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{{Wikiproject VC migration}}
{{Infobox Former Country
{{WPMILHIST
|native_name = யாழ்ப்பாண அரசு
|class = stub
|conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Aryacakravarti
<!-- B-Class checklist -->
|common_name = Jaffna kingdom
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|
major points are appropriately cited. -->
|continent = moved from Category:Asia to South Asia
|B-Class-1=
|region = South Asia
<!-- 2. It reasonably covers the topic, and
|era = Medieval era
does not contain major omissions or inaccuracies. -->
|government_type = Monarchy
|B-Class-2=
|year_start = 1215
<!-- 3. It has a defined
|event_start = Fall of [[Polonnaruwa Kingdom|Polonnaruwa]]
structure, including
|year_end = 1619
a lead section and one or more sections of content.-->
|event_end = Fall of [[Nallur (Jaffna)|Nallur]]
|B-Class-3=
|date_end =
<!-- 4. It is free from major grammatical errors. -->
|event1 = [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese invasion]]
|B-Class-4=
|date_event1 = 1505
<!-- 5. It contains appropriate supporting materials,
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such as an infobox, images, or diagrams. -->
|image_flag = Jaffna_royal_flag.jpeg
|B-Class-5=
|flag = Royal flag of the Jaffna kingdom
|British=yes
|image_coat =
|Biography=yes
|symbol = Nandi
|symbol_type = Royal Emblem
|image_map = Jaffna_Kingdom.jpg
|image_map_caption = Jaffna kingdom at its greatest extent c. 1350.
|flag_s1 = Flag Portugal (1640).svg
|s1 = Portuguese Ceylon
|capital = [[Nallur (Jaffna)|Nallur]]
|common_languages = [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Sanskrit]]
|religion = [[Hinduism]]
|currency = [[Setu coins]]
|
|leader1 = [[Kalinga Magha|Kulingai Cakravarti]]
|year_leader1 = 1215-1255
|leader2 = Cankili II
|year_leader2 = 1617–1619
|title_leader = [[Aryacakravarti dynasty|Aryacakravarti]]
}}
}}
The '''Jaffna kingdom''' ({{lang-ta|யாழ்ப்பாண அரசு}}) (1215-1619 CE), also known as '''Kingdom of Aryacakravarti''', of modern northern [[Sri Lanka]] came into existence after the invasion of [[Kalinga Magha|Magha]], who is said to have been from [[Kalinga (India)|Kalinga]], in India. It eventually became a tribute paying feudatory of the [[Pandyan Empire]] in modern [[South India]] in 1258, gaining independence later with the fragmentation of the Pandyan control. For a brief period, in the early to mid-fourteenth century, it was an ascendant power in the island of Sri Lanka when all regional kingdoms accepted subordination. However, the kingdom was eventually overpowered by the rival [[Kotte Kingdom]], around 1450.


{{WPBiography
It was freed of Kotte control in 1467; its subsequent rulers directed their energies towards consolidating its economic potential by maximising revenue from [[pearl]]s and [[elephant]] exports and land revenue. It was less [[feudal]] than most of other regional kingdoms in the island of Sri Lanka of the same period. During this period, important local [[Tamil language|Tamil]] literature was produced and [[Hindu]] temples were built including an academy for language advancement.
|living = no

|class = Stub
The arrival of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese colonial]] power to the island of Sri Lanka in 1505, and its strategic location in the [[Palk Strait]] connecting all interior [[History of Sri Lanka|Sinhalese]] kingdoms to [[South India]], created political problems. Many of its kings confronted and ultimately made peace with the Portuguese colonials. In 1617, [[Cankili II]], an usurper to the throne, confronted the Portuguese but was defeated, thus bringing the kingdom’s independent existence to an end in 1619.
|needs-infobox = yes

|military-work-group = yes}}
==History==
===Early period===
{{Main|Aryacakravarti dynasty}}
The origin of the kingdom is obscure and still the subject of controversy among historians. Some historians believe that there was an independent kingdom in [[Rajarata|Uttaradesa]] (northern part of Sri Lanka) during the [[Anuradhapura|classical Sinhalese kingdom]] period,<ref>Gunasingam, M ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p.53</ref><ref>Manogaran, C, ''The untold story of Ancient Tamils of Sri Lanka'', p.22-65</ref><ref>Kunarasa, K ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', p.1-53</ref><ref>Rasanayagam, M ''Ancient Jaffna'', p.272-321</ref> which is contested by Sri Lankan historians.<ref>{{citeweb|url= http://www.infolanka.com/org/srilanka/hist/hist4.html
|title= The so called Tamil Kingdom of Jaffna|accessdate=2007-11-30|format=html |work= S.Ranwella}}</ref> Among mainstream historians, such as K.M. de Silva and Karthigesu Indrapala, the widely accepted view is that the Kingdom of Aryacakravarti began with the invasion of a previously unknown chieftain called [[Kalinga Magha|Magha]], who claimed to be from [[Kalinga (India)|Kalinga]] in modern [[India]].<ref name=DS91/><ref>Nadarajan , V ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', p.72</ref><ref> Indrapala, K ''Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon'', p.16</ref><ref name=Cod74>Coddrington, K ''Ceylon coins and currency'', p.74-76</ref> He deposed the ruling King Parakrama Pandu of [[Polonnaruwa]] with the help of his soldiers and mercenaries from the Kalinga, modern [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu|Damila]] regions in India.<ref name=DS91/>
[[Image:pandya territories.png|thumb|left|Pandyan tribute paying territories circa 1250, includes what ultimately became the Jaffna kingdom in Sri Lanka]]
After the conquest of [[Rajarata]], he moved the capital to the [[Jaffna Peninsula|Jaffna peninsula]] and ruled as a tribute-paying subordinate of the [[Chola empire]] of [[Tanjavur]], in modern Tamil Nadu, India.<ref name=DS91/> During this period (1247), a [[Malay]] chieftain from [[Tambralinga]] in modern [[Thailand]] named [[Chandrabhanu]] invaded the politically fragmented island.<ref name=DS91/> Although King Parakramabahu II (1236-70) from [[Dambadeniya]] was able to repulse the attack, Chandrabhanu moved north and secured the throne for himself around 1255 from Magha.<ref name=DS91/> This prompted the [[Pandyan Empire]] in modern [[South India]] to intervene and Chandrabhanu submitted to Pandya rule in 1258. When Chandrabhanu embarked on a second invasion of the south, the Pandyas again came to the support of the Sinhalese king and killed Chandrabhanu in 1262 and installed [[Aryacakravarti]], a minister in charge of the invasion, as the king.<ref name=DS91/> When the Pandyan Empire became weak due to [[Muslim]] invasions, successive Aryacakravarti rulers made the Jaffna kingdom independent and a regional power to reckon with in Sri Lanka.<ref name=DS91>de Silva, A ''History of Sri Lanka'', p.91-92</ref><ref name=PP>Peebles, ''History of Sri Lanka'', p.31-32</ref> All subsequent kings of the Jaffna Kingdom claimed descent from one Kulingai Cakravarti who is identified with Kalinga Magha by Swami Gnanaprakasar and Mudaliar Rasanayagam while maintaining their Pandyan progenitor’s family name.<ref>Kunarasa, K ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', p.65-66</ref><ref>Coddrington, ''Short history of Ceylon'', p.91-92</ref>

The dynasty claimed titles such as ''Setukavalan'' meaning custodians of the [[Rameswaram]] temple in modern India, ''Singaiariyan'' (from the city of [[Singai Nagar]],<ref name=Sethu/> another name for their capital Nallur), and ''Gangainadan'', alluding to their origin from the [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Ganga dynasty]] or the [[Ganges]] region of modern [[North India]].<ref name=Sethu/> Politically, it was an expanding power in the 13th and 14th century with all regional kingdoms paying tribute to it.<ref name=PP/> However, it met with simultaneous confrontations with the [[Vijayanagar empire]] that ruled from [[Vijayanagara]], southern India, and a rebounding [[Kotte|Kotte Kingdom]] from the southern Sri Lanka.<ref name=ds132/> This led to the kingdom becoming a [[vassal]] of the Vijyanagar Empire as well as briefly losing its independence under the Kotte kingdom from 1450 to 1467.<ref name=PP/> The kingdom was re-established with the disintegration of Kotte kingdom and the fragmentation of Viyanagar Empire.<ref name=PP34>Peebles, ''History of Sri Lanka'', p.34</ref> It maintained very close commercial and political relationships with the [[Thanjavur Nayaks|Thanjavur Nayakar]] kingdom in southern India as well as the [[Kandyan kingdom|Kandyan]] and segments of the Kotte kingdom. This period saw the building of Hindu temples and a flourishing of literature, both in Tamil and Sanskrit.<ref>Kunarasa, K ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', p.73-75</ref><ref name=ds132>de Silva, A ''History of Sri Lanka'', p.132-133</ref><ref name=Codrington>{{cite web|author=Codrington, Humphry William |title=Short history of Sri Lanka:Dambadeniya and Gampola Kings (1215-1411)|url=http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap05.html|publisher=Lakdiva.org|work=
|accessdate=2007-11-25}}</ref>

=== Colonial period ===
{{Rulers_of_Jaffna_Kingdom}}
{{Main|Portuguese conquest of Jaffna Kingdom}}
{{See also|Portuguese Ceylon}}
Portuguese traders reached Sri Lanka by 1505 where their initial forays were against the south-western coastal Kotte kingdom due to the lucrative monopoly on trade in [[spices]] that the Kotte kingdom enjoyed that was also of interest to the Portuguese.<ref name=TA2/> The Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials in Colombo for multiple reasons which included their interference in [[Roman Catholic]] missionary activities,<ref name=TA2/> (which was assumed to be patronizing Portuguese interests) and their support to anti-Portuguese factions of the Kotte kingdom, such as the chieftains from [[Sittawaka]].<ref name=TA2/> The Jaffna Kingdom also functioned as a logistical base for the [[Kandyan kingdom]], located in the central highlands without access to any seaports, as an entrypot for military aid arriving from [[South India]].<ref name=TA2/> Further, due to its strategic location, it was feared that the Jaffna kingdom may become a beachhead for the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] landings.<ref name=TA2>Abeysinghe, T ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p.2</ref> It was king [[Sankili Segarajasekaran|Cankili I]] who resisted contacts with the Portuguese and even massacred 600-700 [[Paravas|Parava]] [[Catholics]] in the [[Mannar Island|island of Mannar]]. These Catholics were brought from [[India]] to Mannar to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings.<ref>Kunarasa, K ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', p.82-84</ref><ref>Gnanaprakasar, S ''A critical history of Jaffna'', p.113-117</ref>
;Client state
The first expedition led by Viceroy Dom Constantino de Brganca in 1560 failed to subdue the kingdom but wrested the [[Mannar Island]] from it.<ref name=a3/> Although the circumstances are unclear, by 1582 The Jaffna king was paying a tribute of ten (10) elephants or an equivalent in cash.<ref name=TA2/><ref name=a3/> In 1591, during the second expedition lead by Andre Furtado de Mendonca, king [[Puvirasa Pandaram]] was killed and his son [[Ethirimanna Cinkam]] was installed as the monarch. This arrangement gave the Catholic missionaries freedom and monopoly in [[elephant]] export to the Portuguese,<ref name=a3/><ref name=ds166>de Silva, A ''History of Sri Lanka'', p.166</ref> which the incumbent king however resisted.<ref name=a3/><ref name=ds166/> He helped the [[Kandyan kingdom]] under kings [[Vimaladharmasuriya I]] and Senarat during the period 1593-1635 with the intent of securing help from South India to resist the Portuguese. He however maintained autonomy of the kingdom without overly provoking the Portuguese.<ref name=a3>Abeysinghe, T ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p.3</ref><ref name=ds166/>
;End of the kingdom
[[Image:Sangili2.JPG|thumb|left|Statue of King Cankili I in [[Jaffna]] who held off the Portuguese.]]
With the death of Pararasasekaran in 1617, [[Cankili II]], an usurper, took control of the throne after killing the regent nominated by the late king.<ref name=a58/> Unable to secure Portuguese acceptance of his kingship, Cankili II invited military aid from the [[Thanjavur Nayaks]] and allowed [[corsairs]] from [[Malabar]] to use a base in [[Neduntivu]], hence posting a threat to Portuguese shipping routes through [[Palk Straight]].<ref name=a58/> By June 1619, there were two Portuguese expeditions: a naval expedition that was repulsed by the Malabari corsairs and another expedition by [[Phillippe de Oliveira]] and his 5,000 strong land army which was able to inflict defeat on Cankili II.<ref name=a58/> Cankili, along with every surviving member of the royal family were captured and taken to [[Goa]], where he was hanged to death. The remaining captives were "encouraged" to become monks or nuns in the holy orders, and as most obliged, it avoided further claimants to the Jaffna throne.<ref name=a58/>

;Consequences
Over the next 40 years, there were three rebellions against the Portuguese rule, two of which were led by [[Migapulle Arachchi]], and another after the invasion by the Kandyan king Senarat I until the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] capture of Jaffna fort in 1658.<ref name=a58/> During that period, Portuguese destroyed every [[Hindu]] [[temple]]<ref name=g153/> and the ''Saraswathy Mahal'' library in [[Nallur]], the royal repository of all literary output of the kingdom.<ref>{{citeweb|url= http://www.ceylontamils.com/history/history4.php|title= Portuguese Colonial Period (1505 CE 1645 CE)|accessdate=2007-12-07 |format=html |work= Rohan Titus}}</ref><ref>{{citeweb|url= http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DB16Df06.html|title= SRI LANKA: THE UNTOLD STORY Chapter 27 - Horsewhip Amirthalingham |accessdate=2007-12-07 |format=html |work= KT Rajasingham }}</ref> Due to excessive taxation, population decreased and many people moved to [[Ramanathapuram]] in India and the [[Vanni District]]s further south.<ref name=a58/> External commerce was negatively impacted, though elephants, Jaffna's principle export, were traded for [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]] with various kingdoms in India and sent to [[Lisbon]]. Thus, decline in trade made it difficult to pay for essential imports and such items ceased to be imported.<ref name=a58/> In the words of [[Fernao De Queiros]], the principle chronicler of Portuguese colonial exploits in Sri Lanka, the people of [[Jaffna peninsula|Jaffna]] were "reduced to the uttermost misery" during the Portuguese colonial era.<ref name=a58>Abeysinghe, T ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p.58-63</ref><ref name=g153>Gnanaprakasar, S ''A critical history of Jaffna'', p.153-172</ref>

Although the Portuguese attempted to completely destroy the Royal family through "encouraged" celibacy, there are number of families of [[Sri Lankan Tamil]] origin who claim descent from the royal family.<ref>Kunarasa, K ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', p.115</ref><ref>{{citeweb|url= http://www.jaffnaroyalfamily.org/welcome.php
|title= The Royal Houes of Jaffna|accessdate=2007-11-19 |format=html |work= H.R.H. Prince Remigius Kanagarajah}}</ref>

==Administration==
[[Image:Mantrimanai.jpg|thumb|left|''Mantri Manai'' - The surving remains of the minister's quarters that was reused by the Portuguese and Dutch colonials<ref>Kunarasa, K ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', P2</ref>]]According to [[Ibn Batuta]], a traveling [[Morocco|Moroccan]] historian of note, by 1344, the kingdom had two capitals: one in [[Nallur, Sri Lanka|Nallur]] in the north and the other in [[Putalam]] in the west during the [[pearl]]ing season.<ref>Gunasingam, M ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p.54</ref><ref name=Codrington/><ref name=PP/>
The kingdom proper, that is the Jaffna peninsula was divided into various provinces with subdivisions of ''parrus'' meaning property or larger territorial units and ''ur'' or villages, the smallest unit, was administered on a hierarchical and regional basis.<ref name=admin/> At the summit was the king whose kingship was hereditary; he was usually succeeded by his eldest son. Next in the hierarchy stood the ''adikaris'' who were the provincial administrators.<ref name=admin/><ref name=PP/> Then came the ''[[mudaliyars]]'' who functioned as judges and interpreters of the laws and customs of the land.<ref name=admin/> It was also their duty to gather information of whatever was happening in the provinces and report to higher authorities. Administrators of revenues called ''kankanis'' or superintendents and ''kanakkappillais'' or [[accountants]] came next in line. These were also known as ''pandarapillai''. They had to keep records and maintain accounts.<ref name=admin/><ref name=GM58/>

''Maniyam'' was the chief of the ''parrus''.<ref name=admin/> He was assisted by ''mudaliyars'' who were in turn assisted by ''udaiyars'', persons of authority over a village or a group of villages.<ref name=admin/> They were the custodians of law and order and gave assistance to survey land and collect revenues in the area under their control.<ref name=admin/> The village headman was called ''talaiyari'', ''paddankaddi'' or ''adappanar'' and he assisted in the collection of taxes and was responsible for the maintenance of order in his territorial unit.<ref name=admin/> In addition, each [[caste]] had a chief who supervised the performance of caste obligations and duties.<ref name=GM58>Gunasingam, M ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p.58</ref><ref name=admin>{{cite web|author=
|title=Yarl-Paanam
|url=http://www.eelavar.com/jaffna/pageview.php?ID=565&SID=111|publisher=Eelavar Network|work=|accessdate=2007-11-24}}</ref>

;Relationship with feudatories
[[Vannimai]]s were regions south of the Jaffna peninsula in the present-day North Central and Eastern provinces and were sparsely settled by people. They were ruled by petty chiefs calling themselves [[Vanniar(Sri Lanka)|Vanniar]].<ref name=GM58/> Vannimai's just south of the Jaffna peninsula and in the eastern [[Trincomalee]] district usually paid an annual tribute to the Jaffna kingdom instead of taxes.<ref name=GM58/><ref name=PP34/> The tribute was in cash, grains, [[honey]], [[elephants]], and [[ivory]]. The annual tribute system was enforced due to the greater distance from Jaffna.<ref name=GM58/> During the early and middle part of the fourteenth century, the Sinhalese kingdoms in western, southern and central part of the island also became feudatories until the kingdom itself was briefly occupied by the forces of Parakramabahu VI around 1450 for about 17 years.<ref>de Silva, A ''History of Sri Lanka'', p.117</ref> Around the early 1600s, the kingdom also administered an [[exclave]] in Southern India called Madalacotta.<ref>Abeysinghe, T ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p.28</ref>

==Economy==
[[Image:Setu I Obv.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Setu coins|Setu coin]]]]
The economy of the Kingdom was almost exclusively based on [[subsistence agriculture]] until the 15th century. After the 15th century, however, the economy became diversified and commercialized as it became incorporated into the expanding [[Indian ocean]].
[[Ibn Batuta]], during his visit in 1344, observed observed that the kingdom of Jaffna was a major trading kingdom with extensive overseas contacts. The Kingdom's trades were oriented towards maritime [[South India]], with which it developed a commercial interdependence. The non-agriculture tradition of the kingdom became strong as a result of large coastal fishing and boating population and growing opportunities for seaborne commerce. Influential commercial groups, draw mainly from south Indian mercantile groups as well as other, resided in the royal capital, port, and market centers. Artisan settlements were also established and groups of skilled tradesmen--carpenters, stone masons, wavers, dryers, gold and silver smiths-- resided in urban centers. Thus, a pluralistic socio-economic tradition of agriculture marine activities, commerce and handicraft production was well established.<ref name=PB>Pfaffenberger, B ''The Sri Lankan Tamils'', p.30-31</ref>

Jaffna kingdom was less feudalized than other kingdoms in Sri Lanka, such as Kotte and Kandy.<ref name=TA29/> Its economy was based on more money transactions than transactions on land or its produce. The Jaffna defense forces were not feudal levies; soldiers in the kings service were paid in cash.<ref name=TA29/> The king’s officials, namely ''Mudaliayars'', were also paid in cash and the numerous Hindu temples seem not to have owned extensive properties, unlike the Buddhist establishments in the South. Temples and the administrators depended on the king and the worshippers for their upkeep.<ref name=TA29/> Royal and Army officials were thus a salaried class and these three institutions consumed over 60% of the revenues of the kingdom and 85% of the government expenditures.<ref name=TA29/> Much of the kingdom's revenues also came from cash except the Elephants from the [[Vanni]] feudatories.<ref name=TA29/> At the time of the conquest by the Portuguese in 1620, the kingdom which was truncated in size and restricted to the Jaffna peninsula had revenues of 11,700 ''pardaos'' of which 97% came from land or sources connected to the land. One was called land rent and another called paddy tax called ''arretane''.<ref name=TA29/>
[[Image:Setu I Rev.jpg|thumb|right|Reverse of the Setu coin with ''Setu'' legend in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]]]
Apart from the land related taxes, there were other taxes, such as ''Garden tax'' from compounds where, among others, [[plantain]], [[coconut]] and [[arecanut]] [[Areca catechu|palms]] were grown and irrigated by water from the well. ''Tree tax'' on trees such as [[palmyrah]], [[margosa]] and ''iluppai'' and ''Poll tax'' equivalent to a personal tax from each. ''Professional tax'' was collected from members of each [[caste]] or [[guild]] and ''commercial taxes'' consisting of, among others, ''stamp duty'' on clothes (clothes could not be sold privately and had to have official stamp), ''Taraku'' or levy on items of food, and ''Port and customs duties''. [[Columbuthurai]], which connected the Peninsula with the mainland at [[Poonakari]] with its boat services, was one of the chief port, and there were customs check posts at the sand passes of [[Pachilaippalai]].<ref name=admin/> Elephants from the southern Sinhalese kingdoms and the Vanni region were brought to Jaffna to be sold to foreign buyers. They were shipped abroad from a bay called Urukathurai, which is now called [[Kayts]]--a shortened form of Portuguese ''Caes dos elephantess'' (Bay of Elephants).<ref>Abeysinghe, T ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p.2</ref> Perhaps a peculiarity of Jaffna was the levy of license fee for the [[cremation]] of the dead.<ref name=admin/>

Not all payments in kind were converted to cash, offerings of rice, [[bananas]], milk, [[dried fish]], game meat and [[curd]] persisted.<ref name=TA29/> Some inhabitants also had to render unpaid personal services called ''[[uliyam]]''.<ref name=TA29>Abeysinghe, T ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p.29-30</ref>

The kings also issued many types of coins for circulation. Several types of coins categorized as ''[[Setu coins|Sethu Bull]]'' coins issued from 1284 to 1410 are found in large quantities in the northern part of Sri Lanka. The obverse of these coins have a human figure flanked by lamps and the reverse has the [[Nandi (bull)]] symbol, the legend ''Setu'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] with a crescent moon above.<ref name=Sethu>{{cite web|author= V. Sundaram|title=Rama Sethu: Historic facts vs political fiction
|url=http://www.newstodaynet.com/2007sud/may07/110507.htm|publisher=News Today|work=|accessdate=2007-11-29}}</ref><ref name=Cod74/>

==Culture==
===Religion===
{{See also|Hinduism in Sri Lanka}}
[[Saivism]] (a sect of [[Hinduism]]) in Sri Lanka has had continuous history from the early period of settlers from India. Hindu worship was widely accepted even as part of the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] religious practices.<Ref> Parker, H ''Ancient Ceylon: An Account of the Aborigines and of Part of the Early Civilisation'', p.65,115,148</ref> During the [[Chola]] period in Sri Lanka, around the 9th and 10th century, Hinduism gained status as an official religion in the island kingdom.<ref>Gunasingam, M ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p.62</ref> [[Kalinga Magha]], whose rule followed that of the Cholas is remembered as a Hindu revivalist by the native literature of that period.<ref>{{cite web|author=Codrington, Humphry William |title=The Polonaruwa Kings, (1070-1215)|url=http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap04.html|publisher=Lakdiva.org|work=|accessdate=2007-12-06}}</ref>

[[Image:East Gopura of Rameswaram Temple.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ramanathaswamy Temple, Rameswaram]] - number of Aryacakravarti kings had helped to maintain temples around [[Rameswaram]].<ref>Gnanaprakasar, S ''A critical history of Jaffna'', p.84</ref>]]
As the state religion, Saivism enjoyed all the prerogatives of the establishment during the period of the Jaffna kingdom. The Aryacakravarti dynasty was very conscious of its duties as a patron towards Saivism because of the patronage given by its ancestors to the [[Rameswaram]] temple, a well-known pilgrimage center of Indian Hinduism. As noted, one of the titles assumed by the kings was ''Setukavalan'' or protector of ''Setu'' another name for Rameswaram. ''Setu'' was used in their coins as well as in inscriptions as marker of the dynasty.<ref name=g63>Gunasingam, M ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p.63</ref>

[[Sapumal Kumaraya]] (also known as ''Chempaha Perumal'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]), who ruled the Jaffna kingdom on behalf of the Kotte kingdom is credited with either building or renovating the [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]].<ref name=PP34/><ref>Gnanaprakasar, S ''A critical history of Jaffna'', p.103</ref> [[Singai Pararasasegaram]] is credited with building the Sattanathar temple, the Vaikuntha Pillaiyar temple and the Veerakaliamman temple. He built a pond called Yamuneri and filled it with water from the [[Yamuna]] river of [[North India]], which is considered holy by Hindus.<ref>Kunarasa, K ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', p.73-74</ref> Major temples were normally maintained by the kings and a salary was paid from the royal treasury to those who worked in the temple, unlike in India and rest of Sri Lanka, where religious establishments were autonomous entities with large endowments of land and related revenue.<ref name=TA29/>

Most accepted Lord [[Shiva]] as the primary deity and the [[lingam]], the universal symbol of Shiva, was consecrated in shrines dedicated to him. The other Hindu gods of the pantheon such as [[Murugan]], [[Ganesha|Pillaiyar]], [[Kali]] were also worshipped. At the village level, [[Village deities of Tamils of Sri Lanka|village deities]] were popular along with the worship of [[Kannaki]] whose veneration was common amongst the [[Sinhala people|Sinhalese]] in the south as well. Belief in [[Magic (paranormal)|charm]] and [[evil spirits]] existed, just as in the rest of [[South Asia]].<ref name=g63/>

There were many Hindu temples within the Kingdom. Some were of great historic importance, such as the [[Koneswaram]] temple in [[Trincomalee]], [[Ketheeswaram]] temple in [[Mannar]], [[Naguleswaram]] temple in Keerimalai along with hundreds of other temples that were scattered over the region.<ref>Gunasingam, ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism,'' p.65</ref> The ceremonies and festivals were similar to those in modern [[South India]], with some slight changes in emphasis. The [[Tevaram|Tamil devotional literature]] of [[Nayanmar|Saiva saints]] was used in worship. The Hindu New Year falling on the middle of April was more eloborately celebrated and festivals, such as ''[[Navaratri|Navarattiri]]'', ''[[Deepavali]]'', ''[[Maha Shivaratri|Sivarattiri]]'', and ''[[Thai Pongal|Thaiponkal]]'', along with marriages, deaths and coming of age ceremonies were part of the daily life.<ref>Gunasingam, ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism,'' p.66</ref>

===Society===
;Caste structure
{{See also|Caste system in Sri Lanka}}
The social organization of the people of the Jaffna kingdom was based on a [[caste system]] dominated by the agricultural and landed elite, similar to the caste structure of [[South India]]. In this way, it resembled the social organization of the Sinhalese kingdoms to the south as well, where the ''[[Govigama]]'' caste was dominant and considered lower in status only to the ruling family. The Aryacakravarti kings and their immediate family claimed ''Brahma-Kshatriya'' status, meaning ''[[Brahmins]]'' who took to [[Kshatriya|martial]] life.<ref>Gnanaprakasar, S ''A critical history of Jaffna'', p.96</ref> Below them were the agriculturists; the ''[[Vellalar (Sri Lankan Tamil)|Vellalar]]'' and the ''Madapalli'' castes who provided most of the ''Mudaliyars'' to village headman who owned most of the arable land.<ref name=g62/> Below the ''Vellalar'' were the ''[[Koviar]]'' who were also involved in agriculture.<ref name=g62/> The people of the fishing castes, collectively known as the ''[[Karaiyar]]'', were independent of this social structure to which the landed communities were bound.<ref name=g62/> The ''[[Chetty]]s'' were well known as traders and owners of Hindu temples and the ''[[Pallar]]'' and the ''[[Nalavar]]'' castes composed of the landless labourers who tilled the land.<ref name=g62/> Other castes composed of traditional barbers, washers, potters and general service providers. People of the ''[[Parayar]]'' caste lived in segregated settlements and were the [[Dalit|untouchables]], just as in the modern [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]] regions of south India.<ref name=g62/><ref>Gnanaprakasar, S ''A critical history of Jaffna'', p.106</ref>

;Mercenaries & traders
Mercenaries of various ethnic and caste backgrounds from India, such as the [[Telugu people|Telugus]] (known locally as ''Vadugas'') and [[Malayalees]] from the Kerala region were employed by the king as soldiers.<ref name=g62/><ref name=g62>Gunasingam, M ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p.62</ref>[[Muslim]] traders and sea pirates of [[Mapilla]] and [[Islam in Sri Lanka|Moor]] ethnicities as well as Sinhalese were in the Kingdom.<ref>Abeysinghe, T ''Jaffna Under the Portuguese'', p.4</ref><ref name=PP/> The kingdom also functioned as a refuge for rebels from the south seeking shelter after failed political coups. According to the earliest historiographical literature of the Kingdom of Jaffna, ''Vaiyaapaadal'', datable to 14th-15th century CE., in verse 77 lists the community of ''Papparavar'' ([[Berbers]] specifically and [[Africans]] in general) along with ''Kuchchiliyar'' ([[Gujaratis]]) and ''Choanar'' ([[Arabs]]) and places them under the caste category of ''Pa’l’luvili'' who are believed to be [[cavalrymen]] of [[Muslim]] faith . The caste of ''Pa’l’luvili'' or ''Pa’l’livili'' is peculiar to Jaffna. A Dutch census taken in 1790 CE in Jaffna records 196 male adults belonging to Pa’l’livili caste as taxpayers. That means the identity and profession exited until Dutch times. But, Choanakar, with 492 male adults and probably by this time generally meaning the Muslims, is found mentioned as a separate community in this census.<ref>{{citeweb|url= http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=98&artid=24730
|title= Place Name of the Day: Papparappiddi|accessdate=2008-02-26 |format=html |work=[[Tamilnet]]}}</ref>
;Laws
During the rule of the Aryacakravarti rulers, the laws governing the society was based on a compromise between a [[matriarchal]] system of society that seemed to have had deeper roots overlaid with a [[patriarchal]] system of governance. These laws seemed to have existed side by side as customary laws to be interpreted by the local ''Mudaliars''. In some aspects such as in inheritance the similarity to ''[[Marumakattayam]]'' law of present day [[Kerala]] and ''[[Aliyasanatana]]'' of modern [[Tulunadu]] was noted by later scholars. Further [[Islamic economic jurisprudence|Mohemadan law of pre emption]] and [[Hindu law]]s of neighboring [[India]] also seemed to have had an impact on the customary laws. These customary laws were later codified and put to print during the [[Dutch period in Ceylon (Sri Lanka)|Dutch colonial rule]] as ''[[Thesavalamai]]'' in 1707.<ref name=T18-20>Tambiah, ''Laws and customs of Tamils of Jaffna'', p. 18–20.</ref> The rule under earlier customs seemed to have been females succeeded females. But when the structure of the society came to be based on patriarchal system, a corresponding rule was recognized, that males succeeded males. Thus, we see the devolution of ''muthusam'' (paternal inheritance) was on the sons, and the devolution of the ''chidenam'' ([[dowry]] or maternal inheritance) was on the females. Just as one dowried sister succeeded another, we had the corresponding rule that if one’s brother died instate, his properties devolved upon his brothers to the exclusion of his sisters. The reason being that in a patriarchal family each brother formed a family unit, but all the brothers being [[agnates]], when one of them died his property devolved upon his agnates.<ref name=T18-20/>

===Literature===
Patronage to literature and education was given by of the kings of the dynasty. Temple schools and traditional ''[[gurukul]]am'' classes in [[verandah]]s (known as ''Thinnai Pallikoodam'' in [[Tamil language]]) spread basic education in languages such as Tamil language and [[Sanskrit]] and religion to the upper classes.<ref name=G64-65/> During the reign of Jayaveera Singaiariyan rule, a work on medical science (''Segarajasekaram''), on [[astrology]] (''Segarajasekaramalai'')<ref name=c74>Coddrington, H., ''Ceylon Coins and Currency'', p.74</ref><ref name=G64-65/> and on mathematics (''Kanakathikaram'') were authored by Karivaiya.<ref name=G64-65/> During the rule of Kunaveera Singaiariyan, a work on medical sciences, known as ''Pararajasekaram'', was completed.<ref name=G64-65/> During Singai Pararasasekaran's rule, an academy for Tamil language propagation on the model of ancient [[Tamil Sangam]]'s was established in Nallur. This academy performed a useful service in collecting and preserving ancient Tamil works in [[manuscripts]] form in a library<ref name=G64-65/> called ''Saraswathy Mahal''. Singai Pararasasekaran's cousin Arasakesari was credited with translating the Sanskrit classic [[Raghuvamsa]] into Tamil.<ref name=c74/> Among other literary works of historic importance compiled before the arrival of European colonizers, ''Vaiyapatal'', written by Vaiyapuri Aiyar, is well known.<ref name=G64-65>Gunasingam, M ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p.64-65</ref><ref name=N80-84>Nadarajan, V ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', p.80-84</ref>

===Architecture===
[[Image:Sangili Toppu.jpg|thumb|right|''Cankilian Thoppu'' - Facade of the palace supposedly belonging to the last king Cankili II.<ref>Kunarasa, K ''The Jaffna Dynasty'', P4
</ref>]]There were periodic waves of [[South Indian]] influence over Sri Lankan art and architecture, though the prolific age of monumental art and architecture seemed to have declined by the 13th century.<ref name=g64/> Temples built by the [[Tamil people|Tamils]] of Indian origin from the 10th century belonged to the [[Meenakshi Amman Temple|Madurai variant]] of [[Vijayanagar]] period.<ref name=g64/> A prominent feature of the Madurai style was the ornate and heavily sculptured tower or ''[[gopuram]]'' over the entrance of temple.<ref name=g64/> None of the important religious constructions of this style within the territory that formed the Jaffna kingdom survived the destructive hostility of the Portuguese.<ref name=g64>Gunasingam, M ''Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism'', p.64</ref>

Nallur, the capital was built with four entrances with gates.<ref name=vng/> There were two main roadways and four temples at the four gateways.<ref name=vng/> The rebuilt temples that exist now do not match their original locations which instead are occupied by churches erected by the Portuguese.<ref name=vng/> The center of the city was ''Muthirai Santhai'' (market place) and was surrounded by a square fortification around it.<ref name=vng/> There were courtly buildings for the Kings, Brahmin priests, soldiers and other service providers.<ref name=vng/> The old Nallur Kandaswamy temple functioned as a defensive fort with high walls.<ref name=vng/> In general, the city was laid out like the traditional temple town according Hindu traditions.<ref name=vng>{{citeweb|url= http://www.geotamil.com/ctamils/forward_nallur.html
|title= Nallur Rajadhani: City Layout|accessdate=2007-12-02|format=html |work= V.N.Giritharan}}</ref>
{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{commonscat}}{{Reflist|2}}

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
{{col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-2}}
*{{cite book
| last = de Silva | first = K. M. | title = A History of Sri Lanka | publisher = Vijitha Yapa |year=2005 | location = [[Colombo]] | pages = 782
| isbn = 9-55-809592-3}}
*{{cite book | last = Abeysinghe | first = Tikiri | title = Jaffna under the Portuguese | publisher = Stamford Lake |year=2005 | location = [[Colombo]] | pages = 66 | isbn = 9-55-1131-70-1}}
*{{cite book | last = Kunarasa | first = K
| title = The Jaffna Dynasty | publisher = Dynasty of Jaffna King’s Historical Society |year=2003
| location = [[Johor Bahru]] | pages = 122 | isbn = 9-55-8455-00-8}}
*{{cite book | last = Gnanaprakasar | first = Swamy | title = A Critical History of Jaffna | publisher = Asian Educational Services |year=2003 | location = [[New Delhi]] | pages = 122 | isbn = 81-206-1686-3}}
*{{cite book | last = Pathmanathan | first = S | title = The Kingdom of Jaffna | publisher = Arul M. Rajendran |year=1978 | location = [[Colombo]] | pages = | ASIN = B0000D5QH5 }}
*{{cite book | last = Gunasingam | first = Murugar | title = Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism | publisher = MV |year=1999 | location = [[Sydney]] | pages = 238 | isbn = 0-646-38106-7 }}
*{{cite book | last = Nadarajan | first = Vasantha | title = History of Ceylon Tamils | publisher = Vasantham |year=1999 | location = [[Toronto]]
| pages = 146 | isbn = }}
*{{cite book | last = Coddrington | first = H. W. | title = Short History of Ceylon
| publisher = AES |year=1994 | location = [[New Delhi]] | pages = 290 | isbn = 8-12-060946-8}}
*{{cite book | last = Parker | first = H. | title = Ancient Ceylon: An Account of the Aborigines and of Part of the Early Civilisation| publisher = Luzac & Co |year=1909 | location = [[London]] | pages = 695 | lccn = 81-909073}}
*{{cite book
| last = Tambiah | first = H. W | title = Laws and customs of Tamils of Jaffna (revised edition) | publisher = Women’s Education & Research Centre |year=2001 | location = [[Colombo]] | pages = 259
| isbn = 9-55-9261-16-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Pfaffenberg |first=Brian |title=The Sri Lankan Tamils |publisher=Westview Press |year=1994 |location=[[U.S]] |pages=247 |isbn=0-8133-8845-7}}
{{Col-2-of-2}}
*{{cite book | last = Mayilvakanap Pulavar | first = Matakal | title = The [[Yalpana Vaipava Malai]], or The History of the Kingdom of Jaffna | publisher = Asian Educational Services |date=1884-First Edition | location = [[New Delhi]] | pages = 146 | isbn = 978-8120613621 }}
*{{cite book | last = Manogaran | first = Chelvadurai
| title = The untold story of the ancient Tamils of Sri Lanka | publisher = Kumaran |year=2000
| location = [[Chennai]] | pages = 81 | isbn = }}
*{{cite web|author=|title=Yarl-Paanam|url=http://www.eelavar.com/jaffna/pageview.php?ID=565&SID=111|publisher=Eelavar Network|work=
|accessdate=2007-11-24}}
*{{cite book |last = Rasanayagam |first = Mudaliyar | title = Ancient Jaffna, being a research into the History of Jaffna from very early times to the Portuguese Period | publisher = Everymans Publishers Ltd, Madras (Reprint by New Delhi, AES in 2003)|year=1926 | pages = 390 | isbn = 81-206-0210-2}}
*{{cite web|author=Codrington, Humphry William |title=Short history of Sri Lanka:Dambadeniya and Gampola Kings (1215-1411)|url=http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap05.html|publisher=Lakdiva.org|work=
|accessdate=2007-11-25}}
*{{cite book | last = Indrapala | first = Karthigesu | title = Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon | publisher = Unpublished Phd thesis |year=1965 | location = [[London]] | pages = | isbn = }}
*{{cite book | last = Coddrington | first = H. W. | title = Ceylon Coins and Currency| publisher = Vijitha Yapa |year=1996 | location = [[New Delhi]] | pages = 290 | isbn = 8-12-061202-7}}
*{{cite book | last = Peebles | first = Patrick | title = The History of Sri Lanka| publisher = Greenwood Press |year=2006 | location = [[USA]] | pages = 248 | isbn = 0-313-33205-3 }}
{{col-end}}
</div>

[[Category:Jaffna kingdom|*]]
[[Category:Historical Hindu kingdoms]]
[[Category:Indianized kingdoms]]
[[Category:Former countries in South Asia]]

[[it:Regno Jaffna]]
[[lt:Džafnos karalystė]]
[[ta:யாழ்ப்பாண அரசு]]

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