and published around 80 BC. Was written down, the existence of a puppet theater can be read out. In the contemporary Jain texts, picture counters ( mankha ) are mentioned, which are considered to be the forerunners of today's Patua because they told stories and also showed pictures. There is also the well-known thesis that the Indian shadow play tradition has its origins in ancient Indian times. Today the puppet theater in India is cultivated in local traditions under the name Kathputli in Rajasthan and Sakhi kandhei (also Sakhinata ) in Odisha . In Rajasthan the player ties the cords around his fingers, in Odisha he moves the figures with three to four cords that are attached to a triangular wooden frame or a short stick. Sakhi kandhei , as a game with hand puppets is also called in Odisha , is a tradition of the Kela, a semi-nomadic group of showmen who perform as snake charmers , magicians, puppeteers and with a folk dance ( Kela keluni ).
In the second half of the 1st millennium, the Malay Islands were culturally influenced by Indian traders and missionaries. To this day, the traditional Indonesian forms of acting ( wayang ), which include the shadow play wayang kulit , the play with stick puppets wayang golek and the vanished picture role drama wayang beber, are based on stories from the Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana . The wayang kulit , possibly first mentioned in a royal document in the 9th century, has its origins in the shadow play Ravana chhaya by Odisha, which in turn is related to the local mask dance theater chhau . A puppet tradition has not developed in Southeast Asia, apart from Myanmar; In addition to Indonesia, shadow plays also dominate in Malaysia (especially Wayang Gedek ), Cambodia ( sbek thom ) and Thailand (in the south nang talung , in the center nang yai ). In contrast to all neighboring countries in Myanmar, as far as is known, there was never a shadow play and the Ramayana , which has long served as a narrative basis in neighboring countries , was only introduced in Myanmar in the 18th century.
However, Indian puppet theater made its way to Sri Lanka , where nool rukada was believed to have become a popular folk art in the 18th century. Since the 19th century, a puppet theater based on the nadagama folk theater of the Tamil minority has been performed exclusively in the southwest of the island . The nadagama in turn goes back to the Catholic blacksmith Philippu Singho (1770-1840) from Negombo .
Some Burmese researchers point to the history of puppet theater in China, which goes back as long as that in India. According to an anecdote about magical practices, the origin of Chinese shadow theater is believed to have been in the 2nd century BC. In the Han dynasty . In addition to shadow theater, there is a Chinese tradition of hand puppets, stick puppets and marionettes. The Manchu in northwest China were formerly nomads and may have spread certain forms of shadow play - in which they might project the shadows of the figures onto tent walls - or puppet shows in Central Asia. This is said to have influenced the Turkish Karagöz in the end, but its immediate forerunner is the Arabic shadow play . According to another opinion, puppet shows were shown in the nomad tents. In the period between the end of the Han Dynasty (220 AD) and the Song Dynasty (960–1279), there was a comical puppet figure named "Mr. Guo" ( Guolang and Guogong ), who came before all other figures on the The stage appeared. According to the Chinese scholar Sun Kaidi (1898–1986), the early form of Chinese opera , nanxi , developed in the 12th century in the Song Dynasty, developed from the puppet and shadow play tradition . In any case, puppets were widespread in Central Asia; the Afghan goat puppet buz bazi is a reminiscence . Better known is the Iranian puppet theater cheimeh schab bazi , for which Indian and Mongolian influences can be recognized and which is in the Persian sources from 11/12. Century becomes tangible.
development
To what extent the Burmese puppet theater descends from the puppet theaters in India and China or represents an independent invention has not been conclusively clarified, nor has its age. Some Burmese authors quote the saying thabin-ah-sa-yoke-thay-ka (“Dance and drama began with puppets”), which puts the origins of puppetry in a distant past, others see its beginning under the rule of Singu Min (ruled 1776–1782), the fourth king of the Konbaung dynasty .
U Wun, the Minister of Performing Arts under the ninth king of the Konbaung dynasty, Bagan Min (r. 1846-1853), said the Burmese puppets were introduced in the 12th century without giving any evidence of this. Marionettes are not recognizable on any of the surviving paintings from the Bagan period (1044–1287). An inscription on the Shwesandaw Pagoda in Pyay , which King Kyanzittha (Htihlaing Min, ruled 1084–1112) had affixed, shows how the ruler received his subjects: They were costumed as animals, demons and gods, and entertained him Dance and song. Puppet shows may have originated from such mask dances. In the Glass Palace Chronicle , which was written by order of King Bagyidaw (r. 1819–1837) in 1829 , it is said that King Alaungsithu (r. 1112–1167 in Bagan) saw a group of stone musicians on his pilgrimage to India revived and in this way invented the Burmese puppets.
The first reliable evidence of a form of entertainment with puppets is the donor's inscription on the Tupayon Pagoda in Sagaing, which was built in 1444 by King Narapati (r. 1443–1469) . The ruler of the Kingdom of Ava mentions the oldest known Burmese word for "puppet", ah-yoke , as well as a group of entertainers, including professional puppeteers. What their art looked like cannot be deduced from this. It was probably showmen traveling around the country who - as is common in the country today - set up a brief stage for each performance. A young bhikkhu (Buddhist monk) named Shin Ratthasara (1468–1529) wrote the poem Buridat- (lingagyi) pyo based on the Bhuridatta- Jataka in 1484 , in which he tells about Nagas (mythical snakes) living in the trees that their movements correspond the jumping steps of the dance dolls ( ah-yoke-ka ). Many of the narratives written in Pali from the Buddha's earlier life served as the basis for a retelling in the special form of poetry ( pyo ), which makes up a considerable part of Burmese Buddhist literature. Shin Ratthasara is considered to be one of the two most important pyo poets of the Ava period. Another poem by Ratthasara with the title Mingalazedi-mawgun was written on the occasion of the Mingalazedi Pagoda in Tada-U (near Mandalay), which was completed in 1496 under King Mingaung II (Minkhaung II of Ava , reigned 1480–1501). According to this, wooden dolls were presented at the inauguration ceremony. A large figure representing a Brahmin fortune teller could roll its eyes, open its mouth to recite prayers, and read from the hand of the onlookers approaching , possibly with a ventriloquist giving it a voice. Once again, Ratthasara mentions a puppet show in Thanwara-pyo , which he wrote around 1529 when he was further south in Sub- Burma. It can be concluded that puppetry was widespread in more than one area at the time; what it looked like is not known. One question is whether the puppets were moved on strings by actors crouching on trees or whether the puppeteers erected a small triangular platform made of bamboo for the figures and stood behind a curtain with the speakers.
The following sources include the “Great Chronicle of History” ( Maha yazawin gyi or Mahayazawindawgyi ) from 1724 by U Kala, a historian of the Taungu dynasty . It states that there was a delegation from Goa , Machilipatnam (India) and Aceh (Indonesia) 1618 was received in Pegu (today Bago ) at the court of King Anaukpetlun (r. 1605–1628) and entertained with the presentation of “large and small string figures”. The treatise In-yon-sar-tan reports on the ceremonies that were carried out during the Nyaungyan dynasty (1599–1751, named after the Taungu ruler Nyaungyan Min, r. 1599–1605) at the three-day Burmese festival of lights Tazaungdaing . Regarding the construction of the stage, it is said that the organizers have to provide nine bamboo pavilions, four of which are for male spectators on the left and five for female spectators on the right. In addition to dancing, singing and music, a puppet play was shown.
According to a thesis by Deedok U Ba Cho (1951), the early popularity of marionette theater is related to the prudish prudery of the Burmese at the time, in which dances and other closer contact between the sexes are said to have been frowned upon in public and the audience was still at the introduction of singing duets on theatrical stages in the second half of the 18th century. The wooden dolls were therefore used as a substitute for human actors. However, this contradicts the inscription on the Shwesandaw Pagoda around 1100, which describes celebrations with dances and chants in Bagan, to which visitors from all regions and villages flocked. Numerous wall paintings from the Bagan period, on which dancers can be seen, also contradict this thesis and confirm the custom of having dance and music groups perform on ceremonial occasions in Buddhist pagodas and in the palace. Dance scenes are also shown on terracotta panels from the 17th century from Waw near Bago and on wall paintings on temples from the 18th and 19th centuries.
In the 18th century the puppet theater was called yoke-thé ("little puppet"). After King Hsinbyushin (r. 1763–1776) from the Konbaung dynasty had subjugated the Kingdom of Ayutthaya during a campaign to Siam in 1767 , he returned with many court musicians and dancers, the Siamese playing styles, music theory and the Thai form of Ramayana called in Ramakian Myanmar performed Yama-zat-daw with masks as the dance drama . In Thailand, the mask dance khon has been mentioned in written sources since the end of the 17th century, and dance theater forms accompanied by music have existed, according to a stone inscription, since at least the 15th century. The Siamese mask theater probably influenced the development of yoke thé . At the khon , artfully made dolls were carried around on long poles in the Ayutthaya period, which are called hun luang (Thai, "royal doll") or hun yai ("big doll") and were part of the royal ceremonies. The Burmese dance theater was named yoke-gyi ("large marionette") to distinguish it from the puppet theater, from which it adopted design elements. In addition to the "small puppets", there were also larger puppet figures at times, performed by an ensemble called yoke-gyi-sin .
Under King Singu Min (r. 1776–1782) a minister ( wun ) for the performing arts was appointed for the first time ; the position of official organizer of entertainment at the royal palace existed long before. The Minister of Entertainment (Thabin Wun) had to announce implementing regulations for the performing arts ( thabin ), which included singing, music, dance theater and puppets, and to monitor compliance with them. For this he had to have knowledge of the corresponding art forms and to master the religious and secular scriptures with the corresponding laws as well as astrology and various magical practices. The first Thabin Wun introduced a number of laws in 1776, which initially included a registration requirement for puppeteers. The number of character dolls that make up a complete set was set at 28, and the types of wood to be used for their manufacture were also determined. Invisible, but of great importance for the puppeteers, was the introduction of the old female tree spirit Lamaing Shin Ma as her guardian spirit, which probably goes back to the same Thabin Wun . Lamaing Sin Ma belongs to the nats that occur in Burmese folk beliefs and is depicted with long black hair and a silver crescent moon on the forehead. In both hands she holds a peacock feather as a symbol of the sun, which - in the performances that often last all night - overcomes the darkness. Thus, under the art-loving King Singu Min, the Burmese puppet theater was established in its valid form.
While Singu Min was on a pilgrimage in February 1782, his exiled cousin, Phaungkaza Maung Maung (1763–1782), returned to Ava , seized power, and handed the capital to his followers for plunder before at the end of a week, Prince Bodawpaya (1745–1819) stepped in and ensured peace by having Phaungkaza and his family killed. Under the royal name Badon Min, he brought stability back inside. Thabin Wun, who was newly appointed by him, had the power to beat unpopular people in his area or have them removed. Badon Min's successor, Bagyidaw (Sagaing Min, ruled 1819–1837), continued the courtly tradition of theater. Probably the first report by a European dates back to the end of the 18th century. The British diplomat Michael Symes reports on his missionary trip to Ava to see King Bodawpaya in 1795, where he saw a puppet show organized by the Mayor of Bago.
In the 19th century, the puppet theater was the first performing art form that was allowed to use a stage podium for performances in the palace, which is why the term ahmyint-thabin ("elevated performance") was used for the courtly puppet theater until 1821 . In contrast, ahneint-thabin ("low performance") meant plays with human actors taking place on the ground floor. The raised stage for the puppets is remarkable against the cultural background that prostration in front of a ruler or a sanctuary is considered a gesture of honor and it was generally unthinkable in the feudal times in Myanmar that someone from the common population should be higher than the aristocratic society in his Proximity positioned.
In 1821, the incumbent Thabin Wun changed the rules for puppet play, which should no longer be called ahmyint-thabin , but generally yoke thé . This set of rules is probably the most extensive and detailed source on the Burmese puppet tradition. Only male puppeteers were allowed to be trained and a puppet company was not allowed to perform for more than three nights in a row. For the stage made of bamboo tubes, he specified a width of 5.5 meters and a height of 90 centimeters. It had to be set up outside the cardinal points and equipped with a white cotton fabric as a stage background. Its width was limited to around 3 meters, so that a 1.2 meter wide opening ( min-pauk , "royal entrance") remained on each side for the puppets to appear. Their action space in front of the curtain should not be more than 90 centimeters deep, with the platform protruding further back to serve as a stand for the puppeteers and a depot for the figures. In further instructions, details of the game content, the performance and the musical presentation were determined. Insulting the nobility or the clergy in the dialogues was forbidden under the threat of corporal punishment. In favor of the puppeteers, Thabin Wun enforced that with the exception of the king and his immediate environment, all other nobles and members of the royal family had to pay for the performances. If a planned performance was canceled due to force majeure, the puppeteers received half their fee.
Although there was a longer tradition of puppetry before, the famous poet Myawaddy Mingyi U Sa (1766-1853) is sometimes introduced as its inventor. U Sa, who had been imprisoned by the subsequent King Tharrawaddy when he came to power in 1837, was able to obtain his release in April 1839 by performing a song in praise of the king during a puppet show.
In the course of the 19th century, the puppet theater became increasingly popular with the people. The Scottish geographer Henry Yule traveled to Ava in 1855 in the service of the Indian colonial administration and reported that the puppet theater was more popular among the Burmese than the theater with human actors ( zat pwe ). The topics that are similar in both forms of play have been enriched with supernatural elements in the marionette theater, which can be better represented with the possibilities of the quickly moving figures.
With the beginning of British colonial rule in 1885 and the end of courtly performances, the puppeteers tried new forms of play to regain their lost audience in a different - village - environment. The railway line between Mandalay and Rangoon, opened in 1889, also brought puppet troupes , who gave themselves the sindaw (“royal”) seal of quality to tie in with the courtly tradition , to the south of Rangoon. They were booked for performances on two consecutive nights and paid lavishly. In the 1890s, a troop received 200 to 250 kyat for such a set, with a current value of 12 kyat for a Victoria gold coin . Some troops received significantly more money when they performed on festive days.
Photographs from the 1890s show new types of dolls and play forms. At a funeral ceremony for a monk, a tower-high construction made of bamboo poles and paper was erected, depicting a white elephant on a pedestal and above a pagoda roof. A man standing at the height of the elephant moved a few puppets on the floor below before the entire structure was set alight.
A little later, the economic situation worsened for the puppeteers, who were inferior to the competition from cinemas showing foreign films and dance theaters at the beginning of the 20th century. The younger generation felt that puppet theater was no longer up to date. The few puppeteers who tried after 1920 to counter the trend with new and larger figures were generally unsuccessful. This also applies to those troops who introduced synchronized dances ( yein , ယိမ်း ) with up to six puppets or who brought everyday life to the stage with new characters (Europeans, Chinese, Indians).
The Japanese occupation during World War II, which ended in 1945, wreaked havoc and paralyzed cultural life. At the time of independence in 1948, there were still three or four active puppet troops in Rangoon. Gradually, the puppet theater benefited from the return to national tradition. In the 1950s, the puppet stage became a replica of the theater stage. Around 1960 there were five active troops in Rangoon, only one of which enjoyed greater popularity, despite the use of Western musical instruments in the orchestra and elaborate lighting with colored spot lamps and fluorescent colors on the props. At the end of the 1960s, puppetry was briefly a subject at the state drama and music college in Rangoon. From the beginning of the 1970s, the old marionettes that were smuggled out of the country via Thailand and turned up in European antiquity shops reminded of the former tradition.
In an effort to preserve tradition, the Burmese government invited two puppeteers from Czechoslovakia in 1965 to demonstrate new techniques with stick puppets and hand puppets in a workshop. At times this resulted in new forms of play, which, as Axel Bruns (1994) said, according to a puppeteer, were successful in every respect, just not financially.
Puppets
The patron saint of marionette play is the Yathay (hermit), a holy man gifted with supernatural abilities, who is involved in every game and is depicted with a simple brown coat and hat. The figures can be divided into two groups: 1. People, which also include spirits and gods in human form, 2. Animals and mythical creatures.
Figure set
Until the middle of the 19th century, large parts of the country outside the populated areas consisted of large closed forest areas. According to popular belief, wild animals lived there together with ghosts (37 nats ) and demons. Accordingly, the pieces of the puppet theater, which were based on Buddhist legends and folk tales, dealt with a pair of heroes who travel into the woods and meet these very creatures there. In addition to a human hero and a heroine, a set of figures in early times may have consisted of some animal dolls such as a horse, elephant, monkey and tiger. In the 19th century, the hero couple had become a prince ( Mintha ) and a princess ( Minthami ). In addition, there were other characters in larger numbers, but often fewer than the 28 figures declared standard by the first Thabin Wun in 1776, because most of the wandering troops did not have that many in their inventory. For the usual scenes in the courtyard and in the forest, the puppeteers used about the following 18 puppets:
- Mythological figures: 1. Belu (demon), 2. Zawgyi ( alchemist ), 3. Naga (dragon snake ), 4. Galon ( Garuda , mythical bird), 5. Byarmar ( Brahma ),
- Animal figures: 6. Myin (horse), 7. Sin-phyu ( white elephant ), 8. Sin-net (black elephant), 9. Myauk (monkey), 10. Kyar (tiger), 11. Kyet-to-yway (Parrot),
- People: 12th Nat-kadaw ( necromancer ), 13th Mintha (prince), 14th Minthami (princess), 15th Bayin (king), 16th Wun (minister), 17th Ponna or Punna ( brahmin ritual expert, astrologer) 18. Yathay (Hermit).
Since 1776 the standard equipment has consisted of 28 marionettes. The number initially stood symbolically for the 28 attributes of the human body, as they are mentioned in the Abhidhammapitaka , even if this reference was soon forgotten for the audience of an entertainment show. In practice, depending on the plot , the puppeteers also use other characters, such as a nga-pyu (villain) and a Wun-po (big bird, stork).
- Mythological figures: 1st and 2nd Belu (two demons with green faces), 3rd Zawgyi ( ဇော်ဂျီ , alchemist), 4th Naga ( နဂါး , dragon snake ), 5th Byarmar (brahmin), 6th Nat (spirit),
- Animal figures: 7. Myin ( မြင်း , horse), 8. Sin-phyu (white elephant, sin or hsin , ဆင် , "elephant"), 9. Sin-net (black elephant), 10. Myauk (monkey), 11. Kyar ( ကျား , tiger), 12. Kyet-to-yway (parrot),
- People: 13th Nat-kadaw ( necromancer ), 14th Ahpyodaw ( maid of honor), 15th Mintha (prince), 16th Minthami (princess), 17th Bayin (king), 18th and 19th Wun-gyi-lay- bar (two ministers with red faces), 20th and 21st Wun-gyi-lay-bar (two ministers with white faces), 22nd Minthagyi (old prince with red face), 23rd Minthagyi (old prince with white face) , 24. Ponna (Brahmin ritual expert, astrologer), 25. Yathay (hermit), 26. Ah-may-oh (old lady), 27. and 28. Lu-shwin-daw (two clownish fringe figures).
In the decree of 1821, the total number of puppets was increased to 36 without naming the individual figures. According to some authors, only 27 marionettes were traditionally used; their number was evidently not set uniformly. The human figures can be divided into dancing puppets, aka yup , and non-dancing puppets, which, like the animal figures, are called ayup kyan ("coarse puppets"), with all puppets moving in a dance-like manner. In contrast to the others, the dance dolls have more threads, consist of more moving parts and perform more complicated movements.
The oldest surviving marionettes date from the second half of the 19th century. How the figures looked roughly before can be seen on some wall paintings from the respective times. Even if the design of the figures began to change after the 1820s, the main characters remained the same as in 1776. The figure of Than-cho-kaung ("owner of the sweet voice") was introduced later and was required for some mythological pieces man Kinnaris (mixed birds). After the complete submission by the British in 1885, the ties of the puppeteers' troops to court society were broken and they were forced to compete with one another. For this they took on a number of new characters from the roles of theater actors.
Manufacture and painting
Henry Thule reports that on his visit to Myanmar in 1855 he saw small puppets between 25 and 38 centimeters in length. According to the arrangement of a Thabin Wun, the figures should be 56 centimeters tall for general performances and 66 centimeters tall for performances in the palace. However, it is not clear when this arrangement took effect. The British journalist and writer James George Scott (1851-1935, pseudonym: Shway Yoe) stayed in Myanmar from 1879 and reports that the dolls were often 60 to 90 centimeters tall; the aforementioned order was evidently already in force at that time. Typically, Burmese puppets are 45 to 70 centimeters tall.
All operations in the manufacture of the dolls are traditionally carried out by a craftsman. The wooden body of the figure consists of an upper and a lower part for the torso, which are connected with a cord at the waist. The arms are made up of three parts each, four parts are required for the legs from the separate hip to the foot. A wooden male figure can be used for different male characters, but it does not fit female characters. The first Thabin Wun, after having formed a judgment through the methods of astrology and divination, determined the type of wood to be used for individual characters. Gmelina arborea (Burmese yamane ) was considered the preferred type of wood for the main characters, including the Nat and the horse . The wood of the jasmine tree ( Millingtonia hortensis ) was used to make the king, the four ministers and the hermit. Suitable wood species for other figures were Neolamarckia cadamba and Albizia stipulata . When the rules were changed in 1821, yamane was retained and instead of the other three types of wood, the Asian kapok tree ( Bombax malabaricum ) and Garcinia elliptica were to be used. Soon after the Thabin-Wun doctrine ended, the craftsmen began using any other type of wood. One of the magical practices was to put the chosen piece of wood in the water. The side floating above was recognized as female and reserved for the corresponding figures, the lower side was considered the male.
Some colors had a symbolic meaning, but were not used as clearly as in general in India or as specifically the face colors of the Chinese hand puppets in the province of Fujian to identify a character. In yoke thé , only a few figures had characteristic complexions . In the early days, the faces of the old prince and two ministers were painted red. In the second half of the 19th century, the red, which probably symbolizes malice, was changed to a lighter color. The symbolic meaning was lost here as well as with the green color of the two demons.
The limbs were painted with white paint, a mixture of chalk or light limestone and the resin from the neem tree ( Azadirachta indica ). Otherwise, white is the skin color used to depict Buddhas and supernatural beings. For the faces only, powdered soapstone ( kankusan ) was slurried in a tamarind brew and carefully and time-consuming applied in several layers until a smooth, porcelain-like surface was created. The details were initially sketched out with vermilion (Burmese ဟင်္ သ ပ ဒါး , hinthapada, Sanskrit hamsapada, "goose foot") and later emphasized as outlines with black paint. Black was made from the gallbladder of the fish species Cirrhinus mrigala (Burmese ngagyin , class ray fins ), soot and neem tree resin . This resin was also used as a setting agent for all colors in the description of palm leaf manuscripts . Figures from the 19th century have painted eyes; in the 1890s, attached porcelain eyes became popular instead, which otherwise received Buddha images.
The faces had to be able to radiate joy, sadness or pain, depending on the situation. In the 1920s, the hitherto one-piece heads of the secondary characters, such as the constantly chatting clowns, began to be equipped with a movable lower jaw. With the main characters, however, the clear, slightly smiling facial expression remained the measure of beauty ( ah-hla ) and their faces were decorated with gold and red dots and lines. This face embellishment was adopted for the young novices dressed in prince costumes at the Shinbyu ceremony prior to entering temporary or lifelong monasticism. When they arrive at the monastery, their hair is shaved.
Some central figures such as Mintha and Minthami wear long, thick tufts of hair on their heads, for which only human hair could previously be used. The more the characters get into distress and distress in the course of the game, the more messy the hair becomes. Simpler figures are indicated by a topknot on the head.
Threads
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None of the strings ( kyo ) by which the puppets are moved may break during the performance, because that would bring bad luck. There is different information about the number of threads on early marionettes. It should not have been more than six. In contrast, Captain R. Boileau Pemberton, a British negotiator who met in Ava in 1830 to negotiate with the Burmese, declared that he had seen a 30 centimeter high marionette moved with 32 strings. He also learned from puppeteers that they still had a life-size puppet. Both must have been unusual single copies.
A Mintha and a corresponding Minthami puppet from the second half of the 19th century, which are kept in the Victoria and Albert Museum , have five threads; a thread attached to the head bears the weight of the figures; the arms were moved with one thread each on the elbows and wrists. Another thread on each figure to move the head is missing. For characters whose main task was to stand and recite verses from the Jatakas for a long time, this should have been sufficient.
Probably around 1880, more threads were added to move the lower half of the body and make the entire figure look more alive, as it now had to dance and sing contemporary love songs. By 1900 the human figures had 18 main threads ( ah-se-kyo ), which are permanently tense and divided into three groups: two threads to hold the figure's weight; two strings to nod your head; two threads attached to the shoulders; two on the elbows and two on the back of the hand. For the lower half of the body, two threads were tied to each of the hips, knees, heels and toes. In addition, there were longer threads that had to be exchanged when changing costumes. These threads were removed when the dolls were kept. By means of a metal hook in the hands of Mintha and Minthami , their clothes could be partially pulled up during the dances. In the first decades of the 20th century, some puppeteers developed increasingly agile figures with additional threads in a competition for the most unusual effects. For example, a witch's head could be lifted off, fly around the stage, and then come back to the character. With the exception of individual cases, which have been more or less reliably reported, most marionettes had between two and 18 strings, Mintha and Minthami up to 20 strings.
The playing cross of European marionettes, which the player holds in his hand to guide the figure, consists of differently connected wooden sticks in yoke thé, depending on the type of marionette. For the dancing figures, which include Mintha, Minthami and the Alchemist, the puppeteers use an H-shaped handle (generally dalet ), for other human figures a T-shaped handle. On horses, elephants and tigers, the T-shaped handle is supplemented by two cross bars. For the Wun-po (stork) two individual straight sticks of unequal length are required, each of which is operated by one player. For the character Toe-na-ya (mythical sheep), a player holds two sticks of equal length in his hands. The simplest handle is a rod about 45 centimeters long to which three threads are attached. There were some figures that were played without a handle, such as the child puppet hanging on two strings and the naga (snake) with a continuous string attached to the head and tail.
clothing
The collection of historical and political accounts, Mani-yadana-bon, merged by Buddhist monk Shin Sandalinka in 1781 , describes how a villager duped King Mingyinyo (r. 1485–1530) when he pretended to be great King Thagyar Min ( Indra ) to be. He had given the impression when he appeared in the dark with clothing that was hung with the brightly colored wings of jewel beetles ( Buprestidiae ). Noel F. Singer (1992) concludes from this that these glitter beetles, which are easily available even for poor puppeteers, could have been used in earlier times to decorate marionettes. Especially the metallic-green, shiny beetles of the species Buprestis sp. (Burmese po-hmin-taung ) were highly valued as jewelry by girls in the 19th century, they adorned palm leaf fans and even the golden crowns of the last two Burmese kings Mindon Min (r. 1853–1878) and Thibaw Min (r. 1878– 1885).
The aforementioned Minthami puppet wears a tight blouse and over it an open jacket that is studded with sequins . Fixed by sewn-in bamboo strips, the jacket stands up from the hips in two points. The figure wears a Burmese wrap- around skirt htamein on its legs, which is now replaced by the somewhat larger longyi . The braided stripes correspond to a ceremonial keik htamein , which was worn by the nobility in the 19th century. Her partner, the Mintha , is dressed in a jacket of a similar length, but closed at the front, which is horizontally outward at the hips. His skirt paso is more voluminous than that of the Minthami figure.
Until the end of the 19th century, the characters could be recognized by their clothing. Should the course of action make it necessary to transform a Minthami into an alchemist, for example, the outwardly unchanged figure simply took on the posture of the other role, with the music ensemble following the change with a different style of play. From the 1890s onwards, the costumes were equipped with more glittering accessories because these were now more easily available from abroad.
The puppets were formerly in a htan-Khauk-phar said receptacle from the leaves of Palmyra palm ( Borassus flabellifer , Burmese htan stored) or in a circular bamboo basket. Today wooden or sheet metal boxes have taken their place. As before, the puppeteers take care to always store "enemy" figures separately from one another.
performance
Puppet troupe
A permanent ensemble, which was occasionally expanded to include additional people, consisted of at least three singers / speakers ( ah-so ), two puppeteers for the main characters Mintha, Minthami and Zawgyi , five puppeteers for the other characters who also took on speaking roles and the Head ( sin-htein ) together. These stage actors ( shay-lu ) were considered to be higher than the musicians ( nauk-lu, "entourage"). In the second half of the 19th century, the spokesman for Mintha or Minthami was usually also the leader of the force. His name was associated with the entire ensemble in Mandalay from the 1870s, previously known only by the name of his hometown. The troops, consisting of professionals and trainees, often lived together in an accommodation belonging to the leader, where they stayed during the summer monsoon (May to September) when there was no play.
During the Konbaung period, up to 40 actors were involved in a performance in the palace. The singer and speaker of the roles was therefore of higher rank than the puppeteer because it was his loud voice with which he drowned out the equally loud orchestra and this voice primarily kept the audience happy.
According to the Burmese-Buddhist worldview, women were seen as inferior to men, which is why until the beginning of the 20th century the female roles were taken over by male actors. The reason that the male speakers could not concentrate properly on their text in the presence of women are met by women, because they were probably kept away from competitive thinking. The particular difficulty for a man in the singing role of the Minthami was to reproduce the neat style of speech of noble ladies and to sing each song in a specific tone scale and in a unique style. In addition, the singer had to rehearse twelve typical roles or behavior patterns of women in certain life situations. In addition to the Minthami spokesman, the speaker of the Lu-shwin-daw (clown) was of particular importance, as he was free to jump on the stage regardless of the course of the plot and to make a comment that - exclusively in his role - was even critical and sarcastic against the highest nobility. A large part of all dialogue was sung. The singer sat behind the stage next to his puppeteer and began the usually memorized performance as soon as he lowered the figure onto the stage.
Puppeteers' troops were hierarchically divided into one of six ranks and were given a corresponding badge of rank. At the top was the state puppeteer troupe , maha-sin-daw-gyi ("great royal stage"), which performed in the royal theater ( Pwe-kyi-sung ). This was a gilded round pavilion, in front of which the members of the court gathered in a semicircle sitting on carpets. In Mandalay, the state puppeteers were assigned a special living area in the palace, called yoke-thé-win . Subordinate in rank was the sin-daw-lat ("royal middle stage"), which was under the care of the four senior queens and the crown prince. With the assassination of Crown Prince Kanaung Min, the brother of King Mindon Min, in 1866, this troop was probably dissolved and incorporated into the first-named troop. The third tier was the tha-mi-daw-mya-sin ("puppet theater of the princesses"), which was ordered by the older princesses for certain occasions with the consent of the king and disappeared after the death of Mindon Min in 1878. For the children at court there was the sin-daw-galay (“royal youth stage”), which was also allowed to perform for older members of the court. The fifth troupe was called win-sin ("mixed stage") and performed in the living quarters of the official members of the court. On the sixth and lowest level were the traveling puppeteers ah-yat-sin , who were not registered at court and were not allowed to perform the religiously particularly significant last ten jatakas, but only lesser-known jatakas and other stories. The entire hierarchical order collapsed with the end of the monarchy in 1885.
The most famous voice of the Mintha during the reign of Mindon Min was U Thar Pyaw, whom the ruler made Thabin Wun. In this capacity he had the privilege of wearing a white robe tho-yin-eingyi , carrying a sword, and walking under a golden umbrella. Puppeteers were strictly forbidden from arriving late for a performance. The story is told that U Thar Pyaw was once put in prison for punishment with iron chains on his feet. When the king for an evening puppet show came, he saw on stage a wild herumzappelnden on strings Mintha who wailed and a heartbreaking song sang in which the puppet complained their iron shackles. The king immediately ordered U Thar Pyaw's release.
When King Thibaw Min took office in 1878, the position of Thabin Wun (the last before the post was abolished in 1885) was transferred to U Chin Taung, who sang the Minthami role. As Noel F. Singer (1992) notes, a singer in a female role was given this official position because Queen Suphayarlat in fact exercised the highest power. Soon Saya Pu (1860–1914) took over the leading position in the courtly puppet theater. He and his troupe were popular even after the king's abdication until 1908, when he was arrested by the British for composing what was considered a subversive song of praise for the Burmese kings.
In the second half of the 19th century, the puppeteers ( kyo-swair ) developed techniques that gave the puppets lifelike mobility. The training of a young apprentice took several years while he had to take care of the household and was looked after by the head of the troop. At the beginning of the training there were the easier to use, non-dancing figures, i.e. most of the animals and the supporting roles. This included three of the four ministers, whose main role was to nod their heads from time to time and raise their hands in pleading direction towards the king. The fourth, more demanding minister, was a villain who occasionally hit a poor victim with a sword or stick. A particularly difficult character to play was the wriggling Naga , even though she only hung by two strings. In the long run it was exhausting to hold the supernatural beings because they were never allowed to touch the ground. After three years, the student was given permission to perform the central, dancing figures of the piece.
stage
The earlier stages were always constructed in the same way from bamboo poles with a trapezoidal shape. Before 1776, when the first Thabin Wun was used, the stages were perhaps designed more for dance performances and only with the increasing number of puppet shows through the official arrangement was the stage set up more appropriately. The shape was retained, but widened at the front of the platform. The front of the stage was supported by seven posts ( pin , "tree"), 90 centimeters apart. This results in a width of around 5.5 meters. By 1855 the distance between the posts was increased to 1.5 meters. According to Thabin Wun from 1883, the front edge of the stage should be nine sections (arm lengths , taung , the equivalent of 45 centimeters). The depth should measure four sections. A slightly more compact trapezoidal shape was the size: six sections in front, four sections in depth and two sections on the rear edge.
Until the 1880s, the platforms had to be made from bamboo. The posts were hammered into the ground in a free space so that the stage was oriented against the wind (according to other information, across the wind). If the stage was set up on a dry rice field, the path between the fields could not be built over, so as not to anger the protective spirit of the rice field. These are two of a large number of regulations that the puppet troops have had to contend with. The division of the area behind the stage for storing the puppets during the performance probably goes back to the first Thabin Wun. On the left side ( let-wair ) the two demons, the Naga (snake), the Garuda (bird man), monkey, tiger, parrot, alchemist, spirit, maid of honor, Mintha, Minthami and Brahmin were hung, on the right side ( let-yar ) hung among other things a nat, the horse, two elephants, the king, two old princes, a hermit and the four ministers. A stage did not exist. For the two locations - in the forest and in the palace - two props were used , which were deposited under the dolls. To represent the forest, branches of Syzygium grande (Burmese tha-byai ) were put into a stand, the palace ( nandaw ) was represented by a model with a throne made of gilded wood covered with colored glass. Later furnishings for individual scenes included pagodas, monasteries, boats, heavenly chariots and throne seats. The most important prop up to the end of the monarchy was the royal palace, which was the only one that remained standing at the end of the performance and was carried at the front during transport.
The client for the performance was responsible for lighting the stage. Oil lamps made from clay bowls filled with petroleum or oil from the seeds of the cerberus tree ( Cerbera odollam, Burmese kalwa ) were usually used . In rural areas, torches made of wood chips and the resin of Dipterocarpus species ( kan-yin ) and produced a strong smoke were also used. None of the lamps in the 19th century were focused on the puppets.
Under the impression of foreign puppet theaters, completely different stage spaces were constructed after 1948: rectangular with a semicircular curtain or two-story stages, where the puppeteers moved their figures from a pedestal on long strings. By 1960 the trapezoidal platforms were replaced by rectangular ones, the two-story stage with a new type of lighting was introduced in Mandalay in 1962. A new effect was the projection of color slides onto the stage background.
music
The ensemble type that accompanies marionette theater has been the large hsaing waing orchestra, generally used for ceremonial and other outdoor events since the 18th century . Previously, the accompanying music was presumably limited to a drum ( bon ), cymbals ( lin gwin ) and bamboo beater ( walet hkok ). The leading melody instrument of the hsaing waing is the drum circle of the same name or pat waing , which consists of a number of double-celled, vertically suspended tube drums with a range of over three octaves, which has grown from 6 to 21 today . The drum circle is one of the few surviving musical instruments introduced from India in the 1st millennium. The kyi waing humpback gong circle has a similarly large diameter with 21 tuned, horizontally suspended humpback gongs . The musician ( saing thamar ) also play a single hump Gong Maung of a meter in diameter, which is approximately triangular brass striking plate kyizi , the horizontally on a frame hanging barrel drum pat ma , a set of six drums Chauk lon asked , the small Handzimbeln than-lwin , a Double reed instrument hne and until the beginning of the 20th century a similar one called hne kris (or hne gyi ), which is tuned a fifth lower.
The drums and gongs are usually surrounded by ornate wooden panels. Puppeteers in the lower grades five and six were only allowed to use simple instruments and the only concession was to oil their wooden surfaces. The leading puppet troupe and their orchestra performed on ceremonial occasions at court, and the corresponding puppeteers on subordinate occasions. The musical instruments of the three upper tiers were gilded and decorated with glass mosaic in the wood. At the time of the last Burmese king Thibaw Min, the gongs, double-reed instruments ( hne ) and flutes ( palwei ) of the noblest palace orchestra were made of silver and were kept in the royal treasury when not in use.
Before a performance, the musicians started beating the cymbals and the large horizontal drum from around 6 p.m. to attract the audience. At dusk at 7 p.m. the entire orchestra played a few pieces from their repertoire until the puppet show began about half an hour later. With the meager props, the music had the task of getting the audience in the mood for the scene and introducing each puppet with its appropriate melody. Often one of the puppets addressed the orchestra leader with a speech called saing-sint and asked him to play the melody appropriate for the following scene.
Game plot
A traditional performance consisted of two parts. After the ritual sacrifice to the 37 nats, the orchestra played a sequence of pieces to lead the audience into a mythical sphere that lies in the Himawunta forest somewhere in the Himalayas ( himawunta , from Pali himavanta , means "snowy", likewise Himavat , and corresponds to the Himalaya , “snow place”), beyond the multiple destruction and re-creation of the world symbolized by music. The characters now appearing danced together with various animal figures and other creatures. This first half of the performance, which together with the subsequent palace scene lasted until midnight, was also intended for the watching children. Then the second part began with the appearance of Mintha and Minthami , the drama for the adults. The entire performance was based on the cosmogonic idea that the world was initially inhabited by ghosts. Later animals and humans were created and eventually the Burmese kingdom came into being. The creation of the world is a requirement before a puppet show can be performed in this kingdom.
Prelude 1: Himawunta Forest
According to Burmese imagination, the world was destroyed 64 times by fire ( mi ), wind ( lay ) and water ( yae ). The earth was burned 56 times in a row by seven suns and then devastated by storms once. It was followed by seven-fold heavy rains, which flooded everything and flooded even the highest heavenly level of the spirits and the god Brahma. After each destruction the world and all life arose anew. The orchestra symbolizes these three destructive elements by beating the cymbals seven times, a blow on the large gong and then fast beats on the drum, which acoustically convert the impact of huge raindrops. The process was repeated three times. With the last blow that faded away, today's world was created and the scene in the Himawunta forest could begin.
The first figure to appear was Nat-kadaw ( necromancer ) in order to favor the spirits, i.e. the first beings in the world after creation, and the other invisible beings of the environment and to avert all negative influences. Similar to the incantation dance ( sin taing gan ) that introduces every Burmese theater performance , in traditional Indian theater styles a prelude ( Sanskrit purvaranga ) is performed before each performance to purify the place and as a homage to the gods. The voice of Mintha now praises the supreme god of heaven, Thagyar Min, which is comparable to Shakra in Buddhism and Indra in Hinduism. It describes how four large and 2000 smaller islands were created after the water flowed away and how the holy mountain Meru rose in the middle , surrounded by other mountains and the Himawunta forest. The voice of the Minthami performed songs to the 37 national nats and the local guardian spirit . The two singers were accompanied by the orchestra. During performances in the following nights, the Nat-kadaw puppet was replaced by the figure of Ahpyodaw ( maid of honor).
The flying white horse Ajaneya , which appears below , still belongs to the creation myth and is derived from the Ashvins of Indian mythology. Ashvins are twins and sons of the sun god Surya who work as doctors for the gods and are also shown riding on horses. The heavenly horse Ajaneya performs four dances in the newly created wide world before jumping over the stage background and disappearing. The first being on earth is a monkey ( Myauk ), who also makes off over the curtain after his dance, followed by a tiger who sharpened his claws and hisses dangerously at the children in the front row. The animals either appeared on stage alone or were involved in a play with two nats. The monkey could be driven away by two powerful, green-clad monsters ( Belu ) and the tiger sometimes fought with a black elephant, which had appeared from the other side on the stage and because of its size only moved slowly back and forth. He usually won the fight against the tiger. Finally, the Zawgyi (alchemist) slowly slid down from above and sang about the beauty of the forest while he collected magical herbs, pounded them and took the magic potion. Since the Zawgyi was not allowed to touch the ground, small lead weights were tied to his feet. When these periodically hit the floor, the threads attached to the legs loosened and the figure looked like it was walking. A Zawgyi can live extraordinarily old - a million years; one of his miraculous feats is turning fruit into beautiful girls.
From around the 1920s a second Zawgyi was introduced so that both of them could emphasize their technical skills as a duo. One was an elegant, sumptuously dressed figure named Nan Zaw ("Palace Zawgyi"), the other was a comical character named Taw Zaw . She walked off the stage in a spectacular action by the puppeteer, who wound all the threads around the figure, which then flew through the air, spinning wildly in a circle. All other scenes were also shown quickly and without a break in order not to tire the audience. There was only a break at the end of the first part.
Outwardly, the ritual opening has nothing in common with the beginning of the Indonesian shadow play wayang kulit and the other Southeast Asian shadow plays, but a structural relationship is recognizable because here as there the cosmic order must first be established. The initially set branch, which represents the Himawunta forest, corresponds in wayang kulit to the figure of the world tree gunungan , which appears first on the shadow theater and is the last to disappear. The fights between two animals are also typical for the Indonesian wayang and the Cambodian shadow theater sbek thom , where light-colored animals compete against dark-colored animals. In the prelude to the Thai nang yai , a good white monkey and a bad black monkey fight against each other until the white monkey manages to clean up the mess caused by his opponent.
Prelude 2: In the palace
The second scene takes place in the palace and is titled taing pye te gan ( taingpyi tegann , "introduction / establishment of the kingdom"). The four ministers appear in long red or green coats and a high headdress ( gaung baung , a typically Burmese cloth wrapped around the head) in the order of their rank . Their different titles and functions do not directly correspond to those of the historical ministers of the Konbaung period. They discuss the most important administrative tasks and discuss certain religious and other issues. With the exuberant eulogies of the king, who with his wise decisions lead the country to everlasting peace and happiness, the basis for the later main story is also laid for the second scene. After they have finished, a barefoot young servant ( Thu-nge-daw or She-daw-pye ) comes in, who prepares the audience for the arrival of the king with a dance.
The figure of the servant was dressed in an open, short-sleeved shirt and shorts, and had a tattoo on the chest. This doll was slightly smaller than the others and was mostly served by the pupil of the Mintha figure. In the meantime, the palace props were often lowered onto the stage.
Then the king and his ministers appear, accompanied by an orchestra playing royal music. You speak a graceful court language. Mintha, Minthami and their accompanying clowns make a formal appearance and engage in ritualized communication with the king. When the audience is over, the king and his ministers disappear and leave the stage to the singing and dancing prince couple. Their musical contribution is called thit-sar-htar ("swear eternal love"). After about two hours for the second part and a short break, the actual drama began.
play
The actual drama ( zat lan ) forms the climax and final part of the performance. The earliest puppeteers probably drew their content from the Jatakas , the stories from the life of Siddhartha Gautama and the previous lives of Buddha in animal and human form. The word zat is derived from jataka and refers to Buddhist content. In order to counteract the aversion of some Buddhist doctrines to amusement of any kind, the actors had to convince their audience that they were earning merit (Pali puñña , Thai tham bun ) by viewing the religious performances . Other narrative genres were added later, but the Jatakas continued to be the focus for the aforementioned reason.
In the first half of the 18th century, the "Ten Great Jatakas" ( Zat-gyi-sair-bwe , Pali Mahanipata Jataka or Mahajatakas ) were particularly popular, each of which exemplifies a certain virtue. According to tradition, these ten Jatakas ( zat gyi ) are considered to be the last chronological stories about the different lives of the Bodhisattvas (beings who are about to attain Buddhahood) up to the historical Siddhartha Gautama and are therefore the most religiously significant.
- Tay-mi zat or Temyia-Jataka, virtue: renunciation. Prince Temyia, the Bodhisattva, pretends to be dumb and handicapped in order not to accumulate bad karma , which would inevitably be associated with the takeover of the kingdom.
- Za-na-ka zat or Mahajanaka Jataka , virtue: fearlessness. Prince Mahajanaka is shipwrecked on the sea voyage to Suvarnabhumi , the golden land in the east, and is saved by the goddess Manimekkhala after many hardships.
- Thu-wun-na-shan or Sama Jataka , virtue: charity. Prince Suvanna Sama brings water from the river to his blind parents every day.
- Nay-mi zat or Nimi Jataka, virtue: determination. King Nemi drives in his chariot and sees first hell and then heaven. He is terrified of the suffering that reigns in hell and renounces eternal life in heaven.
- Ma-haw-tha-da zat or Mahosadha Jataka . Virtue: wisdom. The wise King Mahosadha makes friends with his opponent.
- Bu-ye-dat zaz or Bhuridatta Jataka . Virtue: perseverance. A snake charmer captures the Naga prince Bhuridatta (mythical snake) and finally releases him again.
- San-da-gon-mar zat or Canda Kumara Jataka . Virtue: patience. God Indra saves Prince Canda Kumara from sacrificial death.
- Na-ya-da zat or Narada Jataka . Virtue: serenity. Narada, the divine Brahma, teaches the king to get rid of his misconceptions.
- We-dura zat or Vidhura Pandita Jataka . Virtue: Honesty. The wise Vidhura Panditta, the Bodhisatta, is being returned to the realm of the Nagas.
- Way-than-daya zat or Vessentara Jataka . Virtue: generosity. Prince Vessentara gives away all the treasures of the country and his wife, and eventually he returns to his family.
In 1733, the poet and minister of the Taungu dynasty , Padaythayaza (1684–1752) wrote the first full-length play Maniket ( မဏိ ကက် , by Pali Manikakkha ), which was very likely also performed by puppeteers. Like his eponymous poem Maniket Pyo , the content of the Maniket Pyazat is based on the Sattadhanu Jataka , which does not belong to the canonical Jatakas. Another play dates from the Siamese-Burmese wars in the 1760s and is named after its heroine Mai-zar-yu . Both pieces do not seem to have lasted until 1821 because they are not on the official list of courtly puppet plays.
Around the middle of the 19th century, puppet shows were divided into five main groups:
- Nibatwin-mahawin zat: plays based on the Jatakas and the Mahavamsa (Pali, "Great Chronicle", the 5th century history of Sri Lanka from its mythical beginnings in the 6th century BC to the beginning of the 4th century AD) . Chr.) Are based.
- Phaya-thamaing is about the history of a Buddhist temple, i.e. the historical, mythical and magical tales that exist for every stupa ( paya ).
- Yazawin zat: more or less fictional pieces about the life of historical personalities.
- Dandaye: Folk Tales .
- Hto zat: made up stories.
King Mindon Min convened the fifth great Buddhist synod in Mandalay in 1871, at which the Sangha established a binding version of the Pali canon ( Tipitaka ). Furthermore, Mandalay was designated as the country's religious and cultural center, whereupon the number of pieces with Buddhist content increased in the following years.
In all puppet shows, a strong hero or heroine, sometimes an animal, was the focus. The heroes were characterized by a high willingness to fight and at the same time a high ability to suffer when dealing with demons and other evil characters. However, as soon as they faced a higher authority, they behaved submissively. The then subjects of the king understood this as an indication of the role behavior required in everyday life. Heroes were never allowed to die. If a puppet company ended an act with the death of a main character, their client could refuse to pay them. However, it was possible to let a hero die if he was brought back to life afterwards. If a puppet company did not have the right marionette available, it was common practice to put the correct mask on another figure in order to fill the role according to the viewing habits of the audience. The mask was always tied to the doll's forehead and never covered the doll's face.
Pieces from the courtly tradition were performed well into the 20th century. In the areas occupied by the British, new plays for the theater were printed from 1872 and became increasingly popular with the population. The author Hmawbi Saya Thein (1862–1942) noted in an article on Burmese drama from 1930 that over 500 titles were in circulation in the first two decades of the 20th century. This also included pieces that dealt thematically with the country's ethnic minorities. Some of the most popular pieces have been adapted for a modern type of puppet show. Puppet players who traveled across the country and made use of this large pool chose plays with heroic figures from the respective national narratives according to the ethnic composition of their audience.
With the imitation of theatrical theater from the 1950s onwards, a performance was initially able to introduce the characters of the Himawunta scene and bring the subsequent traditional animal figures together with contemporary elements: for example, the monkey is accompanied by a figure that looks like Tarzan , the tiger and the elephant threatened in the forest by a European hunter with a loud cracking rifle or the mythical bird Garuda and the mythical snake Naga encounter an English lady with her dachshund. Cars, motorcycles and airplanes were occasionally mixed with the traditional figures.
Current role of the Burmese puppet theater
A revival of yoke thé in a modified form since the 1990s - in this order, for example - is due to growing tourism, state efforts to establish a national identity, some cultural workers with an interest in the puppetry tradition and a group of equally interested spectators. State support goes not only to puppet theater, but also to the other art forms of music, dance, drama and visual arts. It means a revaluation of the entire pre-colonial Burmese culture, which began after the bloody suppressed popular uprising in 1988 . The Ministry of Culture introduced a puppeteer competition in 1995 or 1996 in which scenes from the traditional repertoire are shown. The puppet shows are part of every year since 1993 in October in Yangon held Sokayeti Competition in which the disciplines Voice ( so ), dance ( ka ), composition ( ye ), instrumental music ( ti ) and additionally acting and puppetry are evaluated.
In the mid-1990s, the National University for Art and Culture in Rangoon, which was founded in 1993, established a puppet show in the Drama Faculty. Acting students are required to take courses in yoke thé throughout their four-year course and can also choose yoke thé as a major. According to the university management, the puppet play belongs to the tradition of Buddhism and this is opposed to the modern influences from abroad. As Kathy Foley (2001) said a tutor of puppet training at the university at a conference in the Philippines in 1998 put it, there is a “nationalist ideology behind the training program”, which thus stands in an “anti-imperialist and national liberation tradition” around the “To reform the morals of the youth and develop a national culture”. The statement reflects the attitude of the military government towards western countries. Axel Bruns (1999) recognizes the intention of promoting cohesion between the numerous minorities and the state in this type of state funding for puppet theater and compares this with the attempt in Indonesia to influence wayang pancasila after the state massacre of 1965–1966 with the shadow play form to take public opinion.
The state's search for an original tradition, which, however, can hardly be categorized historically in this game form, which has been constantly changing over the centuries, corresponds to the desire of tourists for an "authentic" performance, in which Western cultural influences are strictly frowned upon. In order to meet the expectations of the audience at tourist performances, the presenters use selected elements from the traditional repertoire and delete scenes with little "action". Performances abroad and in front of an international audience give well-known puppet troupes the financial leeway to occasionally appear in front of a local audience at temple festivals and at the same time ensure an increased appreciation of their own art form within the country.
European visitors to the country during the 19th and early 20th centuries unanimously emphasized the Burmese's passion for theater. One of the traditional forms of theater that still exist alongside yoke thé today is the popular zat pwe , which consists of songs, music, dances, drama (with content from the Jatakas or Burmese history) and comedic interludes. Zat pwe is performed on several consecutive nights on the occasion of temple festivals in the season from November to May and has largely replaced the puppet show in this format. There is also the anyein pwe (also anyeint , အ ငြိ မ့ ် ), a show with male comedians, a dancer / singer and a small music ensemble.
literature
- Axel Bruns: Burmese puppet art: Development and social function of the puppet theater with special consideration of the last two hundred years. (Dissertation 1999) Wilfried Nold, Frankfurt / Main 2006
- Axel Bruns: The Burmese Marionette Theater . In: Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 82, No. 1, 1994, pp. 89-96
- Kathy Foley: Burmese Marionettes: Yokthe Thay in Transition. In: Asian Theater Journal, Vol. 18 No. 1, Spring 2001, pp. 69-80
- Kyaw Myo Ko: About Myanmar Marionettes. undated (Burmese, English text pp. 171–315)
- Dominik Müller: Cultural Politics of National Identity and Impacts of Tourism in Contemporary Myanmar - The Case of Yokthe Puppet Theater. ERASMUS Intensive Program Southeast Asian Studies (IP-SEAS), 2007
- Noel F. Singer: Burmese Puppets . Oxford University Press, Singapore 1992
- Ma Thanegi: The Illusion of Life: Burmese Marionettes. Orchid Press, Bangkok 2009
Web links
- Elisabeth Den Otter: Ah Myint Thabin: Traditional Puppetry of Myanmar (Burma) . elisabethdenotter.nl
- Mandalay Marionettes Theater, Myanmar (Burma). Youtube video
- ရုပ္ ေသး ႏ ွ စ ္ ပါး သြား အ က Nha Pa thwa A ka (Puppet Couple Dance) . Youtube video
Individual evidence
- ↑ See Khin Yi: The History of Puppetry in the Konbaung Period . In: YUOE Research Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1, Yangon University of Education, 2010, pp. 1-7
- ↑ Gretel Schwörer-Kohl: Myanmar. 3. History of musical instruments . In: MGG Online , 2016 ( Music in the past and present , 1997)
- ↑ ML Varadpande: History of Indian Theater. Abhinav Publications, New Delhi 1987, p. 67
- ^ Inge C. Orr: Puppet Theater in Asia . In: Asian Folklore Studies , Vol. 33, No. 1, 1974, pp. 69–84, here p. 70
- ^ Elisabeth Den Otter: Distant Friends of Jan Klaassen. Puppetry in Africa and Asia. Communicating through puppets: an exhibition on non-western puppetry . Poppenspelmuseum, Vorchten (Netherlands) 2015, p. 25
- ^ Fan Pen Chen: Shadow Theaters of the World. In: Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 62, No. 1, 2003, p. 33
- ↑ ML Varadpande: History of Indian Theater . Abhinav Publications, New Delhi 1987, p. 75
- ↑ Axel Bruns, 1994, p. 89
- ^ Puppetry in Sri Lanka . Ministry of Housing, Construction and Cultural Affairs
- ^ Beth Osnes, Mary Beth Osnes, Acting: An International Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara 2001, p. 288, sv “Rukada”
- ↑ Fan Pen Chen, 2003, p. 28
- ↑ Fan Pen Chen, 2003, pp. 30, 42
- ↑ Mei Sun: Nanxi: The Earliest Form of Xiou (Traditional Chinese Theater) . (Dissertation) University of Hawaii, 1995, p. 21
- ↑ Shiva Massoudi: “Kheimeh Shab Bazi”: Iranian Traditional Marionette Theater . In: Asian Theater Journal, Vol. 26, No. 2, Fall 2009, pp. 260–280, here p. 262
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 5
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 2
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- ↑ John Okell: “Translation” and “Embellishment” in an Early Burmese “Jātaka” Poem. In: The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, No. 3/4, October 1967, pp. 133–148, here p. 134
- ↑ Brahams had an essential ritual-magical function for the Buddhist kings since the Bagan period. See Jaques P. Leider: Specialists for Ritual, Magic, and Devotion: The Court Brahmins (Punna) of the Konbaung Kings (1752-1885). In: The Journal of Burma Studies, Vol. 10, 2006, pp. 159–202, here p. 160
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 2f
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 3
- ↑ Deedok U Ba Cho: Burmese Marionette Stage. In: The Chinte , Vol. 1, Rangun 1951
- ↑ Amolwan Kiriwat: Khon. Masked Dance Drama of the Thai Epic Ramakien. (Master thesis) University of Maine, 2001, p. 37
- ↑ Terry Fredrickson: Hun Luang, royal puppets, come back to life for funeral. Bangkok Post, October 13, 2017
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 4f
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 7f
- ^ Michael Symes: An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava, Sent by the Governor-General of India, in the Year 1795 . (London 1800) In: Bulletin of Burma Research (SBBR) , Vol. 4, No. 1, Spring 2006, p. 113
- ↑ Axel Bruns, 1994, p. 90
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 4f
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 10f
- ↑ Muriel C. Williamson: A biographical note on Myá-wadi Ù Sa, Burmese poet and composer. In: Laurence Picken (Ed.): Musica Asiatica. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, London 1979, pp. 151-154, here p. 153
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 12
- ↑ (The thirty-seven nats) 1. Thagyá nat. 2. Mahágirí nat. The New York Public Library Digital Collections
- ↑ Kyaw Myo Ko: About Myanmar Marionettes , p. 191
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 76
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 79-82
- ↑ Kyaw Myo Ko: About Myanmar Marionettes, p. 196
- ↑ Axel Bruns 1994, p. 96
- ^ Dance on strings . Myanmar Insider, November 2015
- ↑ Ponna is one of the four historical social classes according to the Indian caste system : min-myo (ruling class, Kshatriya ), ponna-myo (ritual experts and Veda- savvy, Brahmins ), thuhtay-myo (rich traders, Vaishyas ), sinyètha-myo (poor Citizens, people, shudra ),
- ↑ Kyaw Myo Ko: About Myanmar Marionettes , p. 216
- ↑ Axel Bruns, 1994, pp. 91, 94
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 14, 17, 21f, 24
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 25
- ↑ Thaw Kaung: Unearthed Story of Myanmar History: Preserving Myanmar Manuscripts . Paper presented at Southeast Asian Studies Center, Bangkok, July 24, 2006, pp. 1–25, here p. 9
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 27-29
- ^ Robert Boileau Pemberton: Journey from Manipoor to Ava, and thence across the Yooma Mountains to Arracan in 1830. Reprinted in: Journal of the Burma Research Society, Vol. 43, Rangun 1960, pp. 1-96
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 35-38
- ↑ Kyaw Myo Ko: About Myanmar Marionettes , pp. 221f
- ↑ Christopher T. Winter: Six Months in British Burmah: or, India Beyond the Ganges in 1857. Richard Bentley, London 1858, pp. 152f
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 30
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 30, 33
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 29
- ↑ Kathy Foley (2001, p. 70)
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 39-42
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 52-54
- ↑ Burmese eingyi since the Bagan period generally for “outer clothing”, from Hindi angiya , “bodice”, cf. Aye Aye Than: Myanmar Costume Style in the Bagan Period. Southeast Asian Art Academic Program, December 6, 2017, p. 8
- ^ Intangible Cultural Heritage Safeguarding Efforts in Myanmar. 2012 Field Survey Report. UNESCO, Ichcap, 2012, p. 37
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 44
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 46
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 48
- ↑ Kyaw Myo Ko: About Myanmar Marionettes, p. 245
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 50
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 54f
- ↑ Kyaw Myo Ko: About Myanmar Marionettes , p. 246
- ↑ Judith Becker, Gavin Douglas: Pat-waìng. In: Grove Music Online, May 28, 2015
- ↑ Judith Becker: Kyì-waìng . In: Grove Music Online , September 22, 2015
- ↑ John Okell: Maung . In: Grove Music Online , September 22, 2015
- ^ Judith Becker, Gavin Douglas: Hsaìng-waìng . In: Grove Music Online, 2001
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 55-59
- ↑ Taw or daw is a part of the name that creates a connection with something sacred or royal.
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 60-67; Axel Bruns, 1994, p. 95
- ↑ Kathy Foley (2001, p. 72)
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, p. 67; Axel Bruns, 1994, p. 95
- ↑ Temiya Jataka - Temiya, the mute Prince. buddha-images.com (with links to the other ten Jatakas)
- ↑ Noel F. Singer, 1992, pp. 70f
- ↑ Donald M. Seekins: Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar) . Rowman & Littlefield, London 2017, p. 240
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- ↑ Dominik Müller, 2007, p. 4
- ↑ Kathy Foley (2001, p. 74
- ↑ Gavin Douglas: The Sokayeti Performing Arts Competition of Burma / Myanmar: Performing the Nation. In: The World of Music , Vol. 45, No. 1 ( Contesting Tradition: Cross-Cultural Studies of Musical Competition ) 2003, pp. 35–54, here pp. 35f
- ↑ Kathy Foley, 2001, pp. 74-76, quoted on p. 75
- ^ Richard Schechner: The Future of Ritual: Writings on Culture and Performance. Routledge, London 1993, p. 220
- ↑ Axel Bruns, 1999, p. 16, quoted from: Dominik Müller, 2004, p. 13
- ↑ Dominik Müller, 2004, p. 14
- ↑ Kathy Foley (2001, p. 78
- ^ Zat Pwe, The Burmese Dance-Drama. Asian Traditional Theater & Dance
- ↑ Catherine Diamond: A Delicate Balance: Negotiating Isolation and Globalization in the Burmese Performing Art. In: TDR (1988–) . Vol. 53, No. 1, spring 2009, pp. 93–128, here p. 105