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{{dablink|This article is about the narcotic. For other meanings of ''opium'', see [[Opium (disambiguation)]]. For opium-derived and opium-like substances, see [[Opiates]] and [[Opioids]].}}
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{{Infobox Botanical product
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|product=Opium
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|plant=''[[Papaver somniferum]]''

|part=[[sap]]|origin=[[Indochina region]] (?)
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'''Opium''' is a [[narcotic]] formed from the [[latex]] (i.e., sap) released by lacerating (or "scoring") the immature seed pods of [[Opium poppy|opium poppies]] (''[[Papaver]] somniferum''). It contains up to 10% [[morphine]], an [[opiate]] [[alkaloid]], which is most frequently processed chemically to produce [[heroin]] for the [[illegal drug trade]]. The resin also includes [[codeine]] and non-narcotic alkaloids, such as [[papaverine]] and [[noscapine]]. '''Meconium''' historically referred to related, weaker preparations made from other parts of the poppy or different species of poppies. Modern opium production is the culmination of millennia of production, in which the source poppy, methods of extraction and processing, and methods of consumption have become increasingly potent.

Cultivation of opium poppies for food, [[anesthesia]], and ritual purposes dates back to at least the [[Neolithic]] Age. The [[Sumer]]ian, [[Assyria]]n, [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]], [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]], [[Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and [[Arab Empire]]s each made widespread use of opium, which was the most potent form of [[pain relief]] then available, allowing ancient surgeons to perform prolonged surgical procedures. Opium is mentioned in the most important [[History of medicine|medical]] texts of the ancient world, including the [[Ebers Papyrus]] and the writings of [[Dioscorides]], [[Galen]], and [[Avicenna]]. Widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continued through the [[American Civil War]] before giving way to [[morphine]] and its successors, which could be injected at a precisely controlled dosage. American morphine is still produced primarily from poppies grown and processed in India in the traditional manner and remains the standard of pain relief for casualties of war.

Recreational use of the drug began in [[History of China|China]] in the fifteenth century but was limited by its rarity and expense. Opium trade became more regular by the seventeenth century, when it was mixed with tobacco for smoking, and addiction was first recognized. Opium prohibition in China began in 1729 and was followed by nearly two centuries of exponentially increasing opium use. China had a positive balance sheet in trading with the British, which led to a decrease of the British silver stocks. Therefore, the British tried to encourage Chinese opium use to enhance their balance, and they delivered it from Indian provinces under British control. A massive confiscation of opium by the Chinese emperor, who tried to stop the opium deliveries, led to two [[Opium Wars]] in 1840 and 1858, in which Britain suppressed China and traded opium all over the country. After 1860, opium use continued to increase with widespread domestic production in China, until more than a quarter of the male population was addicted by 1905. Recreational or addictive opium use in other nations remained rare into the late nineteenth century, recorded by an ambivalent literature that sometimes praised the drug.

Global regulation of opium began with the stigmatization of Chinese immigrants and [[opium dens]], leading rapidly from town ordinances in the 1870s to the formation of the [[International Opium Commission]] in 1909. During this period, the portrayal of opium in literature became squalid and violent, British opium trade was largely supplanted by domestic Chinese production, purified [[morphine]] and [[heroin]] became widely available for injection, and [[patent medicines]] containing opiates reached a peak of popularity. Opium was [[drug prohibition|prohibited]] in many countries during the early twentieth century, leading to the modern pattern of opium production as a precursor for illegal [[recreational drug]]s or tightly regulated legal prescription drugs. Illicit opium production, now dominated by [[Economy of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]], has increased steadily in recent years to over 6600 tons yearly, nearly one-fifth the level of production in 1906. Opium for illegal use is often converted into [[heroin]], which multiplies its potency to approximately twice that of morphine, can be taken by [[intravenous injection]], and is easier to [[smuggle]].{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

==History==
===Ancient use (4200 BC - 800 AD)===
[[Image:Malwapoppy.jpg|thumb|right|Poppy crop from the [[Malwa]] region of [[India]] (probably ''Papaver somniferum var. album''.<ref name="Schiff">{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3833/is_200207/ai_n9107282/print|title=Opium and its alkaloids|author=Paul L. Schiff, Jr.|year=2002|accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref>)]]

The use of the opium poppy dates from time immemorial. At least seventeen finds of ''Papaver somniferum'' from [[Neolithic]] settlements have been reported throughout Switzerland, Germany, and Spain, including the placement of large numbers of poppy seed capsules at a burial site (the ''Cueva de los Murciélagos'', or "Bat cave," in Spain), which have been carbon-14 dated to 4200 B.C. Numerous finds of ''Papaver somniferum'' or ''Papaver setigerum'' from [[Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]] settlements have also been reported.<ref>{{cite web|author=Suzanne Carr|title=MS thesis|url=http://www.oubliette.zetnet.co.uk/Four.html|year=1995|accessdate=2007-05-16}} ''(citing Andrew Sherratt)''</ref>
The first known cultivation of opium poppies was in [[Mesopotamia]], approximately 3400 B.C., by [[Sumerians]] who called the plant ''Hul Gil'', the "joy plant."<ref name="Brownstein">{{cite journal|author=M J Brownstein|title=A brief history of opiates, opioid peptides, and opioid receptors|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA|date=1993-06-15|volume=90|issue=12|pages=5391–5393 |pmc=46725 |doi=10.1073/pnas.90.12.5391|pmid=8390660}}</ref><ref name="Frontline">{{cite web|author=PBS Frontline|title=The Opium Kings|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/heroin/etc/history.html|year=1997|accessdate=2007-05-16}}</ref> Tablets found at [[Nippur]], a Sumerian spiritual center south of [[Baghdad]], described the collection of poppy juice in the morning and its use in production of opium.<ref name="Schiff" /> Cultivation continued in the Middle East by the [[Assyrians]], who also collected poppy juice in the morning after scoring the pods with an iron scoop; they called the juice ''aratpa-pal'', possibly the root of ''Papaver''. Opium production continued under the [[Babylonians]] and [[Egyptians]].

Opium was used with [[poison hemlock]] to put people quickly and painlessly to death, but it was also used in medicine. The [[Ebers Papyrus]], ca. 1500 B.C., describes a way to "prevent the excessive crying of children" using grains of the poppy-plant strained to a pulp. ''[[Spongia somnifera]]'', sponges soaked in opium, were used during surgery.<ref name="Brownstein" /> The Egyptians cultivated ''opium thebaicum'' in famous poppy fields around 1300 B.C. Opium was traded from Egypt by the [[Phoenicia]]ns and [[Minoan]]s to destinations around the [[Mediterranean Sea]], including [[Greece]], [[Carthage]], and [[Europe]]. By 1100 B.C., opium was cultivated on the Mediterranean island of [[Cyprus]], where surgical-quality knives were used to score the poppy pods, and opium was cultivated, traded, and smoked.<ref name="Kritikos">{{cite journal|url=http://www.poppies.org/2001/07/13/the-early-history-of-the-poppy-and-opium/|title=The early history of the poppy and opium|author=P. G. Kritikos and S. P. Papadaki|journal=Journal of the Archaeological Society of Athens|date=1967-01-01|accessdate=2007-05-26}}</ref> Opium was also mentioned after the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] conquest of Assyria and Babylonia in the sixth century B.C.<ref name="Schiff" />

From the earliest finds, opium has appeared to have ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated that ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power.<ref name="Brownstein" /> In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention credited to Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache.<ref name="Schiff" /> A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics," wearing a crown of three opium poppies, ca. 1300 B.C., was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus.<ref name="Kritikos" /><ref>{{cite journal|language=Spanish|author=E. Guerra Doce|title=Evidencias del consumo de drogas en Europa durante la Prehistoria|journal=Trastornos Adictivos|volume=8|issue=1|pages=53–61|date=2006-01-01|url=http://db.doyma.es/cgi-bin/wdbcgi.exe/doyma/mrevista.fulltext?pident=13087278|accessdate=2007-05-10}} ''(includes image)''</ref> The Greek gods [[Hypnos]] (Sleep), [[Nyx]] (Night), and [[Thanatos]] (Death) were depicted wreathed in poppies or holding poppies. Poppies also frequently adorned statues of [[Apollo]], [[Asklepios]], [[Pluto]], [[Demeter]], [[Aphrodite]], [[Kybele]] and [[Isis]], symbolizing nocturnal oblivion.<ref name="Schiff" />

===Islamic Empire (600-1500 A.D.)===
As the power of the [[Roman Empire]] declined, the lands to the south and east of the Mediterranean sea became incorporated into the [[Islamic Empire]], which assembled the finest libraries and the most skilled physicians of the era. Many Muslims believe that the [[hadith]] of [[al-Bukhari]] prohibits every intoxicating substance as [[haraam]], but the use of intoxicants in medicine has been widely permitted by Scholars, even though it is prohibited under Islamic Law <ref>{{cite book|title=Alcohol and Islam|author=Ibraham B. Syed|accessdate=2005-07-07}}</ref> [[Pedanius Dioscorides|Dioscorides']] five-volume ''[[Materia medica|De Materia Medica]]'', the precursor of [[pharmacopoeia]]s, remained in use (with some improvements in Arabic versions<ref>{{cite web|title=Islamic Medical Manuscripts at the National Library of Medicine: a note on pharmaceutics|url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/pharmaceutics1.html|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref>) from the 1st to 16th centuries and described opium, meconium and the wide range of uses prevalent in the ancient world.<ref>{{cite web|title=De Materia Medica|language=German|author=Julius Berendes|year=1902|url=http://www.tiscalinet.ch/materiamedica/Mohn.htm|accessdate=2007-05-10}}</ref>
Somewhere between 400 and 1200 AD, Arab traders introduced opium to China.<ref name="Frontline">{{cite web|author=PBS Frontline|title=The Opium Kings|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/heroin/etc/history.html|year=1997|accessdate=2007-05-16}}</ref><ref name="Trocki" /><ref name="Schiff">{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3833/is_200207/ai_n9107282/print|title=Opium and its alkaloids|author=Paul L. Schiff, Jr.|year=2002|accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref> The [[Persian people|Persian]] physician Agha Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya [[al-Razi]] (845-930 A.D.), who was born near [[Tehran]], maintained a laboratory and school in [[Baghdad]], and was a student and critic of [[Galen]], made use of opium in anesthesia and recommended its use for the treatment of melancholy in ''Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib'', a home medical manual directed toward ordinary citizens for self-treatment if a doctor was not available.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.answers.com/topic/al-razi|title=Answers.com: al-Razi}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Razi.html|date=2002-01|title=Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (841-926)|journal=Saudi Aramco World|accessdate=2008-01-12}}</ref> The renowned [[ophthalmology|ophthalmologic]] surgeon [[Abu al-Qasim]] Ammar (936-1013 AD) relied on opium and [[mandrake (plant)|mandrake]] as surgical anaesthetics and wrote a treatise, ''[[al-Tasrif]]'', that influenced medical thought well into the sixteenth century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ummah.com/science/viewscfeature1.php?scfid=36&scTopicID=6|title=El Zahrawi - Father Of Surgery
|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://omarkasule-01.tripod.com/id289.html|title=SURGERY IN ISLAM: A HISTORICAL AND CURRENT REAPPRAISAL: Lecture to second-year medical students at the Kulliyah of Medicine, International Islamic University, Kuantan on [[October 17]], [[1998]] by Prof Dr Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr.|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> The Persian physician [[Avicenna|Abū ‘Alī al-Husayn ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) described opium as the most powerful of the stupefacients, by comparison with [[mandrake (plant)|mandrake]] and other highly effective herbs, in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''. This classic text was translated into Latin in 1175 and later into many other languages and remained authoritative into the seventeenth century.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Smith RD |title=Avicenna and the Canon of Medicine: a millennial tribute |journal=West. J. Med. |volume=133 |issue=4 |pages=367–70 |year=1980 |month=Oct |pmid=7051568 |pmc=1272342 |doi= |url=}}</ref> [[Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu]] used opium in the fourteenth century Ottoman Empire to treat [[migraine]] headaches, [[sciatica]], and other painful ailments.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.anesthesiology.org/pt/re/anes/abstract.00000542-200401000-00026.htm|journal=Anesthesiology|volume=100|issue=1|pages=165–169|date=2004-01|author=Ganidagli, Suleyman M.D., Cengiz, Mustafa M.D., Aksoy, Sahin M.D., Ph.D., Verit, Ayhan M.D.|title=Approach to Painful Disorders by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu in the Fifteenth Century Ottoman Period|accessdate=2007-05-04|doi=10.1097/00000542-200401000-00026}}</ref>

===Reintroduction to Western medicine===
[[Image:Canons of medicine.JPG|thumb|Latin translation of [[Avicenna]]'s ''Canon of Medicine'', 1483]]
Opium became stigmatized in Europe during the [[Inquisition]] as a Middle Eastern influence and became a taboo subject in Europe from approximately 1300 to 1500 A.D. Manuscripts of [[Pseudo-Apuleius]]'s fifth-century work from the tenth and eleventh centuries refer to the use of wild poppy ''[[Papaver agreste]]'' or ''[[Papaver rhoeas]]'' (identified as ''Papaver silvaticum'') instead of ''[[Papaver somniferum]]'' for inducing sleep and relieving pain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collecties.meermanno.nl/handschriften/search?SearchString=papaver|title=Pseudo-Apuleius: Papaver|accessdate=2007-06-15}}</ref>

The use of [[Paracelsus]]' [[laudanum]] was introduced to Western medicine in 1527, when Philip Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim returned from his wanderings in Arabia with a famous sword, within the pommel of which he kept "Stones of Immortality" compounded from opium thebaicum, citrus juice, and "quintessence of gold."<ref name="Frontline" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzepc.auckland.ac.nz/authors/young/paracelsus.asp|title=Paracelsus: the philosopher's stone made flesh|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.salon.com/books/review/2006/04/18/devils_doctor/|title=The devil's doctor|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> The name "Paracelsus" was a pseudonym signifying him the equal or better of [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus]], whose text, which described the use of opium or a similar preparation, had recently been translated and reintroduced to medieval Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=PARACELSUS, Five Hundred Years: Three American Exhibits|url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/paracelsus/paracelsus_1.html|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref> ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', the standard medical textbook that Paracelsus burned in a public bonfire three weeks after being appointed professor at the [[University of Basel]], also described the use of opium, though many Latin translations were of poor quality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzepc.auckland.ac.nz/authors/young/paracelsus.asp|title=Paracelsus: the philosopher's stone made flesh|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> ''Laudanum'' was originally the sixteenth-century term for a medicine associated with a particular physician that was widely well-regarded, but became standardized as "[[tincture]] of opium," a solution of opium in [[ethanol|ethyl alcohol]], which Paracelsus has been credited with developing. During his lifetime, Paracelsus was viewed as an adventurer who challenged the theories and mercenary motives of contemporary medicine with dangerous chemical therapies, but his therapies marked a turning point in Western medicine. In the seventeenth century laudanum was recommended for pain, sleeplessness, and diarrhea by [[Thomas Sydenham]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://drugs.uta.edu/laudanum.html|author=Stephen Harding, Lee Ann Olivier, and Olivera Jokic|title=Victorians' Secret: Victorian Substance Abuse|accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> the renowned "father of English medicine" or "English Hippocrates," to whom is attributed the quote, "Among the remedies which it has pleased Almighty God to give to man to relieve his sufferings, none is so universal and so efficacious as opium."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/1989.html|author=Ole Daniel Enersen|title=Thomas Sydenham|accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Use of opium as a cure-all was reflected in the formulation of [[mithridatium]] described in the 1728 ''[[Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Chambers Cyclopedia]]'', which included true opium in the mixture. Subsequently, laudanum became the basis of many popular [[patent medicine]]s of the nineteenth century.

The standard medical use of opium persisted well into the nineteenth century. U.S. president [[William Henry Harrison]] was treated with opium in 1841, and in the [[American Civil War]], the Union Army used 2.8 million [[ounce]]s of opium tincture and powder and about 500,000 opium pills.<ref name="Schiff" /> During this time of popularity, users called opium "God's Own Medicine."<ref>{{cite web|author=Donna Young|date=2007-04-15|url=http://www.ashp.org/s_ashp/article_news.asp?CID=167&DID=2024&id=19461|title=Scientists Examine Pain Relief and Addiction|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref>

The most important reason for the increase in opiate consumption in the United States during the 19th century was the prescribing and dispensing of legal opiates by physicians and pharmacist to women with ”female problems” (mostly to relieve painful menstruation). Between 150,000 and 200,000 opiate addicts lived in the United States in the late 19th century and between two-thirds and three-quarters of these addicts were women.<ref>[http://www.nida.nih.gov/PDF/DARHW/033-052_Kandall.pdf Stephen R. Kandall, M.D.:Women and Addiction in the United States—1850 to 1920]</ref>

===Recreational use===
[[Image:中國人服食鴉片圖.PNG|thumb|An opium den in 18th-century China through the eyes of a Western artist.]]
[[Image:Opium smoking 1874.jpg|thumb|A typical depiction of an opium smoking scene in London's Limehouse district based on fictional accounts of the day.]]
{{main|Opium den}}

The earliest clear description of the use of opium as a [[recreational drug]] came from [[Xu Boling]], who wrote in 1483 that opium was "mainly used to aid masculinity, strengthen sperm and regain vigor," and that it "enhances the art of alchemists, sex and court
ladies." He described an expedition sent by the [[Chenghua Emperor]] in 1483 to procure opium for a price "equal to that of gold" in [[Hainan]], [[Fujian]], [[Zhejiang]], [[Sichuan]] and [[Shaanxi]] where it is close to [[Xiyu]]. A century later, [[Li Shizhen]] listed standard medical uses of opium in his renowned ''[[Compendium of Materia Medica]]'' (1578), but also wrote that "lay people use it for the art of sex," in particular the ability to "arrest seminal emission." This association of opium with sex continued in China until the twentieth century. Opium smoking began as a privilege of the elite and remained a great luxury into the early nineteenth century, but by 1861, [[Wang Tao]] wrote that opium was used even by rich peasants, and even a small village without a rice store would have a shop where opium was sold.<ref name="Zheng">{{cite journal|author=Yangwen Zheng|title=The Social Life of Opium in China, 1483-1999|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=37|issue=1|pages=1–39|year=2003|doi=10.1017/S0026749X0300101X}}</ref>

Smoking of opium came on the heels of tobacco smoking and may have been encouraged by a brief ban on the smoking of [[tobacco]] by the [[Ming]] emperor, ending in 1644 with the [[Qing]] dynasty, which had encouraged smokers to mix in increasing amounts of opium.<ref name="Schiff" /> In 1705, [[Wang Shizhen]] wrote that "nowadays, from nobility and gentlemen down to slaves and women, all are addicted to tobacco." Tobacco in that time was frequently mixed with other herbs (this continues with [[clove cigarettes]] to the modern day), and opium was one component in the mixture. Tobacco mixed with opium was called [[madak]] (or madat) and became popular throughout China and its seafaring trade partners (such as [[Taiwan]], [[Java]] and the [[Philippines]]) in the seventeenth century.<ref name="Zheng" /> In 1712, [[Engelbert Kaempfer]] described [[addiction]] to [[madak]]: "No commodity throughout the [[East Indies|Indies]] is retailed with greater profit by the [[Jakarta|Batavians]] than opium, which [its] users cannot do without, nor can they come by it except it be brought by the ships of the Batavians from [[Bengal]] and [[Coromandel Coast|Coromandel]]."<ref name="Trocki" />

Fueled in part by the 1729 ban on [[madak]], which at first effectively exempted pure opium as a potentially medicinal product, the smoking of pure opium became more popular in the eighteenth century. In 1736, the smoking of pure opium was described by [[Huang Shujing]], involving a pipe made from bamboo rimmed with silver, stuffed with palm slices and hair, fed by a clay bowl in which a globule of molten opium was held over the flame of an oil lamp. This elaborate procedure, requiring the maintenance of pots of opium at just the right temperature for a globule to be scooped up with a needle-like skewer for smoking, formed the basis of a craft of "paste-scooping" by which servant girls could become prostitutes as the opportunity arose.<ref name="Zheng" />

Beginning in eighteenth-century China, famine and political upheaval, as well as rumors of wealth to be had in nearby [[Southeast Asia]], led to the [[Chinese Diaspora]]. Chinese emigrants to cities such as San Francisco, London, and New York brought with them the Chinese manner of opium smoking and the social traditions of the [[opium den]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist9/cook.html|title=San Francisco's Old Chinatown|author=Commissioner Jesse B. Cook|date=1931-06|journal=San Francisco Police and Peace Officers' Journal|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://immigrants.harpweek.com/chineseamericans/Items/Item061L.htm|title=American Opium Smokers|author=H.H. Kane, M.D.|date=1881-09-24|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref> The [[Indian Diaspora]] distributed opium-eaters in the same way, and both social groups survived as "[[lascar]]s" (seamen) and "[[coolie]]s" (manual laborers). French sailors provided another major group of opium smokers, having contracted the habit in [[French Indochina]], where the drug was promoted by the colonial government as a monopoly and source of revenue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/e1910/frenchnavyopium.htm|title=Opium degrading the French Navy|date=1913-04-27|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drugtext.org/library/books/McCoy/book/21.htm|title=The politics of heroin in Southeast Asia|author=Alfred W. McCoy}year=1972|accessdate=2007-09-24}}</ref> Among white Europeans, opium was more frequently consumed as [[laudanum]] or in [[patent medicine]]s. Britain's All-India Opium Act of 1878 formalized social distinctions, limiting recreational opium sales to registered Indian opium-eaters and Chinese opium-smokers and prohibiting its sale to workers from Burma.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drugpolicy.org/library/opium_india.cfm|title=Opium and the British Indian Empire|author=John Richards|date=2001-05-23|accessdate=2007-09-24}}</ref> Likewise, American law sought to contain addiction to immigrants by prohibiting Chinese from smoking opium in the presence of a white man.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist9/cook.html|title=San Francisco's Old Chinatown|author=Commissioner Jesse B. Cook|date=1931-06|journal=San Francisco Police and Peace Officers' Journal|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref>

Because of the low social status of immigrant workers, contemporary writers and media had little trouble portraying opium dens as seats of vice, [[white slavery]], gambling, knife and revolver fights, a source for drugs causing deadly overdoses, with the potential to addict and corrupt the white population. By 1919, anti-Chinese riots attacked [[Limehouse]], the [[Chinatown]] of [[London]]. Chinese men were deported for playing [[puck-apu]], a popular gambling game, and sentenced to hard labor for opium possession. Both the immigrant population and the social use of opium fell into decline.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/templates/news/detail.cfm?newsid=7262|publication=Tower Hamlets Newsletter|title=When a woman ruled Chinatown|author=John Rennie|date=2007-03-26|accessdate=2007-05-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lascars.co.uk/plafeb1931.html|title=Lascars in the port of London|author=J.P. Jones|date=February 1931|publication=P.L.A. Monthly|accessdate=2007-05-12}}</ref> Yet despite lurid literary accounts to the contrary, nineteenth-century London was not a hotbed of opium smoking. The total lack of photographic evidence of opium smoking in Britain, as opposed to the relative abundance of historical photos depicting opium smoking in North America and France, indicates that the infamous [[Limehouse]] opium smoking scene was little more than fantasy on the part of British writers of the day who were intent on scandalizing their readers while drumming up the threat of the "yellow peril."<ref name="opiummuseum">"[http://www.opiummuseum.com/index.pl?pics&67 Opium in the West]." ''[http://www.opiummuseum.com/ Opium Museum].'' 2007. Retrieved on [[September 21]], [[2007]].</ref><ref name="eastlondonhistory">"[http://www.eastlondonhistory.com/brilliant%20chang.htm Brilliant Chang in Limehouse]." ''[http://www.eastlondonhistory.com/ EastLondonHistory.com].'' Retrieved on [[September 21]], [[2007]].</ref>

===Prohibition and conflict in China===
{{main|Prohibition (drugs)|Opium Wars}}
[[Image:Destroy opium 2.jpg|thumb|right|Destruction of opium in China]]

Opium prohibition began in 1729, when [[Emperor Yongzheng]] of the [[Qing Dynasty]], disturbed by [[madak]] smoking at court and carrying out the government's role of upholding [[Confucian]] virtue, officially prohibited the import of opium, except for a small amount for medicinal purposes. The ban punished sellers and [[opium den]] keepers, but not users of the drug.<ref name="Trocki" /> Opium prohibition in China continued until 1860 and was later resumed.{{clarifyme}}

[[Image:Opium ship of English.jpg|thumb|left|English opium ships]]
Under the [[Qing Dynasty]], China opened itself to foreign trade under the [[Canton System]] through the port of [[Guangzhou]] ''(Canton)'', and traders from the [[British East India Company]] began visiting the port by the 1690s. Due to the growing British demand for [[Chinese tea]] and the Chinese disinterest in British commodities other than silver, the British became interested in opium as a high-value commodity for which China was not self-sufficient. The British traders had been purchasing small amounts of opium from India for trade since [[Ralph Fitch]] first visited in the mid-sixteenth century.<ref name="Trocki" /> Trade in opium was standardized, with production of balls of raw opium, 1.1 to 1.6 kilograms, 30% water content, wrapped in poppy leaves and petals, and shipped in chests of 60-65 kilograms (one [[picul]]).<ref name="Trocki" />
Chests of opium were sold in auctions in [[Calcutta]] with the understanding that the independent purchasers would then smuggle it into China ''(see [[Opium Wars]])''.

After the 1757 [[Battle of Plassey]] and 1764 [[Battle of Buxar]], the [[British East India Company]] gained the power to act as [[diwan]] of [[Bengal]], [[Bihar]], and [[Orissa]] ''(See [[company rule in India]])''. This allowed the company to pursue a [[monopoly]] on opium production and export in India, to encourage [[ryot]]s to cultivate the cash crops of [[indigo]] and opium with cash advances, and to prohibit the "hoarding" of rice. This strategy led to the increase of the land tax to 50% of the value of crops, the starvation of ten million people in the [[Bengal famine of 1770]], and the doubling of East India Company profits by 1777. Beginning in 1773, the British government began enacting oversight of the company's operations, culminating in the establishment of [[British Raj|British India]] in response to the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. Bengal opium was highly prized, commanding twice the price of the domestic Chinese product, which was regarded as inferior in quality.<ref name="McCoy opium">{{cite web|url=http://opioids.com/opium/history/index.html|title=Opium|author=Alfred W.McCoy|accessdate=2007-06-08}}</ref>

Some competition came from the newly independent United States, which began to compete in [[Guangzhou]] ''(Canton)'' selling Turkish opium in the 1820s. Portuguese traders also brought opium from the independent Malwa states of western India, although by 1820, the British were able to restrict this trade by charging "pass duty" on the opium when it was forced to pass through Bombay to reach an [[entrepot]].<ref name="Trocki" />
Despite drastic penalties and continued prohibition of opium until 1860, opium importation rose steadily from 200 chests per year under [[Yongzheng]] to 1,000 under [[Qianlong]], 4,000 under [[Jiaqing]], and 30,000 under [[Daoguang]].<ref>Wertz, Richard R. "[http://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/06dat/bio.2qin.html Qing Era (1644-1912)]." ''[[ibiblio|iBiblio]].'' 1998. Retrieved on [[September 21]], [[2007]].</ref> The illegal sale of opium became one of the world's most valuable single commodity trades and has been called "the most long continued and systematic international crime of modern times."<ref>John K. Fairbanks, "The Creation of the Treaty System' in John K. Fairbanks, ed. The Cambridge History of China vol. 10 Part 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1992) p. 213. ''cited in'' {{cite journal|author=John Newsinger|title=Britain's opium wars - fact and myth about the opium trade in the East|journal=Monthly Review|date=1997-10|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1132/is_n5_v49/ai_20039205}}</ref>

In response to the ever-growing number of Chinese people becoming addicted to opium, [[Daoguang]] of the [[Qing Dynasty]] took strong action to halt the import of opium, including the seizure of cargo. In 1838, the Chinese Commissioner [[Lin Zexu]] destroyed 20,000 chests of opium in [[Guangzhou]] ''(Canton)''.<ref name="Trocki" /> Given that a chest of opium was worth nearly $1,000 in 1800, this was a substantial economic loss. The British, not willing to replace the cheap opium with costly silver, began the [[First Opium War]] in 1840, winning [[Hong Kong]] and trade concessions in the first of a series of [[Unequal Treaties]].
[[Image:China & Opium 1908.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Map showing the amount of Opium produced in China in 1908]]
Following China's defeat in the [[Second Opium War]] in 1858, China was forced to legalize opium and began massive domestic production. Importation of opium peaked in 1879 at 6,700 tons, and by 1906, China was producing 85% of the world's opium, some 35,000 tons, and 27% of its adult male population was addicted—13.5 million addicts consuming 39,000 tons of opium yearly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.a1b2c3.com/drugs/opi010.htm|title=Opium history, 1858 to 1940|author=Alfred W. McCoy|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> From 1880 to the beginning of the Communist era, the British attempted to discourage the use of opium in China, but this effectively promoted the use of morphine, heroin, and cocaine, further exacerbating the problem of addiction.<ref>Dikotter, Frank, Lars Laamann, and Zhou Xun ''Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China.'' Co-published with C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-0-226-14905-9 (ISBN-10: 0-226-14905-6) Spring 2004.[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/16422.ctl][http://www.cefc.com.hk/uk/pc/articles/art_ligne.php?num_art_ligne=6206]</ref>

Scientific evidence of the pernicious nature of opium use was largely undocumented in the 1890s when [[Protestant]] [[Mission (Christian)|missionaries]] in China decided to strengthen their opposition to the trade by compiling data which would demonstrate the harm the drug did. Faced with the problem that many Chinese associated Christianity with opium, partly due to the arrival of early Protestant missionaries on opium clippers, at the 1890 Shanghai Missionary Conference, they agreed to establish the Permanent Committee for the Promotion of Anti-Opium Societies in an attempt to overcome this problem and to arouse public opinion against the opium trade. The members of the committee were [[John Glasgow Kerr|John G. Kerr]], MD, American Presbyterian Mission in Canton; B.C. Atterbury, MD, American Presbyterian Mission in Peking; Archdeacon [[Arthur Evans Moule|Arthur E. Moule]], Church Missionary Society in Shanghai; Henry Whitney, MD, American Board of Commissioners for foreign Missions in Foochow; the Rev. Samuel Clarke, China Inland Mission in Kweiyang; the Rev. [[Arthur Gostick Shorrock|Arthur Shorrock]], English Baptist Mission in Taiyuan; and the Rev. [[Griffith John]], London Mission Society in Hankow. <ref> Lodwick, Kathleen L. Crusaders Against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China 1874-1917 (University Press of Kentucky) [http://books.google.com/books?id=gT42B-69owoC Online version at Google Books] [ISBN 0813119243]</ref> These missionaries were generally outraged over the British government's [[Royal Commission on Opium]] visiting India but not China. Accordingly, the missionaries first organized the [[Anti-Opium League in China]] among their colleagues in every mission station in China. American missionary [[Hampden Coit DuBose]] acted as first president. This organization, which had elected national officers and held an annual national meeting, was instrumental in gathering data from every Western-trained medical doctor in China, which was then published as [[William Hector Park]] compiled ''Opinions of Over 100 Physicians on the Use of Opium in China'' (Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1899). The vast majority of these medical doctors were missionaries; the survey also included doctors who were in private practices, particularly in Shanghai and Hong Kong, as well as Chinese who had been trained in medical schools in Western countries. In England, the home director of the [[China Inland Mission]], [[Benjamin Broomhall]], was an active opponent of the Opium trade, writing two books to promote the banning of opium smoking: ''The Truth about Opium Smoking'' and ''The Chinese Opium Smoker''. In 1888, Broomhall formed and became secretary of the Christian Union for the Severance of the British Empire with the Opium Traffic and editor of its periodical, ''National Righteousness''. He lobbied the [[British Parliament]] to stop the opium trade. He and [[James Laidlaw Maxwell]] appealed to the London Missionary Conference of 1888 and the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910 to condemn the continuation of the trade. When Broomhall was dying, his son Marshall read to him from ''[[The Times]]'' the welcome news that an agreement had been signed ensuring the end of the opium trade within two years.

Official Chinese resistance to opium was renewed on [[September 20]], [[1906]], with an anti-opium initiative intended to eliminate the drug problem within ten years. The program relied on the turning of public sentiment against opium, with mass meetings at which [[drug paraphernalia|opium paraphernalia]] was publicly burned, as well as coercive legal action and the granting of police powers to organizations such as the Fujian Anti-Opium Society. Smokers were required to register for licenses for gradually reducing rations of the drug. Addicts sometimes turned to missionaries for treatment for their addiction, though many associated these foreigners with the drug trade. The program was counted as a substantial success, with a cessation of direct British opium exports to China (but not Hong Kong<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/SCHAFFER/History/om/om7.htm|title=The opium monopoly|author=Ellen N. La Motte|accessdate=2007-09-25}}</ref>) and most provinces declared free of opium production. Nonetheless, the success of the program was only temporary, with opium use rapidly increasing during the disorder following the death of [[Yuan Shikai]] in 1916.<ref name="Madancy">{{cite web|url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/MADTRO.html|title=The Troublesome Legacy of Commissioner Lin|author=Joyce A. Madancy|date=2004-04|accessdate=2007-09-25}}</ref>

Beginning in 1915, Chinese nationalist groups came to describe the period of military losses and [[Unequal Treaties]] as the "Century of National Humiliation," later defined to end with the conclusion of the [[Chinese Civil War]] in 1949.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dur.ac.uk/chinese.politics/Public%20lectures/William%20A%20Callahan%20RenDa%20Lecture.pdf|title=Historical Legacies and Non/Traditional Security: Commemorating National Humiliation Day in China|author=William A Callahan|date=2004-05-08|accessdate=2007-07-08|format=PDF}}</ref> The [[Mao Zedong]] government is generally credited with eradicating both consumption and production of opium during the 1950s using unrestrained repression and social reform. Ten million addicts were forced into compulsory treatment, dealers were executed, and opium-producing regions were planted with new crops. Remaining opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the [[Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Golden Triangle]] region, at times with the involvement of Western intelligence agencies.<ref name="McCoy opium" /> The remnant opium trade primarily served Southeast Asia, but spread to American soldiers during the [[Vietnam War]], with 20% of soldiers regarding themselves as addicted during the peak of the epidemic in 1971. In 2003, China was estimated to have four million regular drug users and one million registered drug addicts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FD29Ad01.html|title=Banned in China for sex, drugs, disaffection|author=Michael Mackey|date=2004-04-29|accessdate=2007-06-08}}</ref>

{{seealso|Japanese opium policy in Taiwan (1895-1945)}}

===Prohibition outside China===

There were no legal restrictions on the importation or use of opium in the [[United States]] until the [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]], Opium Den Ordinance, which banned dens for public smoking of opium in 1875, a measure fueled by anti-Chinese sentiment and the perception that whites were starting to frequent the dens. This was followed by an 1891 California law requiring that narcotics carry warning labels and that their sales be recorded in a registry, amendments to the California Pharmacy and Poison Act in 1907 making it a crime to sell opiates without a prescription, and bans on possession of opium or opium pipes in 1909.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.november.org/stayinfo/breaking07/CA-WOD.html|title=State's War on Drugs - a 100-Year Bust|author=Dale Gieringer|date=2007-03-04}}</ref>

At the U.S. federal level, the legal actions taken reflected constitutional restrictions under the [[Enumerated powers]] doctrine prior to reinterpretation of the [[Commerce clause]], which did not allow the federal government to enact arbitrary prohibitions but did permit arbitrary taxation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcwilliams.com/books/aint/303a.htm|title=Ain't Nobody's Business If You Do|author=Peter McWilliams}}</ref> Beginning in 1883, opium importation was taxed at $6 to $300 per pound, until the Opium Exclusion Act of 1909 prohibited the importation of opium altogether. In a similar manner the [[Harrison Narcotics Tax Act]] of 1914, passed in fulfillment of the [[International Opium Convention]] of 1912, nominally placed a tax on the distribution of opiates, but served as a ''de facto'' prohibition of the drugs. Today, opium is regulated by the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] under the [[Controlled Substances Act]].

Following passage of a regional law in 1895, Australia's [[Aboriginal Protection and restriction of the sale of opium act 1897]] addressed opium addiction among [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigines]], though it soon became a general vehicle for depriving them of basic rights by administrative regulation. Opium sale was prohibited to the general population in 1905, and smoking and possession was prohibited in 1908.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/liac/hot_topic/hottopic/2000/4/2.html|author=Legal Information Access Centre|title=Drug laws in Australia}}</ref>

Hardening of Canadian attitudes toward Chinese opium users and fear of a spread of the drug into the white population led to the effective criminalization of opium for non-medical use in Canada between 1908 and the mid-1920s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.projectcork.org/bibliographies/data/Bibliography_Historical.html|author=Carstairs C.|title=Jailed for Possession: Illegal Drug Use, Regulation, and Power in Canada, 1920-61|year=2006}}</ref>

In 1909, the [[International Opium Commission]] was founded, and by 1914, thirty-four nations had agreed that the production and importation of opium should be diminished. In 1924, sixty-two nations participated in a meeting of the Commission. Subsequently, this role passed to the [[League of Nations]], and all signatory nations agreed to prohibit the import, sale, distribution, export, and use of all narcotic drugs, except for medical and scientific purposes. This role was later taken up by the [[International Narcotics Control Board]] of the [[United Nations]] under [[Wikisource:Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs Article 23: NATIONAL OPIUM AGENCIES|Article 23]] of the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]], and subsequently under the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]]. Opium-producing nations are required to designate a [[government agency]] to take physical possession of licit opium crops as soon as possible after harvest and conduct all wholesaling and exporting through that agency.<ref name="Schiff" />

===Obsolescence===
[[Image:Bayer Heroin bottle.jpg|thumb|right|Bayer heroin bottle]]

Opium has gradually been superseded by a variety of purified, semi-synthetic, and synthetic [[opioids]] with progressively stronger effect, and by other [[general anesthesia]]. This process began in 1817, when [[Friedrich Sertürner|Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner]] reported the isolation of pure [[morphine]] from opium after at least thirteen years of research and a nearly disastrous trial on himself and three boys.<ref>Ryan J Huxtable and Stephen K W Schwartz, Molecular Interventions 1:189-191, 2001 [http://molinterv.aspetjournals.org/cgi/content/full/1/4/189]</ref> The great advantage of purified morphine was that a patient could be treated with a known dose—whereas with raw plant material, as [[Gabriel Fallopius]] once lamented, "if soporifics are weak they do not help; if they are strong they are exceedingly dangerous." Morphine was the first pharmaceutical isolated from a natural product, and this success encouraged the isolation of other alkaloids: by 1820, isolations of [[narcotine]], [[strychnine]], [[veratrine]], [[colchicine]], [[caffeine]], and [[quinine]] were reported. Morphine sales began in 1827, by [[Heinrich Emanuel Merck]] of Darmstadt, and helped him expand his family pharmacy into the massive [[Merck KGaA]] pharmaceutical company.

[[Codeine]] was isolated in 1832 by [[Robiquet]].

The use of [[diethyl ether]] and [[chloroform]] for [[general anesthesia]] began in 1846-1847, and rapidly displaced the use of opiates and [[tropane]] alkaloids from [[Solanaceae]] due to their relative safety.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Carter AJ |title=Narcosis and nightshade |journal=BMJ |volume=313 |issue=7072 |pages=1630–2 |year=1996 |pmid=8991015 |pmc=2359130 |doi= |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/313/7072/1630 }}</ref>

[[Heroin]], the first semi-synthetic opiate, was first synthesized in 1874, but was not pursued until its rediscovery in 1897 by [[Felix Hoffmann]] at the [[Bayer]] pharmaceutical company in [[Elberfeld, Germany]]. From 1898 to 1910 heroin was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough medicine for children. By 1902, sales made up 5% of the company's profits, and "heroinism" had attracted media attention.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://opioids.com/heroin/heroinhistory.html|title=How aspirin turned hero|author=Richard Askwith, ''The Sunday Times''|date=[[September 13]], [[1998]]|accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> [[Oxycodone]], a [[thebaine]] derivative similar to [[codeine]], was introduced by Bayer in 1916 and promoted as a less-addictive analgesic. Preparations of the drug such as [[Percocet]] and [[Oxycontin]] remain popular to this day.

A range of synthetic [[opioids]] such as [[methadone]] (1937), [[pethidine]] (1939), [[fentanyl]] (late 1950s), and derivatives thereof have been introduced, and each is preferred for certain specialized applications. Nonetheless, morphine remains the drug of choice for American [[combat medic]]s, who carry packs of [[syrette]]s containing 16 milligrams each for use on severely wounded soldiers.<ref name="MOLLE">{{cite web|url=http://www.brooksidepress.org/Products/OperationalMedicine/DATA/operationalmed/Manuals/FMSS/MOLLEMEDICALBAG.htm|title=Operational Medicine 2001 Field Medical Service School Student Handbook: MOLLE MEDICAL BAG/SURGICAL INSTRUMENT SET|date=1999-12-07|accessdate=2007-06-27}}</ref> No drug has yet been found that can match the painkilling effect of [[opioid]]s without also duplicating much of its addictive potential.

==Modern production and usage==
===''Papaver somniferum''===
[[Image:Harvesting opium.jpg|thumb|right|Scoring the poppy pod.]]
[[Image:Raw opium.jpg|thumb|right|Raw opium]]
{{main|Opium poppy}}

In South American countries, opium poppies (''Papaver somniferum'') are technically illegal, but nonetheless appear in some nurseries as ornamentals. They are popular and attractive garden plants, whose flowers vary greatly in color, size and form. A modest amount of domestic cultivation in private gardens is not usually subject to legal controls. In part, this tolerance reflects variation in addictive potency: a cultivar for opium production, ''Papaver somniferum L. elite'', contains 92% morphine, codeine, and thebaine in its latex alkaloids, whereas the condiment cultivar "Marianne" has only one-fifth this total, with the remaining alkaloids made up mostly of [[narcotoline]] and [[noscapine]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Frick S, Kramell R, Schmidt J, Fist AJ, Kutchan TM|title=Comparative qualitative and quantitative determination of alkaloids in narcotic and condiment Papaver somniferum cultivars|journal=J Nat Prod|date=2005-05|volume=68|issue=5|pages=666–73|pmid=15921406|doi=10.1021/np0496643}}</ref>

Seed capsules can be dried and used for decorations, but they also contain morphine, codeine, and other alkaloids. These pods can be boiled in water to produce a bitter tea that induces a long-lasting intoxication ''(See [[Poppy tea]])''. If allowed to mature, poppy pods can be crushed into "poppy straw" and used to produce lower quantities of [[morphinans]]. In poppies subjected to mutagenesis and selection on a mass scale, researchers have been able to use poppy straw to obtain large quantities of [[oripavine]], a precursor to [[opioids]] and antagonists such as [[naltrexone]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.patentlens.com/patentlens/patsearch.cgi?patnum=US+6723894#show|title=Production of thebaine and oripavine|date=2004-04-20|accessdate=2007-05-10}}</ref>

[[Poppyseed]]s are a common and flavorsome topping for breads and cakes. One gram of poppy seeds contains up to 33 micrograms of morphine and 14 micrograms of codeine, and the [[Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration]] formerly mandated that all drug screening laboratories use a standard cutoff of 300 nanograms per milliliter in urine samples. A single poppy seed roll (0.76 grams of seeds) usually did not produce a positive [[drug test]], but a positive result was observed from eating two rolls. A slice of poppy seed cake containing nearly five grams of seeds per slice produced positive results for 24 hours. Such results are viewed as [[false positive]] indications of drug abuse and were the basis of a legal defense.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Meadway C, George S, Braithwaite R.|date=1998-08-31|title=Opiate concentrations following the ingestion of poppy seed products--evidence for 'the poppy seed defence'|journal=Forensic Sci Int.|volume=96|issue=1|pages=29–38|pmid=9800363|doi=10.1016/S0379-0738(98)00107-8}}</ref><ref>Trafkowski J, Madea B, Musshoff F, "The significance of putative urinary markers of illicit heroin use after consumption of poppy seed products.," ''Ther Drug Monit'' 2006 Aug;28(4):552-8. PMID 16885724</ref> On [[November 30]], [[1998]], the standard cutoff was increased to 2000 nanograms (two micrograms) per milliliter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jatox.com/abstracts/1999/october/549-fraser.htm|title=Experience with a Urine Opiate Screening and Confirmation Cutoff of 2000 mg/ml|author=Albert D. Fraser and David Worth|date=1999-10|journal=Journal of Analytical Toxicology|volume=23|number=6|pages=549-551|accessdate=2007-09-20}}</ref> During the Communist era in Eastern Europe, poppy stalks sold in bundles by farmers were processed by users with household chemicals to make ''kompot'' ("[[Polish heroin]]"), and poppy seeds were used to produce ''koknar'', an opiate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,145798,00.html?iid=chix-sphere|title=Eastern Europe Shooting Up Under A Red Star|author=Jennifer Hull|date=2001-06-24|accessdate=2007-05-10}}</ref>

===Harvesting and processing===
When grown for opium production, the skin of the ripening pods of these poppies is scored by a sharp blade at a time carefully chosen so that neither rain, wind, nor dew can spoil the exudation of white, milky [[latex]], usually in the afternoon. Incisions are made while the pods are still raw, with no more than a slight yellow tint, and must be shallow to avoid penetrating hollow inner chambers or ''loculi'' while cutting into the lactiferous vessels. In India, the special tool used to make the incisions is called a ''nushtar'' and carries three or four blades three millimeters apart, which are scored upward along the pod. Incisions are made three or four times at intervals of two to three days, and each time the "poppy tears," which dry to a sticky brown resin, are collected the following morning. One [[acre]] harvested in this way can produce three to five kilograms of raw opium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://opioids.com/narcotic-drugs/chapter-2.html|author=Anil Aggrawal|title=Narcotic Drugs}}</ref> In the [[Soviet Union]], pods were typically scored horizontally, and opium was collected three times, or else one or two collections were followed by isolation of opiates from the ripe capsules. Oil poppies, an alternative strain of ''P. somniferum'', were also used for production of opiates from their capsules and stems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1969-01-01_4_page002.html|author=G. Shuljgin|title=Cultivation of opium poppy and the oil poppy in the Soviet Union|Date=1969-01-01}}</ref>

[[Image:8651819 d63dee249d o.jpg|thumb|right|Black tar opium seized in Afghanistan, spring 2005]]
Raw opium may be sold to a merchant or broker on the black market, but it usually does not travel far from the field before it is refined into '''morphine base''', because pungent, jelly-like raw opium is bulkier and harder to smuggle. Crude laboratories in the field are capable of refining opium into morphine base by a simple [[acid-base extraction]]. A sticky, brown paste, morphine base is pressed into bricks and sun-dried, and can either be smoked, prepared into other forms or processed into [[heroin]].<ref name="Frontline" />

Other methods of preparation (besides smoking), include processing into regular opium [[tincture]] (''tinctura opii''), [[laudanum]], [[paregoric]] (''tinctura opii camphorata''), [[herbal wine]] (eg ''vinum opii''), opium powder (''pulvis opii''), opium [[sirup]] (''sirupus opii'') and opium extract (''extractum opii'')<ref name=Belgische>Belgische Farmacopee, 5de uitgave, 1966; part 3</ref>. Vinum opii is made by combining [[sugar]], [[white wine]], [[cinnamon]], and [[cloves]]). Opium sirup is made by combining 997,5 part sugar sirup with 2,5 parts opium extract. Opium extract (''extractum opii'') finally can be made by macerating raw opium with water. To make opium extract, 20 parts water are combined with 1 part raw opium which has been boiled for 5 minutes (the latter to ease mixing). <ref name=Belgische/>

[[Heroin]] is widely preferred because of increased potency. One study in postaddicts found heroin to be approximately 2.2 times more potent than [[morphine]] by weight with a similar duration; at these relative quantities, they could distinguish the drugs subjectively but had no preference.<ref>{{cite journal|author=W. R. Martin and H. F. Fraser|year=1961|title=A comparative study of subjective and physiological effects of [[heroin]] and [[morphine]] administered intravenously in postaddicts|journal=Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics|volume=133|issue=3|pages=388–399|url=http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/133/3/388|accessdate=2007-06-06|pmid=13767429}}</ref> Heroin was also found to be twice as potent as morphine in surgical anesthesia.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Robinson SL, Rowbotham DJ, Smith G.|date=1991-07|title=Morphine compared with diamorphine. A comparison of dose requirements and side-effects after hip surgery|journal=Anesthesia|volume=46|issue=7|pages=538–40|pmid=1862890|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2044.1991.tb09650.x}}</ref> Morphine is converted into heroin by a simple chemical reaction with [[acetic anhydride]], followed by a varying degree of purification.<ref>{{cite web|title=Interpol|url=http://www.interpol.int/Public/Drugs/heroin/default.asp}}</ref><ref name="UNODC 2005">{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2005/volume_1_chap1_opium.pdf|title=UNODC World Drug Report 2005|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Especially in Mexican production, opium may be converted directly to "[[black tar heroin]]" in a simplified procedure. This form predominates in the U.S. west of the Mississippi. Relative to other preparations of heroin, it has been associated with a dramatically decreased rate of [[HIV]] transmission among [[intravenous drug use]]rs (4% in Los Angeles vs. 40% in New York) due to technical requirements of injection, although it is also associated with greater risk of venous [[sclerosis]] and [[necrotizing fasciitis]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pub.ucsf.edu/newsservices/releases/200401262/|author=Jeff Sheehy and Corinna Kaarlela|title=Black tar heroin use explains lower HIV levels among intravenous drug users in the Western U.S.|date=2004-01-26|accessdate=2007-05-19}}</ref>

===Illegal production===
[[Image:HeroinWorld.png|thumb|Main producers of opium for the heroin trade]]
[[Image:Opium production chart.png|thumb|Approximate global opium production for recreational purposes]]
{{see also|Opium production in Afghanistan|Illegal drug trade}}

Opium production has fallen greatly since 1906, when 41,000 tons were produced, but because 39,000 tons of that year's opium were consumed in China, overall usage in the rest of the world was much lower.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.a1b2c3.com/drugs/opi010.htm|title=Opium History, 1858 To 1940|author=Alfred W. McCoy|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> In 1980, 2,000 tons of opium supplied all legal and illegal uses.<ref name="Trocki">{{cite web|url=http://www.socialchange.qut.edu.au/conferences/socialchange/docs/conf_papers2002/TrockiCarl.pdf|author=Carl A. Trocki|title=Opium as a commodity and the Chinese drug plague|year=2002|accessdate=2005-06-07|format=PDF}}</ref> Recently, opium production has increased considerably, surpassing 5,000 tons in 2002. In 2002, the price for one kilogram of opium was $300 for the farmer, $800 for purchasers in Afghanistan, and $16,000 on the streets of Europe before conversion into heroin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/content/2005/s1379788.htm|title=Afghanistan: America's blind eye|author=Mark Corcoran|accessdate=2007-05-11}}</ref>

Following documented trends of increasing availability mirroring increased American military and geo-political regional involvement, Afghanistan is currently the primary producer of the drug. After regularly producing 70% of the world's opium, Afghanistan decreased production to 74 tons per year under a ban by the [[Taliban]] in 2000, although the ban may have been intended primarily to boost prices after the country accumulated a stockpile with over two years' supply.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://washingtontimes.com/national/20040121-101235-9084r.htm|title=U.S. set to target Afghan opium|author=Jerry Seper|year=2004|accessdate=2007-05-11}}</ref> After the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|2001 war in Afghanistan]], production increased again. According to [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] statistics, Afghanistan's production of oven-dried opium increased to 1,278 tons in 2002, more than doubled by 2003, and nearly doubled again during 2004. In late 2004, the U.S. government estimated that 206,000 [[hectares]] were under poppy cultivation, 4.5% of the country's total cropland, and produced 4,200 metric tons of opium, 87% of the world's supply, yielding 60% of Afghanistan's [[gross domestic product]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/locations/asia_near_east/afghanistan/weeklyreports/022405_report.html|title=Rebuilding Afghanistan: Weekly Activity Update|date=[[February 24]], [[2005]]|accessdate=2007-05-11}}</ref> In 2006, the [[UN Office on Drugs and Crime]] estimated production to have risen 59% to {{convert|407000|acre|km2}} in cultivation, yielding 6,100 tons of opium, 92% of the world's supply.<ref>{{cite web|author=BBC News|date=2006-08-02|title=UN warns of soaring Afghan opium |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5308180.stm|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref> The value of the resulting heroin was estimated at $3.5 billion, of which Afghan farmers were estimated to have received $700 million in revenue (of which the Taliban have been estimated to have collected anywhere from tens of millions to $140 million in taxes).<ref>{{cite web|title=Taliban taxes opium to fund insurgency|author=Jason Straziuso, Associated Press|date=2007-04-13|url=http://www.tbo.com/news/nationworld/MGBC1WT1G0F.html|accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref> For farmers, the crop can be up to ten times more profitable than wheat.

An increasingly large fraction of opium is processed into morphine base and heroin in drug labs in Afghanistan. Despite an international set of chemical controls designed to restrict availability of [[acetic anhydride]], it enters the country, perhaps through its Central Asian neighbors which do not participate. A counternarcotics law passed in December 2005 requires Afghanistan to develop registries or regulations for tracking, storing, and owning acetic anhydride.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/p/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2006/vol1/html/62105.htm|title=International Narcotics Control Strategy Report: Chemical controls|accessdate=2007-05-11}}</ref>

Besides Afghanistan, smaller quantities of opium are produced in Pakistan, the [[Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Golden Triangle]] region of [[Southeast Asia]] (particularly [[Myanmar]]), [[Colombia]] and [[Mexico]].

===Legal production===
{{main|Opium licensing}}

Legal opium production is allowed under the [[United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] and other international drug treaties, subject to strict supervision by the [[List of U.S. state and local law enforcement agencies|law enforcement agencies]] of individual countries. The leading legal production method is the Gregory process, whereby the entire poppy, excluding roots and leaves, is mashed and stewed in dilute acid solutions. The [[alkaloids]] are then recovered via [[acid-base extraction]] and purified. This process was developed in the UK during [[World War II]], when wartime shortages of many [[Essential Drugs|essential drugs]] encouraged innovation in [[Reed Business Information|pharmaceutical processing]].

Legal production in India is much more traditional. As of 1996, opium was collected by farmers who were licensed to grow 0.1 hectare of opium poppies (0.24 acre), who to maintain their licenses needed to sell 4.5 kilograms of unadulterated raw opium paste at a fixed government price of 320 rupees ($8 US) per kilogram. One kilogram represents two days' work for a family. Some additional money is made by drying the poppy heads and collecting poppy seeds, and a small fraction of opium beyond the quota may be consumed locally or diverted to the black market. The opium paste is sun-dried and stirred in large pans before it is packed into cases of 60 kilograms for export. Purification of chemical constituents is done in India for domestic production, but typically done abroad by foreign importers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieo.org/opm_mass.html|title=Opium for the masses: photo essay on cultivation of opium in India|author=Pablo Bartholomew|date=1996|accessdate=2007-06-15}}</ref>


== Love paneer ==
Legal opium importation from [[India]] and [[Turkey]] is conducted by [[Mallinckrodt]], [[Noramco]], [[Abbott Laboratories]], and [[Purdue Pharma]] in the [[United States]], and legal opium production is conducted by [[GlaxoSmithKline]], [[Johnson and Johnson]], [[Johnson Matthey]], and [[Mayne]] in [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]]; [[Sanofi Aventis]] in France; [[Shionogi]] Pharmaceutical in Japan; and [[MacFarlan Smith]] in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="Senlis">{{cite web|url=http://www.senliscouncil.net/documents/feasibility_study_conclusions_and_recommendations|title=Feasibility Study on Opium Licensing in Afghanistan|author=Senlis Council}}</ref> [[United Nations|The UN]] treaty requires that every country submit annual reports to the [[International Narcotics Control Board]], stating that year's actual consumption of many classes of controlled drugs as well as opioids and projecting required quantities for the next year. This is to allow trends in consumption to be monitored and production quotas allotted.


Hello. I was just roaming around, and found you. Probably you love cheese. I love [[paneer]]. We have two common characteristics: being wikipedians and loving cheese / panner. I am in a weekend mood, and trust that you won't mind coming me to your page to "share" my views. The fun-stats on your user page are great! --[[User:Bhadani|Bhadani]] ([[User_talk:Bhadani|talk]]) 17:04, 4 October 2008 (UTC)
A recent proposal from the European [[Senlis Council]] hopes to solve the problems caused by the massive quantity of [[Opium production in Afghanistan|opium produced illegally in Afghanistan]], most of which is converted to heroin and smuggled for sale in Europe and the USA. This proposal is to [[opium licensing|license]] Afghan farmers to produce opium for the world pharmaceutical market, and thereby solve another problem, that of chronic underuse of potent analgesics where required within [[Developing country|developing nations]]. Part of the proposal is to overcome the "80-20 rule" that requires the U.S. to purchase 80% of its legal opium from [[India]] and [[Turkey]] to include Afghanistan, by establishing a second-tier system of supply control that complements the current INCB regulated supply and demand system by providing poppy-based medicines to countries who cannot meet their demand under the current regulations. Senlis arranged a conference in Kabul that brought drug policy experts from around the world to meet with Afghan government officials to discuss internal security, corruption issues, and legal issues within [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.senliscouncil.net/modules/events/kabul|title=The Kabul International Symposium on Drug Policy|author=Senlis Council|date=2005-09-26|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref>
In June 2007, the Council launched a "Poppy for Medicines" project that provides a technical blueprint for the implementation of an integrated control system within Afghan village-based poppy for medicine projects: the idea promotes the economic diversification by redirecting proceeds from the legal cultivation of poppy and production of poppy-based medicines (See [[Senlis Council]]).<ref name="senliscouncil">"[http://www.senliscouncil.net/modules/publications/documents/poppy_medicine_technical_dossier Poppy for Medicine: Licensing poppy for the production of essential medicines: an integrated counter-narcotics, development, and counter-insurgency model for Afghanistan]." ''[[Senlis Council]].'' June 2007. Retrieved on [[September 21]], [[2007]].</ref>


== KevJumba move ==
====Cultivation in the UK====


Thank you. - [[User:Peregrine Fisher|Peregrine Fisher]] ([[User talk:Peregrine Fisher|talk]]) ([[Special:Contributions/Peregrine_Fisher|contribs]]) 16:54, 6 October 2008 (UTC)
<!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[Image:Poppyfield_Didcot_UK.jpg|thumb|left|Opium production in the UK]] -->In late 2006, the [[United Kingdom|British]] government permitted the pharmaceutical company [[Macfarlan Smith]] (a [[Johnson Matthey]] company) to cultivate opium poppies in [[England]] for medicinal reasons, after Macfarlan Smith's primary source, India, decided to increase the price of export opium latex. This move is well received by British farmers, with a major opium poppy field based in [[Didcot]], [[England]]. The British government has contradicted the Home Office's suggestion that opium cultivation can be legalized in [[Afghanistan]] for exports to the United Kingdom, helping lower poverty and internal fighting whilst helping [[National Health Service|NHS]] to meet the high demand for [[morphine]] and [[heroin]]. Opium poppy cultivation in the United Kingdom does not need a licence; however, a licence is required for those wishing to extract opium for [[medicinal]] products.<ref> The painkilling fields: England's opium poppies that tackle the NHS morphine crisis, [http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23404311-details/The%20painkilling%20fields:%20England's%20opium%20poppies%20that%20tackle%20the%20NHS%20morphine%20crisis/article.do Press release], 2007-15-09.</ref>


===Consumption===
== [[GTAForums]] ==


Hi, I have contested the deletion on the talk page, if that's allowed.
In the industrialized world, the USA is the world's biggest consumer of prescription opioids, with Italy one of the lowest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nursinglibrary.org/Portal/main.aspx?pageid=4024&sid=15718|title=Oral morphine consumption in Italy and Sicily|author=S. Mercadante|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> Most opium imported into the United States is broken down into its [[alkaloid]] constituents, and whether legal or illegal, most current drug use occurs with processed derivatives such as [[heroin]] rather than with pure and untouched opium.
I've also edited in copyright details on the image GTAWiki.jpg. I just took a screen-shot of the GTAForums front page, nothing big. [[User:Radicell|Radicell]] ([[User talk:Radicell|talk]]) 13:54, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
:''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ARadicell&diff=243889615&oldid=243634067 Replied] on this user's talk page - 14:01, 8 October 2008 (UTC) ''


== Recentness of blocks ==
[[Intravenous injection]] of opiates is most used: by comparison with injection, "dragon chasing" (heating of heroin with [[barbital]] on a piece of foil) and "ack ack" (smoking of [[cigarettes]] containing heroin powder) are only 40% and 20% efficient, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|title=An Assessment Of Inhalation As A Mode Of Administration Of Heroin By Addicts|url=http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/154/1/142|author=Benjamin Pui-Nin Mo and E. Leong Way|journal=Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics|volume=154|issue=1|year=1966|pages=142–151|accessdate=2007-06-06|pmid=5924312}}</ref> One study of British heroin addicts found a 12-fold excess mortality ratio (1.8% of the group dying per year).<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/130/7/584#R14-8|title=Acute Heroin Overdose|author=Karl A. Sporer, M.D.|date=1999-04-06|volume=130|issue=7|pages=584–590|accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> Most heroin deaths result not from overdose ''per se'', but combination with other depressant drugs such as [[alcohol]] or [[benzodiazepine]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Darke S, Zador D |title=Fatal heroin 'overdose': a review |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=91 |issue=12 |pages=1765–72 |year=1996 |month=Dec |pmid=8997759 |doi= |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0965-2140&date=1996&volume=91&issue=12&spage=1765}}</ref>


Please join the discussion at [[Wikipedia_talk:Administrator_intervention_against_vandalism#Long_term_vandals_and_freshness_of_warnings]]. Cheers, [[User:Dlohcierekim|<font color="#00ff00"> Dloh</font>]][[User_talk:Dlohcierekim|<font color="#bb00bb">cierekim''' </font>]] 16:47, 7 October 2008 (UTC)
[[Image:Akha man with opium pipe.jpg|thumb|right|An [[Akha]] man smokes a pipe. Although this pipe was described as an opium pipe by the photographer, a true opium pipe requires an external heat source. Still, opium can be smoked by mixing it with tobacco, as in [[madak]] and ''ack ack''.]]
:I know why you are referring me to this. I hesitated because of the ongoing discussion below the report. However the IP I blocked is a school IP. If vandalism resumes just after the previous block ends, and I see no recent useful contributions, I don't think allowing more hit and run vandalism from that IP is to our advantage. The block is not meant to punish the individuals who sit and vandalize (or I'd wait for the full set of warnings). I don't think that asking for fresh and final warnings on obviously shared IPs is useful (I however insist on that on single IPs and user accounts). -- [[User:Lucasbfr|<span style="color:#002BB8;">lucasbfr</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:Lucasbfr|<span style="color:#001F7F;">talk</span>]]</sup> 17:10, 7 October 2008 (UTC)
The smoking of opium does not involve the [[pyrolysis]] of the material as might be imagined. Rather, the prepared opium is indirectly heated to temperatures at which the active alkaloids, chiefly morphine, are vaporized. In the past, smokers would utilize a specially designed [[opium pipe]] which had a removable knob-like pipe-bowl of fired earthenware attached by a metal fitting to a long, cylindrical stem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opiummuseum.com/|title=The Opium Museum}}</ref> A small "pill" of opium about the size of a pea would be placed on the pipe-bowl, which was then heated by holding it over an [[opium lamp]], a special oil lamp with a distinct funnel-like chimney to channel heat into a small area. The smoker would lie on his or her side in order to guide the pipe-bowl and the tiny pill of opium over the stream of heat rising from the chimney of the oil lamp and inhale the vaporized opium fumes as needed. Several pills of opium were smoked at a single session depending on the smoker's tolerance to the drug. The effects could last up to twelve hours.


== Image:OYD Altered Photo.jpg ==
In [[Eastern world|Eastern culture]], opium is more commonly used in the form of [[paregoric]] to treat [[diarrhea]]. This is a weaker solution than [[laudanum]], an alcoholic tincture which was prevalently used as a pain medication and sleeping aid. Tincture of opium has been prescribed for, among other things, severe diarrhea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://drugs.uta.edu/laudanum.html|title=Laudanum|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> Taken thirty minutes prior to meals, it significantly slows intestinal motility, giving the intestines greater time to absorb fluid in the stool.


Hi I just wondered if you had read my comments on the talk page, the image linked is ''not'' the image that was uploaded. --[[User:Nate1481|Nate]][[User talk:Nate1481|14]][[Special:Contributions/Nate1481|81]] 12:20, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
==Chemical and physiological properties==
[[Image:Morphine-2D-skeletal.png|thumb|right|[[Morphine ]]is the primary biologically-active chemical constituent of opium.]]
{{see also|Opioid|Opiate|Morphinan}}
Opium contains two main groups of [[alkaloid]]s. Those that use opium are commonly referred to as "opiats" (Coined by James St. Louis). [[Phenanthrene]]s include [[morphine]], [[codeine]], and [[thebaine]] and are the main narcotic constituents. [[Isoquinolines]] such as [[papaverine]] have no significant [[central nervous system]] effects and are not regulated under the [[Controlled Substances Act]]. Morphine is by far the most prevalent and important alkaloid in opium, consisting of 10%-16% of the total, and is responsible for most of its harmful effects such as lung edema, respiratory difficulties, coma, or cardiac or respiratory collapse, with a normal lethal dose of 120 to 250 [[milligrams]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bulkpharm.mallinckrodt.com/_attachments/msds/MPIUM.htm|title=Mallinckrodt MSDS}}</ref>&mdash;the amount found in approximately two grams of opium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://opioids.com/narcotic-drugs/chapter-2.html|author=Anil Aggrawal|title=Narcotic Drugs}}</ref> Morphine binds to and activates μ-opioid [[sensory receptor|receptors]] in the brain, spinal cord, stomach and intestine. Regular use leads to physical tolerance and dependence. Chronic opium addicts in 1906 China<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.a1b2c3.com/drugs/opi010.htm|title=Opium History, 1858 To 1940|author=Alfred W. McCoy|accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> or modern-day Iran<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caucaz.com/home_eng/breve_contenu.php?id=163|title=3 grams of opium for 1 dollar|author=Max CHAMKA; Translated by Geraldine RING|publisher=Caucaz europenews|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref> consume an average of eight grams daily.


:''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ANate1481&diff=243879426&oldid=243187149 Replied] on this user's talk page - 13:05, 8 October 2008 (UTC) ''
Both [[analgesia]] and [[drug addiction]] are functions of the [[mu opioid receptor]], the class of [[opioid receptor]] first identified as responsive to [[morphine]]. Tolerance is associated with the superactivation of the receptor, which may be affected by the degree of [[endocytosis]] caused by the [[opioid]] administered, and leads to a superactivation of [[cyclic AMP]] signalling.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Finn AK, Whistler JL |title=Endocytosis of the mu opioid receptor reduces tolerance and a cellular hallmark of opiate withdrawal |journal=Neuron |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=829–39 |year=2001 |month=Dec |pmid=11738029 |doi= |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0896-6273(01)00517-7}}</ref> Long-term use of morphine in [[palliative care]] and management of [[chronic pain]] can be managed without the development of [[drug tolerance]] or [[physical dependence]]. Many techniques of [[drug treatment]] exist, including pharmacologically based treatments with [[naltrexone]], [[methadone]], or [[ibogaine]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Alper KR, Lotsof HS, Kaplan CD |title=The ibogaine medical subculture |journal=J Ethnopharmacol |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=9–24 |year=2008 |month=Jan |pmid=18029124 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2007.08.034 |url=}}</ref>.


::Thanks, I think it probably is a derived image, but felt that it was not necessarily clear cut enough for a speedy, as it may be they are derived from a parent image so needed the closer look. --[[User:Nate1481|Nate]][[User talk:Nate1481|14]][[Special:Contributions/Nate1481|81]] 13:16, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
==Cultural references==
There is a rich and longstanding literary history by and about opium users. [[Thomas De Quincey]]'s 1822 ''[[Confessions of an English Opium-Eater]]'' is one of the first and most famous literary accounts of opium addiction written from the point of view of an addict and details both the pleasures and the dangers of the drug. De Quincey writes about the great English Romantic poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] (1772-1834), whose poem "[[Kubla Khan]]" is also widely considered to be a poem of the opium experience. Coleridge began using opium in 1791 after developing [[jaundice]] and [[rheumatic fever]] and became a full addict after a severe attack of the disease in 1801, requiring 80-100 drops of laudanum daily.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hubble D |title=Opium addiction and English literature |journal=Med Hist |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=323–35 |year=1957 |month=Oct |pmid=13476921 |pmc=1034310 |doi= |url=}}</ref> George Crabbe is another early writer who wrote about opium. "[[s:The Lotos-Eaters|The Lotos-Eaters]]," an 1832 poem by [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]], reflects the generally favorable British attitude toward the drug. In ''[[The Count of Monte Cristo]]'' (1844) by [[Alexandre Dumas, père]], the Count is assuaged by an edible form of opium, and his experience with it is depicted vividly.


Dear Lucasbfr, I am writing with regard to the image being considered by deletion. The original photo did indeed come from the Yahoo Group that you were unable to get onto. You were unable to get in because you need an account in order to look at the group's files. At any rate, even though I originally got it there, it probably originally came from a licensed poster and book, which I've tracked down and listed in the Non-free use media rationale. Hopefully this was the correct course of action to take since the images are useful in [[Oom Yung Doe]] article. You will have to believe that I uploaded the photos in good faith, albeit with limited knowledge of how to correctly upload media.[[User:Cjim63|Cjim63]] ([[User talk:Cjim63|talk]]) 01:54, 9 October 2008 (UTC)
[[Edgar Allan Poe]] presents opium in a more disturbing context in his 1838 short story "[[Ligeia]]," in which the narrator, deeply distraught for the loss of his beloved, takes solace in opium until he "had become a bounden slave in the trammels of opium," unable to distinguish fantasy from reality after taking immoderate doses of opium. In music, [[Hector Berlioz]]' 1830 ''[[Symphony Fantastique]]'' tells the tale of an artist who has poisoned himself with opium while in the depths of despair for a hopeless love. Each of the [[symphony]]'s five [[movement]]s takes place at a different [[Setting (fiction)|setting]] and with increasingly audible effects from the drug. For example, in the fourth movement, "Marche au Supplice," the artist dreams that he is walking to his own execution. In the fifth movement, "Songe d’une Nuit du Sabbat," he dreams that he is at a [[Sabbath (witchcraft)|witch's orgy]], where he witnesses his beloved dancing wildly along to the demented [[Dies Irae]].
:''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ACjim63&diff=244121811&oldid=244045441 Replied] on this user's talk page - 13:10, 9 October 2008 (UTC) ''


== Chinese New Year ==
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, references to opium and opium addiction in the context of crime and the foreign underclass abound in [[English literature]], such as in the opening paragraphs of [[Charles Dickens]]'s 1870 serial ''[[The Mystery of Edwin Drood]]'' and in [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s 1891 [[Sherlock Holmes]] short story "[[The Man with the Twisted Lip]]." In [[Oscar Wilde]]'s 1890 ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'', the protagonist visits an opium den "for forgetfulness," unable to bear the guilt and shame of committing murder. Opium likewise underwent a transformation in Chinese literature, becoming associated with indolence and vice by the early twentieth century.<ref name="Madancy"/> Perhaps the best-known literary reference to opium is [[Karl Marx]]'s metaphor in his "Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's 'Philosophy of Right'," where he refers to religion as "the opium of the people." (This phrase is more commonly quoted as "the opiate of the masses.")


I dispute [[Chinese New Year]] article, and I hope I can avoid a revert war. But I don't know how I can dispute the article without revert warring when [[User:Angelo_De_La_Paz | Angelo_De_La_Paz]] reverts[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_New_Year&diff=244019439&oldid=244007965] my disputation with no explanation or discussion. [[User:VeryGoodBoy|VeryGoodBoy]] ([[User talk:VeryGoodBoy|talk]]) 23:58, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
In the twentieth century, as the use of opium was eclipsed by [[morphine]] and [[heroin]], its role in literature became more limited, and often focused on issues related to its prohibition. In ''[[The Good Earth]]'' by [[Pearl S. Buck]], Wang Lung, the protagonist, gets his troublesome uncle and aunt addicted to opium in order to keep them out of his hair. [[William S. Burroughs]] autobiographically describes the use of opium beside that of its derivatives. His associate [[Jack Black (author)|Jack Black's]] memoir ''[[You Can't Win (book)|You Can't Win]]'' chronicles one man's experience both as an onlooker in the opium dens of San Francisco, and later as a "hop fiend" himself. The book and subsequent movie ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]'' may allude to opium at one point in the story, when Dorothy and her friends are drawn into a field of poppies, in which they fall asleep.


== http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_County_Poor_Farm ==
==See also==
{{portal|Pharmacy and Pharmacology|Tabletten.JPG}}


Why was this deleted? This was MY article that I wrote that I posted on http://www.raycountyhistoricalsociety.com/ and Karen who is the manager of the musuem and website started this for me. This was the first of many stories that I am writing on the Ray County Poor Farm. If this is a copyright violation I would like to know what I stole and from where.
* [[Opium pipe]]
Rod <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.206.90.201|12.206.90.201]] ([[User talk:12.206.90.201|talk]]) 11:03, 9 October 2008 (UTC)</span><!-- Template:UnsignedIP --> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
* [[Opium lamp]]
* [[Opium den]]
* [[Opium poppy]]
* [[Opium wars]]
* [[Forbes family]]
* [[Imperialism in Asia]]
* [[Jardine Matheson Holdings]]
* [[Laudanum]]
* [[Nabidh]]
* [[Opium of the masses]]
* [[Opium production in Afghanistan]]
* [[Protocol for Limiting and Regulating the Cultivation of the Poppy Plant, the Production of, International and Wholesale Trade in, and Use of Opium]]
* [[Psychoactive drug]]
* [[Thomas Browne|Sir Thomas Browne]]


:''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:12.206.90.201&oldid=244108185 Replied] on this user's talk page - 11:33, 9 October 2008 (UTC) ''
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}


== User:Slsmonty ==
==Further reading==
*Ahmad, Diana L. ''The Opium Debate and Chinese Exclusion Laws in the Nineteenth-century American West'' (University of Nevada Press, 2007). Drugs and Racism in the Old West.
*Armero and Rapaport. ''The Arts of an Addiction. Qing Dynasty Opium Pipes and Accessories'' (privately printed, 2005)
*Booth, Martin. ''Opium: A History''. London: Simon & Schuster, Ltd., 1996.
*{{cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7293|title=The Opium Habit|author=Day, Horace B.|year=1868}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/confessionsofane02040gut|title=Confessions of an English opium-eater|author=de Quincey, Thomas|year=1821}}
*Fairbank, J.K. (1978) ''The Cambridge History of China: volume 10 part I'', Cambridge, CUP
*Franck Daninos, ''L'opium légal produit en France'', [[La Recherche]], May 2005
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/agreementbetween00grearich|title=Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal for regulation of the opium monopolies of the colonies of Hong Kong and Macao|author=Great Britain|year=1913}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/truthaboutindian00grearich|title=The truth about Indian opium|year=1922|author=Great Britain, India office}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/opiumhistoricaln00chinrich|author=Hai guan zong shui wu si shu|year=1889|title=The poppy in China}}
*Hideyuki Takano; ''The Shore Beyond Good and Evil: A Report from Inside Burma's Opium Kingdom'' (2002, Kotan, ISBN 0970171617)
*Latimer, Dean, and Jeff Goldberg with an Introduction by William Burroughs. ''Flowers in the Blood: The Story of Opium''. New York: Franklin Watts, 1981
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/twoyearsinchinan00macprich|title=Two years in China. Narrative of the Chinese expedition, from its formation in April, 1840, to the treaty of peace in August, 1842|author=MacPherson, Duncan|year=1843}}
*Martin, Steven. ''The Art of Opium Antiques''. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007.
*McCoy, Alfred W. ''The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade''. New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991.
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/druggingnationst00merwiala|title=Drugging a nation, the story of China and the opium curse; a personal investigation, during an extended tour, of the present conditions of the opium trade in China and its effects upon the nation|author=Merwin, Samuel|year=1907}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/inventionscustom00morerich|title=A philosophical and statistical history of the inventions and customs of ancient and modern nations in the manufacture and use of inebriating liquors; with the present practice of distillation in all its varieties: together with an extensive illustration of the consumption and effects of opium, and other stimulants used in the East, as substitutes for wine and spirits|author=Morewood, Samuel|year=1838}}
*Musto, David F. ''The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/morningofmylifei00nyegrich|title=The morning of my life in China : comprising an outline of the history of foreign intercourse from the last year of the regime of honorable East India Company, 1833, to the imprisonment of the foreign community in 1839|year=1873|author=Nye, Gideon}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/chinesewaraccoun00ouchrich|title=The Chinese war : an account of all the operations of the British forces from the commencement to the Treaty of Nanking|author=Ouchterlony, John|year=1844}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/oldestnewestempi00speerich|title=The oldest and the newest empire : China and the United States|author=Speer, William|year=1870}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/iniquitiesofopiu00theluoft|title=The iniquities of the opium trade with China ; being a development of the main causes which exclude the merchants of Great Britain from the advantages of an unrestricted commercial intercourse with that vast empire. With extracts from authentic documents|author=Thelwall, A. S.|year=1839}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/britishopiumpoli00turnrich|title=British opium policy and its results to India and China|year=1876|author=Turner, Frederick Storrs}}


I think we are way beyond AGF for this user. We warned him so many times, and he hasn't stop. We should ABF from now on. I have already filed an AIV report on this user. I hope he gets banned soon. [[User:Arbiteroftruth|Arbiteroftruth]] ([[User talk:Arbiteroftruth|talk]]) 06:26, 10 October 2008 (UTC)
==External links==
:Yeah I saw. I'm assuming stupidity here. Next upload I'll block without regret. -- [[User:Lucasbfr|<span style="color:#002BB8;">lucasbfr</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:Lucasbfr|<span style="color:#001F7F;">talk</span>]]</sup> 06:28, 10 October 2008 (UTC)
*[http://www.drugabuse.gov/DrugPages/Heroin.html National Institute on Drug Abuse]: Heroin and related topics
*[http://www.drugfreeinfo.org/theroin.html Iowa Substance Abuse Information Center]: Heroin and other opiates
*[http://www.dea.gov/concern/concern.htm DEA drug information]: Opium, morphine, and heroin
*[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/opiates/opiates.shtml Erowid]: Opiates / Opioids
*[http://www.goldentrianglepark.org/ Hall of Opium] Virtual museum (Macromedia Flash presentation)
*[http://www.opiummuseum.com/ Opium Museum]: Opium paraphernalia and historical photos of opium smokers
*[http://www.newyorker.com/online/2007/07/09/slideshow_070709_anderson]: photos of Opium production and eradication in Afghanistan
*[http://www.wesjones.com/pollan1.htm ''Opium Made Easy''] by Michael Pollan (originally appeared in ''[[Harper's Magazine|Harper's]]''.)
*[http://www.tucsonweekly.com/gbase/currents/Content?oid=oid:67441 Confessions of a Poppy Tea addict]
*[http://www.geopium.org/ Geopium]: Opium politics, geography, and photos (site mostly in French)
*[http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/political_science/opiumprod.html Opium in India]
*[http://www.cia.gov/library/publications//heroin/flowers_to_heroin.htm From Flowers to Heroin], CIA publication
*[http://opioids.com/ BLTC Research]: Speculations on the future of opioids
*[http://www.thailex.info/THAILEX/THAILEXENG/lexicon/opiumgebruik.htm Thailex photo:] Traditional method of using opium in Thailand
*[http://www.aaronhuey.com]: PHOTO ESSAY ON OPIUM ERADICATION, AFGHANISTAN


== My talk page ==
{{Opioids}}
{{Components of Opium}}


Thanks for protecting my talk page. <font color="DarkGray">...</font> [[User:discospinster|<font color="DarkOrange">'''disco'''</font><font color="DarkOliveGreen">'''''spinster'''''</font>]] <sub>[[User talk:discospinster|'''<font color="DarkGray">talk</font>''']]</sub> 21:06, 11 October 2008 (UTC)
{{ancient anesthesia-footer}}


== Re: 75.139.138.105's vandalism ==
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Opioids]]


I work for one of the television stations he's named. I can confirm that his information is false. WAGA is owned by Fox, and will not be shopped out; in addition, WXIA (which is owned by Gannett) has a long-term affiliation agreement with NBC, which is also not being shopped out. His information is false. Period. --[[User:Mhking|Mhking]] ([[User talk:Mhking|talk]]) 15:50, 13 October 2008 (UTC)
[[ar:أفيون]]
:Ok, he earned some long vacations then (since he seems to like these articles). Thanks. -- [[User:Lucasbfr|<span style="color:#002BB8;">lucasbfr</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:Lucasbfr|<span style="color:#001F7F;">talk</span>]]</sup> 15:53, 13 October 2008 (UTC)
[[bs:Opijum]]
::The only revert I remember making was the one titled 1 where I thought I sent an editing-tests warning, but because a level 4 warning already existed, huggle just reported it. Btw, cheers for letting me know because yeah, I wouldn't have noticed. :$ I'm off for now. [[User:Ncmvocalist|Ncmvocalist]] ([[User talk:Ncmvocalist|talk]]) 16:07, 13 October 2008 (UTC)
[[ca:Opi]]
[[cs:Opium]]
[[cy:Opiwm]]
[[da:Opium]]
[[de:Opium]]
[[et:Oopium]]
[[es:Opio]]
[[eo:Opio]]
[[eu:Opio]]
[[fa:تریاک]]
[[fr:Opium]]
[[ko:아편]]
[[hr:Opijum]]
[[id:Opium]]
[[is:Ópíum]]
[[it:Oppio]]
[[he:אופיום]]
[[lt:Opijus]]
[[hu:Ópium]]
[[ms:Candu]]
[[nl:Opium]]
[[ja:アヘン]]
[[no:Opium]]
[[uz:Afyun]]
[[pl:Opium]]
[[pt:Ópio]]
[[ru:Опиум]]
[[scn:Loppiu]]
[[simple:Opium]]
[[sk:Ópium]]
[[sl:Opij]]
[[sr:Опијум]]
[[fi:Oopiumi]]
[[sv:Opium]]
[[ta:அபினி]]
[[vi:Thuốc phiện]]
[[tr:Afyon (narkotik)]]
[[zh-yue:鴉片]]
[[zh:鸦片]]

Revision as of 01:12, 14 October 2008

AF • HQ • RFU
AIV • ANI • AN


Click here to leave me a new message .
I will usually reply on your talk page if you sign your comments by typing ~~~~ at the end.
If you are here because you think I've made a mistake somewhere, you might be right.

If you can, please undo my action (even if it's a deletion or a block) and notify me, I'll double check later.

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Love paneer

Hello. I was just roaming around, and found you. Probably you love cheese. I love paneer. We have two common characteristics: being wikipedians and loving cheese / panner. I am in a weekend mood, and trust that you won't mind coming me to your page to "share" my views. The fun-stats on your user page are great! --Bhadani (talk) 17:04, 4 October 2008 (UTC)

KevJumba move

Thank you. - Peregrine Fisher (talk) (contribs) 16:54, 6 October 2008 (UTC)

GTAForums

Hi, I have contested the deletion on the talk page, if that's allowed. I've also edited in copyright details on the image GTAWiki.jpg. I just took a screen-shot of the GTAForums front page, nothing big. Radicell (talk) 13:54, 8 October 2008 (UTC)

Replied on this user's talk page - 14:01, 8 October 2008 (UTC)

Recentness of blocks

Please join the discussion at Wikipedia_talk:Administrator_intervention_against_vandalism#Long_term_vandals_and_freshness_of_warnings. Cheers, Dlohcierekim 16:47, 7 October 2008 (UTC)

I know why you are referring me to this. I hesitated because of the ongoing discussion below the report. However the IP I blocked is a school IP. If vandalism resumes just after the previous block ends, and I see no recent useful contributions, I don't think allowing more hit and run vandalism from that IP is to our advantage. The block is not meant to punish the individuals who sit and vandalize (or I'd wait for the full set of warnings). I don't think that asking for fresh and final warnings on obviously shared IPs is useful (I however insist on that on single IPs and user accounts). -- lucasbfr talk 17:10, 7 October 2008 (UTC)

Image:OYD Altered Photo.jpg

Hi I just wondered if you had read my comments on the talk page, the image linked is not the image that was uploaded. --Nate1481 12:20, 8 October 2008 (UTC)

Replied on this user's talk page - 13:05, 8 October 2008 (UTC)
Thanks, I think it probably is a derived image, but felt that it was not necessarily clear cut enough for a speedy, as it may be they are derived from a parent image so needed the closer look. --Nate1481 13:16, 8 October 2008 (UTC)

Dear Lucasbfr, I am writing with regard to the image being considered by deletion. The original photo did indeed come from the Yahoo Group that you were unable to get onto. You were unable to get in because you need an account in order to look at the group's files. At any rate, even though I originally got it there, it probably originally came from a licensed poster and book, which I've tracked down and listed in the Non-free use media rationale. Hopefully this was the correct course of action to take since the images are useful in Oom Yung Doe article. You will have to believe that I uploaded the photos in good faith, albeit with limited knowledge of how to correctly upload media.Cjim63 (talk) 01:54, 9 October 2008 (UTC)

Replied on this user's talk page - 13:10, 9 October 2008 (UTC)

Chinese New Year

I dispute Chinese New Year article, and I hope I can avoid a revert war. But I don't know how I can dispute the article without revert warring when Angelo_De_La_Paz reverts[1] my disputation with no explanation or discussion. VeryGoodBoy (talk) 23:58, 8 October 2008 (UTC)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_County_Poor_Farm

Why was this deleted? This was MY article that I wrote that I posted on http://www.raycountyhistoricalsociety.com/ and Karen who is the manager of the musuem and website started this for me. This was the first of many stories that I am writing on the Ray County Poor Farm. If this is a copyright violation I would like to know what I stole and from where. Rod —Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.206.90.201 (talk) 11:03, 9 October 2008 (UTC)

Replied on this user's talk page - 11:33, 9 October 2008 (UTC)

User:Slsmonty

I think we are way beyond AGF for this user. We warned him so many times, and he hasn't stop. We should ABF from now on. I have already filed an AIV report on this user. I hope he gets banned soon. Arbiteroftruth (talk) 06:26, 10 October 2008 (UTC)

Yeah I saw. I'm assuming stupidity here. Next upload I'll block without regret. -- lucasbfr talk 06:28, 10 October 2008 (UTC)

My talk page

Thanks for protecting my talk page. ... discospinster talk 21:06, 11 October 2008 (UTC)

Re: 75.139.138.105's vandalism

I work for one of the television stations he's named. I can confirm that his information is false. WAGA is owned by Fox, and will not be shopped out; in addition, WXIA (which is owned by Gannett) has a long-term affiliation agreement with NBC, which is also not being shopped out. His information is false. Period. --Mhking (talk) 15:50, 13 October 2008 (UTC)

Ok, he earned some long vacations then (since he seems to like these articles). Thanks. -- lucasbfr talk 15:53, 13 October 2008 (UTC)
The only revert I remember making was the one titled 1 where I thought I sent an editing-tests warning, but because a level 4 warning already existed, huggle just reported it. Btw, cheers for letting me know because yeah, I wouldn't have noticed. :$ I'm off for now. Ncmvocalist (talk) 16:07, 13 October 2008 (UTC)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Opium&oldid=245124902"