Wapiti: Difference between revisions
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{{Dablink|This article is about the North American and East Asian animals, known as ''wapiti''. For other uses of this word, see [[Wapiti (disambiguation)]].}}{{Taxobox |
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{{Redirect category shell| |
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| name = Wapiti |
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{{R from alternative name}} |
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| status = LC|status_system = IUCN |
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{{R from alternative language|sjw|en}} |
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| image = Rocky Mountain Bull Elk.jpg |
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{{R from alternative language|cr|en}} |
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| image_width = 275px |
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| regnum = [[Animal]]ia |
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| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] |
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| classis = [[Mammal]]ia |
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| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]] |
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| subordo = [[Ruminantia]] |
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| familia = [[Cervidae]] |
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| subfamilia = [[Cervinae]] |
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| genus = ''[[Cervus]]'' |
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| range_map = Range map cervus canadensis.svg |
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| range_map_width = 275px |
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| range_map_caption = Range of ''Cervus canadensis'' |
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| species = '''''C. canadensis''''' |
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| binomial = ''Cervus canadensis'' |
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| binomial_authority = ([[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben|Erxleben]], 1777)<ref>Erxleben, J.C.P. (1777) ''Anfangsgründe der Naturlehre'' and ''Systema regni animalis.''</ref> |
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| synonyms = |
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various '''''[[Cervus elaphus]]''''' subspecies |
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}} |
}} |
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The '''wapiti''' or '''elk''' (''Cervus canadensis'') is one of the largest [[species]] of [[deer]] in the world and one of the largest land [[mammal]]s in [[North America]] and [[East Asia|eastern Asia]]. In the deer family (Cervidae), only the larger [[moose]] (''Alces alces''), which is called an "elk" in [[Europe]], and the [[sambar (deer)|sambar]] (''Rusa unicolor'') rival the elk in size. Elk are similar to the [[Red Deer]] (''Cervus elaphus'') found in Europe, of which they were long believed to be a [[subspecies]]. However, evidence from a 2004 study of the [[mitochondrial DNA]] indicates they are a distinct [[species]]. |
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Wapiti range in forest and forest-edge habitat, feeding on grasses, plants, leaves, and bark. Although native to North America and Eastern Asia, they have adapted well to countries where they have been introduced, including [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]]. Their great adaptability may threaten [[endemism|endemic]] species and ecosystems into which they have been introduced. |
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Male wapiti have large [[antler]]s which are shed each year. Males also engage in ritualized mating behaviors during the [[rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]], including posturing, antler wrestling (sparring), and ''bugling'', a loud series of vocalizations which establishes dominance over other males and attracts females. |
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Wapiti are susceptible to a number of [[infectious disease]]s, some of which can be transmitted to livestock. Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations, largely through vaccination, have had mixed success. |
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Some cultures revere this animal as a spiritual force. In parts of Asia, antlers and their [[velvet (antler covering)|velvet]] are used in [[traditional medicine]]s. Elk are hunted as a game species; the meat is leaner and higher in [[protein]] than [[beef]] or [[chicken]].<ref name=Robb>{{cite book | last =Robb | first =Bob | authorlink = | coauthors =Gerald Bethge | title =The Ultimate Guide to Elk Hunting | publisher =The Lyons Press | year= 2001 | pages = | url = | doi = | isbn =1-58574-180-9 | oclc =44818360 }}</ref> |
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==Naming and etymology== |
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Early European explorers in North America, who were familiar with the smaller [[red deer]] of Europe, thought that the larger North American animal looked like a [[moose]], causing the usage of the common European name for moose, which is ''elk''. The name ''elk'' is connected with the [[Latin]] ''alces'', and with [[Old Norse]] ''elgr'', [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] ''elg''/''älg'', and [[German Language|German]] ''Elch'', all of which refer to the animal known in North America as the moose.<ref name=Fergus>{{cite web| last = Fergus| first = Chuck| title = Elk| publisher = Pennsylvania Game Commission| url =http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/document/706628/elk_pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2010-12-03}}</ref> The name ''wapiti'' is from the [[Shawnee language|Shawnee]] and [[Cree language|Cree]] word ''waapiti'', meaning ''white rump''.<ref name=Wapiti>{{cite web|title = Wapiti | work = The Canadian Encyclopedia | publisher = Historica-Dominion Institute |year= 2010| url = http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0008435| accessdate = 2010-12-03}}</ref> The elk is also referred to as the ''maral'' in Asia, though this is due to confusion with the [[East European red deer]] (''Cervus elaphus maral''), which is a subspecies of European red deer. There is a subspecies of wapiti in [[Mongolia]] called the ''Altai maral'' (''Cervus canadensis sibiricus''), which is also known by names such as ''Altai wapiti'', ''Siberian wapiti'', and/or ''Siberian elk''.<ref name=Wilson>{{MSW3 Artiodactyla | id = 14200352 | pages = 662–663}}</ref> |
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==Taxonomy== |
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[[File:OPAL TERRACE with elks.jpg|Elk at the Opal terrace at Mammoth Hot Springs, [[Yellowstone National Park]]|thumb]] |
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Members of the [[genus]] ''[[Cervus]]'' (and hence early relatives or possible ancestors of the elk) first appear in the [[fossil]] record 25 million years ago, during the [[Oligocene]] in [[Eurasia]], but do not appear in the North American fossil record until the early [[Miocene]].<ref name=Verts>{{Cite book | last = Verts | first = B. J. | coauthors = Leslie N. Carraway | title = Land Mammals of Oregon | publisher = University of California | date = August 1998 | page = 464 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=8KI1AmzIDnwC&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=cervus+species+in+the+fossil+record#v=onepage&q=cervus%20species%20in%20the%20fossil%20record&f=false | isbn = 978-0-520-21199-5}}</ref> The extinct [[Irish Elk]] (''Megaloceros'') was not a member of the genus ''Cervus'', but rather the largest member of the wider deer family (Cervidae) known from the fossil record.<ref name=Gould>{{cite web | title=The Case of the Irish Elk | publisher=University of California, Berkeley | url =http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/artio/irishelk.html | accessdate=2010-12-03 }}</ref> |
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Until recently, red deer and elk were considered to be one species, ''Cervus elaphus''.<ref name=Wilson/><ref name = IUCN>{{IUCN2010.4 |assessors= Lovari, S., Herrero. J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F.|year= 2008|id= 41785|title= Cervus elaphus|downloaded= 07 Dec. 2010}}</ref> However, mitochondrial DNA studies, conducted on hundreds of samples in 2004 from red deer and elk subspecies as well as other species of the ''Cervus'' deer family, strongly indicate that elk, or wapiti, should be a distinct species, namely ''Cervus canadensis''.<ref name=Ludt>{{cite web|last = Ludt | first = Christian J. |coauthors = Wolf Schroeder, Oswald Rottmann, and Ralph Kuehn| |
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title = Mitochondrial DNA phylogeography of red deer (Cervus elaphus)|work= Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 31 (2004) 1064–1083| publisher = Elsevier | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WNH-4B4XS6K-3&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=160f3449ffc65f95a96e1964c19c010a| format= PDF|accessdate = 2010-12-03}}</ref> The previous classification had over a dozen subspecies under the ''C. elaphus'' species designation; DNA evidence concludes that elk are more closely related to [[Thorold's deer]] and even [[sika deer]] than they are to the red deer.<ref name=Ludt/> Though elk and red deer can produce fertile offspring in captivity, geographic isolation between the species in the wild and differences in mating behaviors indicate that reproduction between them outside a controlled environment would be unlikely. However, the two species have freely inter-bred in New Zealand's [[Fiordland National Park]], where the cross-bred animals have all but removed the pure elk blood from the area.<ref name="Geist"/> |
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=== Subspecies === |
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[[File:Audobon-eastern-elk.jpg|left|thumb|[[John James Audubon|Audubon]]'s "''[[Eastern Elk]]''" which is now extinct]] |
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There are numerous [[subspecies]] of elk described, with six from North America and four from Asia, although some [[Taxonomy|taxonomists]] consider them different [[ecotype]]s or [[Race (biology)|races]] of the same species (adapted to local environments through minor changes in appearance and behavior). Populations vary as to antler shape and size, body size, coloration and mating behavior. [[DNA]] investigations of the Eurasian subspecies revealed that [[Phenotype|phenotypic]] variation in antlers, mane and rump patch development are based on "climatic-related lifestyle factors".<ref name="groves">{{cite journal |last1=Groves |first1=Colin |title=The genus Cervus in eastern Eurasia |journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=52 |pages=14–22 |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/s10344-005-0011-5}}</ref> |
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Of the six subspecies of elk known to have inhabited North America in historical times, four remain, including the [[Roosevelt elk|Roosevelt]] (''C. canadensis roosevelti''), [[Tule Elk|Tule]] (''C. canadensis nannodes''), [[Manitoban Elk|Manitoban]] (''C. canadensis manitobensis'') and [[Rocky Mountain Elk|Rocky Mountain]] (''C. canadensis nelsoni'').<ref name="subspecies">{{cite web|last = Keck | first = Stu |title =Elk (Cervus canadensis) | publisher = Bowhunting.net | url = http://www.bowhunting.net/NAspecies/elk1.html#subspecies| accessdate = 2010-12-03}}</ref> The [[Eastern elk]] (''C. canadensis canadensis'') and [[Merriam's Elk]] (''C. canadensis merriami'') subspecies have been extinct for at least a century.<ref name=Gerhart>{{cite web|last = Gerhart | first = Dorothy C. |title =Skull and Antlers of Extinct Eastern Elk Unearthed at Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge in Northwestern N.Y. | publisher = U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service | url = http://www.fws.gov/historicPreservation/archives/elkBones_012405.html| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref><ref name=Allen>{{cite web|last = Allen | first = Craig |title =Elk Reintroductions | publisher = U.S. Geological Survey | url = http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/sw159.htm | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060927142112/http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/sw159.htm | archivedate = 2006-09-27 | accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Classification of the four surviving North American groups as subspecies is maintained,{{By whom?|date=September 2011|reason=If worthy of mention, cannot be so cryptically treated}} and at least partly, for political purposes to permit individualized conservation and protective measures for each of the surviving populations.<ref name="Geist2">{{cite book| last = Geist| first = Valerius| title = Elk Country| publisher = Northword Press| month= June | year= 1993| location = Minneapolis| pages = | isbn =978-1-55971-208-8 }}</ref>{{Dubious|date=September 2011|reason=Subspecies article cited near start of section implies peer review criteria, and is inconsistent with the claim; if this species subdivision verifiably is influenced by "political" goals, why isn't there a notorious scandal?}} |
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[[File:Elk0.jpg|thumb|Male tule elk in Point Reyes]] |
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Four subspecies described in Asia include the [[Altai Wapiti]] (''C. canadensis sibiricus'') and the [[Tianshan Wapiti]] (''C. canadensis songaricus'') . Two distinct subspecies found in [[China]] and [[Korea]] are the [[Manchurian wapiti]] (''C. canadensis xanthopygus'') and the [[Alashan wapiti]]s (''C. canadensis alashanicus'').The Manchurian wapiti is darker and more reddish in coloration than the other populations. The Alashan wapiti of north central China is the smallest of all subspecies, has the lightest coloration and is the least studied.<ref name="Geist">{{cite book| last = Geist| first = Valerius| title = Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behavior, and Ecology| publisher = Stackpole Books| year= 1998| location = Mechanicsburg, Pa| pages = | isbn =978-0-8117-0496-0| oclc = 37713037}}</ref> Biologist Valerius Geist, who has written on the world's various deer species, holds that there are only three subspecies of elk. Geist maintains the Manchurian and Alashan wapiti but places all other elk into ''C. canadensis canadensis''.<ref name="Geist2"/> |
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Recent DNA studies suggest that there are no more than three or four subspecies of Wapiti. All American forms seem to belong to one subspecies (''Cervus canadensis canadensis''). Even the Siberian elk (''Cervus canadensis sibiricus'') are more or less identical to the American forms and therefore may belong to this subspecies, too. However the [[Manchurian wapiti]] (''Cervus canadensis xanthopygus'') is clearly distinct from the Siberian forms, but not distinguishable from the Alashan Wapiti. The Chinese forms [[Sichuan deer|MacNeill's Deer]], [[Kansu red deer]], and [[Tibetan red deer]] belong also to the Wapitis and were not distinguishable from each other by mitochondrial DNA studies.<ref name=Ludt/> |
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==Biology== |
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===Anatomy=== |
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[[File:RooseveltElk 5061t.JPG|thumb|left|A herd of Roosevelt Elk in [[Redwood National and State Parks]], [[California]]]]The elk is a large animal of the [[Artiodactyla|artiodactyle]] [[ungulate]] order, possessing an even number of toes on each foot, similar to those of [[camel]]s, [[goat]]s and [[cattle]]. It is a [[ruminant]] species, with a four-chambered stomach, and feeds on grasses, plants, leaves and bark. During the summer, elk eat almost constantly, consuming between {{convert|4|and|7|kg|lb}} daily.<ref name="food">{{cite web|title = Elk Habitat | publisher = Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation | url = http://www.rmef.org/AllAboutElk/ElkHabitat/ | accessdate = 2007-06-04}}</ref> In North America, males are called ''bulls'', and females are called ''cows''. In Asia, ''stag'' and ''hind'', respectively, are sometimes used instead. |
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Elk are more than twice as heavy as [[mule deer]] and have a more reddish hue to their hair coloring, as well as large, buff colored rump patches and smaller tails. Moose are larger and darker than elk; bulls have distinctively different antlers. Elk gather in herds, while moose are solitary. Elk cows average {{convert|225|kg|lb}}, stand {{convert|1.3|m|ft}} at the shoulder, and are {{convert|2|m|ft}} from nose to tail. Bulls are some 40% larger than cows at maturity, weighing an average of {{convert|320|kg|lb}}, standing {{convert|1.5|m|ft}} at the shoulder and averaging {{convert|2.5|m|ft}} in length.<ref name="facts">{{cite web|title = Fast Facts | publisher = Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation | url = http://www.rmef.org/AllAboutElk/FastFacts/ | accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> The largest of the subspecies is the Roosevelt elk, found west of the [[Cascade Range]] in the [[U.S. state]]s of [[California]], [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]], and in the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[British Columbia]]. Roosevelt elk have been reintroduced into [[Alaska]], where the largest males are estimated to weigh up to {{convert|600|kg|lb}}.<ref name=Eide>{{cite web|last = Eide | first = Sterling |title = Roosevelt Elk | publisher = Alaska Department of Fish and Game | url = http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/biggame/elk.php| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> |
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[[File:Elks in yellowstone national park.jpg|Rocky Mountain elk in [[Yellowstone National Park]]|thumb]] |
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Only the males have antlers, which start growing in the spring and are shed each winter. The largest antlers may be {{convert|1.2|m|ft}} long and weigh {{convert|18|kg|lb}}.<ref name="rmef2">{{cite web|title = What Are Elk? | publisher = Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation | url = http://www.rmef.org/AllAboutElk/WhatAreElk/| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Antlers are made of bone which can grow at a rate of {{convert|2.5|cm|in}} per day. While actively growing, the antlers are covered with and protected by a soft layer of highly vascularised skin known as [[velvet (antler covering)|velvet]]. The velvet is shed in the summer when the antlers have fully developed. Bull elk may have eight or more tines on each antler; however, the number of tines has little to do with the age or maturity of a particular animal. The Siberian and North American elk carry the largest antlers while the Altai wapiti have the smallest.<ref name="Geist"/> The formation and retention of antlers is [[testosterone]]-driven.<ref name="nwr">{{cite web|title = Friends of the Prairie Learning Center | publisher = U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service | url = http://www.tallgrass.org/elks.html| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> After the breeding season in late fall, the level of [[pheromone]]s released during [[estrus]] declines in the environment and the testosterone levels of males drop as a consequence. This drop in testosterone leads to the shedding of antlers, usually in the early winter. |
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During the fall, elk grow a thicker coat of hair, which helps to insulate them during the winter. Males, females and calves of Siberian and North American elk all grow thin neck manes; female and young Manchurian and Alashan wapitis do not.<ref name="Geist2"/> By early summer, the heavy winter coat has been shed, and elk are known to rub against trees and other objects to help remove hair from their bodies. All elk have small and clearly defined rump patches with short tails. They have different coloration based on the seasons and types of habitats, with gray or lighter coloration prevalent in the winter and a more reddish, darker coat in the summer. Subspecies living in arid climates tend to have lighter colored coats than do those living in forests.<ref name=Pisarowicz>{{cite web|last = Pisarowicz | first = Jim|title = American Elk – Cervus elephus | publisher = National Park Service | url = http://www.nps.gov/archive/wica/Elk.htm| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Most have lighter yellow-brown to orange-brown coats in contrast to dark brown hair on the head, neck, and legs during the summer. Forest-adapted Manchurian and Alashan wapitis have darker reddish-brown coats with less contrast between the body coat and the rest of the body during the summer months.<ref name="Geist"/> Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. Adult Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older. This characteristic has also been observed in the forest-adapted European red deer.<ref name="Geist"/> |
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===Behavior=== |
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{{Listen|filename=elkbellow.ogg|title=An elk bugling|format=[[Ogg]]}} |
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Adult elk usually stay in single-sex groups for most of the year. During the mating period known as the [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]], mature bulls compete for the attentions of the cows and will try to defend females in their [[Polygyny#Nature|harem]]. Rival bulls challenge opponents by bellowing and by paralleling each other, walking back and forth. This allows potential combatants to assess the other's antlers, body size and fighting prowess.<ref name=Keck2>{{cite web |last=Keck| first=Stu| title = Elk Behavior and Habits | work = North American Game Species | publisher = Bowhunting | url = http://www.bowhunting.net/naspecies/elk3.html | accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> If neither bull backs down, they engage in antler wrestling, and bulls sometimes sustain serious injuries. Bulls also dig holes in the ground, in which they urinate and roll their body. The urine soaks into their hair and gives them a distinct smell which attracts cows.<ref name=Washington>{{cite web | title = Elk | work = Living with Wildlife | publisher = Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife | url = http://wdfw.wa.gov/living/elk.html | accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> |
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Dominant bulls follow groups of cows during the rut, from August into early winter. A bull will defend his harem of 20 cows or more from competing bulls and predators.<ref name="sd">{{cite web| title = Elk (Cervus elaphus)| publisher = South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks | url = http://www.northern.edu/natsource/MAMMALS/Elk1.htm | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060905234151/http://www.northern.edu/natsource/MAMMALS/Elk1.htm | archivedate = 2006-09-05 | accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Only mature bulls have large harems and breeding success peaks at about eight years of age. Bulls between two to four years and over 11 years of age rarely have harems, and spend most of the rut on the periphery of larger harems. Young and old bulls that do acquire a harem hold it later in the breeding season than do bulls in their prime. A bull with a harem rarely feeds and he may lose up to 20 percent of his body weight. Bulls that enter the rut in poor condition are less likely to make it through to the peak conception period or have the strength to survive the rigors of the oncoming winter.<ref name=Keck2/> |
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Bulls have a loud vocalization consisting of screams known as ''bugling'', which can be heard for miles. Bugling is often associated with an adaptation to open environments such as parklands, meadows, and savannas, where sound can travel great distances. Females are attracted to the males that bugle more often and have the loudest call.<ref name="Thomas">{{cite book| last = Thomas| first = Jack Ward| coauthors = Dale Toweill| title = Elk of North America, Ecology and Management | publisher = HarperCollins| year= 2002| location = New York| isbn = 0-8117-0571-4}}</ref> Bugling is most common early and late in the day and is one of the most distinctive sounds in nature, akin to the howl of the [[gray wolf]]. |
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===Reproduction and lifecycle=== |
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[[File:Wapiti (01) 2006-09-19.JPG|thumb|left|Female nursing young.]] |
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Female elk have a short [[Estrous cycle|estrus]] cycle of only a day or two, and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts. By the autumn of their second year, females can produce one and, very rarely, two offspring, although reproduction is most common when cows weigh at least {{convert|200|kg|lb}}.<ref name=Sell>{{cite web|last =Sell| first =Randy|title = Elk | work = Alternative Agriculture Series| publisher = North Dakota State University | url = http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/alt-ag/elk.htm| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070510023106/http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/alt-ag/elk.htm| archivedate = 2007-05-10| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> The [[gestation]] period is 240 to 262 days and the offspring weigh between {{convert|15|and|16|kg|lb}}. When the females are near to giving birth, they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd, and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators.<ref name=Washington/> Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older. After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd, and are fully weaned at two months of age.<ref name=Adw>{{cite web|title = Cervus elaphus | work = Animal Diversity Web| publisher = University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology | url = http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cervus_elaphus.html| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Elk calves are as large as an adult [[white-tailed deer]] by the time they are six months old.<ref name=Wisconsin>{{cite web|title = Elk Biology and interesting facts | work = History of Elk in Wisconsin| publisher = The Wisconsin Elk Reintroduction Project | url = http://www.uwsp.edu/wildlife/elk/biology.htm| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> The offspring will remain with their mothers for almost a year, leaving about the time that the next season's offspring are produced.<ref name="Thomas"/> The gestation period is the same for all subspecies. |
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Elk live 20 years or more in captivity but average 10 to 13 years in the wild. In some subspecies that suffer less predation, they may live an average of 15 years in the wild.<ref name=Smokies>{{cite web|title = Elk biology | work = Great Smoky Mountains| publisher = National Park Service | url = http://www.nps.gov/grsm/naturescience/elk-facts.htm| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> |
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===Predators and defensive tactics=== |
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[[File:Wolves and elk.jpg|thumb|Single bull elk are vulnerable to predation by [[wolf|wolves]].]] |
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Wolf and [[coyote]] packs and the solitary [[cougar]] are the most likely predators, although [[Brown Bear|brown]] and [[American black bear|black bears]] also prey on elk.<ref name="Thomas"/> Coyote packs mostly prey on elk calves, though they can sometimes take a winter-weakened adult.<ref name=Coyote>{{cite web |title= Coyotes|url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/coyotes.htm|publisher= National Park Service|accessdate=2010-12-04}}</ref> In the [[Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem]] which includes [[Yellowstone National Park]], bears are the most significant predators of calves.<ref name=Barber>{{cite journal| last =Barber| first =Shannon| authorlink =| coauthors =L. David Mech, and P.J. White| title =Elk Calf Mortality Post–Wolf Restoration Bears Remain Top Summer Predators| journal =Yellowstone Science| volume =13| issue =3| pages =37–44| publisher =National Park Service| date =Summer 2005| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/upload/YS13(3).pdf|format = PDF| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Major predators in Asia include the wolf, [[dhole]], brown bear, [[Siberian tiger]], [[Amur Leopard]], and [[Snow Leopard]]. [[Eurasian Lynx]] and [[Wild boar]] sometimes prey on Asian elk calves.<ref name="Geist"/> Historically, tigers in the Lake Baikal region fed on Manchurian wapiti, and continue to do so in the Amur region.<ref name="USSR">{{cite book | author = V.G Heptner & A.A. Sludskii | title = Mammals of the Soviet Union, Volume II, Part 2 | year = 1992| pages = | isbn = 90-04-08876-8 | publisher = Brill | location = Leiden u.a.}}</ref> |
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Male elk retain their antlers for more than half the year and are less likely to group with other males when they have antlers. Antlers provide a means of defense, as does a strong front-leg kick, which is performed by either sex if provoked. Once the antlers have been shed, bulls tend to form bachelor groups which allow them to work cooperatively at fending off predators. Herds tend to employ one or more scouts while the remaining members eat and rest.<ref name="Thomas"/> |
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After the rut, females form large herds of up to 50 individuals. Newborn calves are kept close by a series of vocalizations; larger nurseries have an ongoing and constant chatter during the daytime hours. When approached by predators, the largest and most robust females may make a stand, using their front legs to kick at their attackers. Guttural grunts and posturing effectively deter all but the most determined predators. |
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===Migration=== |
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[[File:Wapiti on the National Elk Refuge.jpg|left|thumb|Elk wintering in [[Jackson Hole]], [[Wyoming]] after migrating there during the fall]] |
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As is true for many species of deer, especially those in mountainous regions, elk [[Animal migration|migrate]] into areas of higher altitude in the spring, following the retreating snows, and the opposite direction in the fall. Hunting pressure also impacts migration and movements.<ref name=Jenkins>{{cite web|last =Jenkins| first =Kurt|title =Ecology Of Elk Inhabiting Crater Lake National Park And Vicinity | publisher =National Park Service| url = http://www.nps.gov/archive/crla/elk/elk3.htm| date=May 31, 2001|accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> During the winter, they favor wooded areas and sheltered valleys for protection from the wind and availability of tree bark to eat. Roosevelt elk are generally non-migratory due to less seasonal variability of food sources.<ref name="Thomas"/> |
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The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem elk herd numbers over 200,000 individuals and during the spring and fall, they take part in the longest elk migration in the continental U.S. Elk in the southern regions of Yellowstone National Park and in the surrounding [[United States National Forest|National Forests]] migrate south towards the town of [[Jackson, Wyoming]] where they winter for up to six months on the [[National Elk Refuge]]. Conservationists there ensure the herd is well fed during the harsh winters.<ref name=Ner>{{cite web|title =National Elk Refuge | publisher =U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Service| url = http://www.fws.gov/nationalelkrefuge/| accessdate =2010-12-04}}</ref> Many of the elk that reside in the northern sections of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem migrate to lower altitudes in [[Montana]], mainly to the north and west. |
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===Diet=== |
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[[File:Elk pellets.jpg|thumb|right|Elk pellet group]] |
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Elk are ruminants and therefore have four-chambered stomachs. Unlike white-tailed deer and moose which are primarily browsers, elk have a similarity to [[cattle]] as they are primarily grazers, but like other deer, they also browse.<ref name=Manitoba>{{cite web| title = Feeding Elk Cows| publisher = Manitoba Agriculture, Food and Rural Initiatives| url = http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/livestock/elk/bbb02s03.html| accessdate =2010-12-04}}</ref><ref name=Pond>{{cite book| last = Pond| first = Wilson| coauthors = Alan Bell| title = Encyclopedia of Animal Science| publisher = Marcel Dekker| date = November 16, 2005| page = 280| url = http://books.google.com/?id=1SQl7Ao3mHoC&pg=PA280&lpg=PA280&dq=elk+nutritional+needs| isbn = 0-8247-5496-4| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Elk have a tendency to do most of their feeding in the mornings and evenings, seeking sheltered areas in between feedings to digest. Their diets vary somewhat depending on the season with native grasses being a year round supplement, tree bark being consumed in winter and [[forbs]] and tree sprouts during the summer. Elk consume an average of {{convert|9.1|kg|lb}} of various foodstuffs daily.<ref name=Feed>{{cite web| title = Elk biology| publisher = U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service| date = July 2006| url = http://www.fws.gov/nationalelkrefuge/Documents/Brochure_ElkBiology.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Particularly fond of [[Aspen]] sprouts which rise in the spring, elk have had some impact on Aspen groves which have been declining in some regions where elk exist.<ref name=Canada>{{cite web| title = The wolf has a story to tell in Banff National Park| work = Nature| publisher = Envirozine| date = May 31, 2007| url = http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroZine/english/issues/73/nature_e.cfm| accessdate = 2010-12-04| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070630211453/http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroZine/english/issues/73/nature_e.cfm| archivedate = June 30, 2007}}</ref> |
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Range and wildlife managers conduct surveys of elk pellet groups to monitor populations and resource use.<ref name=McConnell>{{cite journal |last1=McConnell |first1=B. R. |last2=Smith |first2=J. G. |title=Frequency Distributions of Deer and Elk Pellet Groups |jstor=3799488 |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=29–36 |year=1970 |doi=10.2307/3799488}}</ref><ref name=Ripple>{{cite journal |last1=Ripple |first1=W |title=Trophic cascades among wolves, elk and aspen on Yellowstone National Park's northern range |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=102 |pages=227–234 |year=2001 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(01)00107-0 |last2=Larsen |first2=Eric J |last3=Renkin |first3=Roy A |last4=Smith |first4=Douglas W |issue=3}}</ref> |
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===Parasites and disease=== |
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At least 53 species of [[protist]] and animal [[parasite]]s have been identified in elk.<ref name=Thorne>{{Cite book| last = Thorne| first = E. T.| coauthors = E.S. Williams, W.M. Samuel, and T.P. Kistner| title = North American Elk: Ecology and Management| publisher = Smithsonian Institution Press| year = 2002| location = Washington, D.C.| pages = 351–387| isbn =978-1-58834-018-4}}</ref> Most of these parasites seldom lead to significant mortality among wild or captive elk. ''[[Parelaphostrongylus tenuis]]'' (brainworm or meningeal worm) is a parasitic [[nematode]] known to affect the spinal cord and brain tissue of elk and other species, leading to death.<ref name=McIntosh>{{cite journal |first1=Terese |last1=McIntosh |first2=Rick |last2=Rosatte |first3=Doug |last3=Campbell |first4=Kate |last4=Welch |first5=Dominique |last5=Fournier |first6=Maria |last6=Spinato |first7=Oladele |title=Evidence of Parelaphostrongylus tenuis infections in free-ranging elk (Cervus elaphus) in southern Ontario |journal=The Canadian veterinary journal. La revue veterinaire canadienne |volume=48 |issue=11 |pages=1146–51, 1154 |last7=Ogunremi |year=2007 |pmid=18050795 |pmc=2034421}}</ref> The definitive host is the white-tailed deer, in which it normally has no ill effects. Snails and slugs, the intermediate hosts, can be inadvertently consumed by elk during grazing.<ref name=Fergus/> The [[liver fluke]] ''[[Fascioloides magna]]'' and the nematode ''[[Dictyocaulus|Dictyocaulus viviparus]]'' are also commonly found parasites that can be fatal to elk.<ref name=Bildfell>{{cite journal |first=Robert J. |last1=Bildfell |first2=Christopher M. |last2=Whipps |first3=Colin M. |last3=Gillin |first4=Michael L. |last4=Kent |title=DNA-based identification of a hepatic trematode in an elk calf |pmid=17984277 |year=2007 |pages=762–9 |issue=4 |volume=43 |journal=Journal of wildlife diseases |url=http://www.jwildlifedis.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17984277}}</ref> Since infection by either of these parasites can be lethal to some commercial livestock species, their presence in elk herds is of some concern. |
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[[File:ElkShedding.jpg|thumb|left|A bull elk in spring, shedding its winter coat and with its antlers covered in velvet]] |
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[[Chronic wasting disease]], transmitted by a [[protein folding#Incorrect protein folding and neurodegenerative disease|misfolded protein]] known as a [[prion]], affects the brain tissue in elk, and has been detected throughout their range in North America. First documented in the late 1960s in mule deer, the disease has affected elk on game farms and in the wild in a number of regions. Elk that have contracted the disease begin to show weight loss, increased watering needs, disorientation and listlessness, and at an advanced stage the disease leads to death. The disease is similar to but not the same as [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|mad cow disease]], and no risks to humans have been documented, nor has the disease been demonstrated to pose a threat to domesticated cattle.<ref name=Chronic>{{cite web|title =Chronic Wasting Disease | publisher =Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation| url =http://www.rmef.org/pages/chronic.html| archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20060819154225/http://www.rmef.org/pages/chronic.html| archivedate =2006-08-19| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> In 2002, [[South Korea]] banned the importation of elk antler velvet due to concerns about chronic wasting disease.<ref name=Hansen>{{cite web|last =Hansen| first =Ray|title =Elk Profile | publisher =Agricultural Marketing Resource Center| month= November | year= 2006|url = http://www.agmrc.org/agmrc/commodity/livestock/elk/elkprofile.htm|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070928000404/http://www.agmrc.org/agmrc/commodity/livestock/elk/elkprofile.htm|archivedate = 2007-09-28| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> |
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The [[Gram-negative bacteria|Gram-negative]] [[bacteria]]l disease [[brucellosis]] occasionally affects elk in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the only place in the U.S. where the disease is still known to exist. In domesticated cattle, brucellosis causes infertility, abortions and reduced milk production. It is transmitted to humans as [[undulant fever]], producing [[influenza|flu]]-like symptoms which may last for years. Though bison are more likely to transmit the disease to other animals, elk inadvertently transmitted brucellosis to horses in Wyoming and cattle in [[Idaho]]. Researchers are attempting to eradicate the disease through vaccinations and herd management measures, which are expected to be successful.<ref name=USDA>{{cite web|title =Brucellosis and Yellowstone Bison | publisher =Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services, USDA |url = http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/animal_dis_spec/cattle/downloads/cattle-bison.pdf|format=PDF| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> |
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A recent [[Autopsy|necropsy]] study of captive elk in Pennsylvania attributed the cause of death in 33 of 65 cases to either gastrointestinal parasites (21 cases, primarily ''[[Eimeria]]'' sp. and ''[[Strongylida|Ostertagia]]'' sp.) or bacterial infections (12 cases, mostly [[pneumonia]]).<ref name=Hattel>{{cite journal |first1=Arthur L. |last1=Hattel |first2=Daniel P. |last2=Shaw |first3=Jenny S. |last3=Fisher |first4=Jason W. |last4=Brooks |first5=Brenda C. |last5=Love |first6=Thomas R. |last6=Drake |first7=Donald C. |last7=Wagner |title=Mortality in Pennsylvania captive elk (Cervus elaphus): 1998-2006 |pmid=17459871 |year=2007 |pages=334–7 |issue=3 |volume=19 |journal=Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc |url=http://www.jvdi.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17459871 |doi=10.1177/104063870701900322}}</ref> |
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==Ecology== |
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===Distribution=== |
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[[File:Bull elk bugling during the fall mating season.jpg|thumb|Bull elk ''bugling'' during the rut]] |
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Modern subspecies are descended from elk that once inhabited [[Beringia]], a [[steppe]] region between Asia and North America that connected the two continents during the [[Pleistocene]]. Beringia provided a migratory route for numerous mammal species, including [[brown bear]], [[caribou]], and moose, as well as humans.<ref Name=Flannery>{{cite book | last =Flannery | first =Tim | title =The Eternal Frontier: An Ecological History of North America and Its Peoples | publisher = Atlantic Monthly Press | date= 2001-05-10 | pages = 212–217 | isbn = 0-87113-789-5}}</ref> As the Pleistocene came to an end, ocean levels began to rise; elk migrated southwards into Asia and North America. In North America they adapted to almost all ecosystems except for [[tundra]], true deserts, and the [[Gulf Coast of the United States|gulf coast of the U.S.]] The elk of southern [[Siberia]] and central Asia were once more widespread but today are restricted to the mountain ranges west of [[Lake Baikal]] including the [[Sayan Mountains|Sayan]] and [[Altai Mountains]] of [[Mongolia]] and the [[Tian Shan|Tianshan]] region that borders [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Kazakhstan]], and China's [[Xinjiang]] Province.<ref name="Asia">{{cite web|last = | first =|title =Cervus elaphus | publisher = International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources| url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/41785/all| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> The habitat of Siberian elk in Asia is similar to that of the Rocky Mountain subspecies in North America. |
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Throughout their range, they live in [[forest]] and in forest edge habitat, similar to other deer species. In [[mountain]]ous regions, they often dwell at higher elevations in summer, migrating down slope for winter. The highly adaptable elk also inhabit semi-deserts in North America, such as the [[Great Basin]]. Manchurian and Alashan wapiti are primarily forest dwellers and their smaller antler sizes is a likely adaptation to a forest environment. |
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===Introductions=== |
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[[File:Wapiti.Nebraska.JPG|thumb|left|Bull elk on a captive range in [[Nebraska]]. These elk, originally from Rocky Mountain herds, exhibit modified behavior due to having been held in captivity, under less [[Evolutionary pressure|selective pressure]]]] |
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The Rocky Mountain elk subspecies has been reintroduced by hunter-conservation organizations in the [[Appalachia]]n region of the eastern U.S., where the now extinct [[Eastern elk]] once lived<ref name=Cochran>{{cite news | last =Cochran| first =Bill| title =Virginia officials take no joy in elk celebration|publisher =The Roanoke Times| year= 2004| url =http://www.roanoke.com/outdoors/billcochran/wb/6627| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> After elk were reintroduced in the [[U.S. states|states]] of [[Kentucky]], [[North Carolina]] and [[Tennessee]], they migrated into the neighboring states of [[Virginia]] and [[West Virginia]], and have established permanent populations there.<ref name="rmef">{{cite web| last = Ledford| first= David| title = Seeing the Southern Appalachians with 2030 Vision | publisher = Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation | url = http://www.rmef.org/NewsandMedia/PubsTV/Bugle/2005/MarApril/Features/Appalachains.htm | accessdate =2010-12-04}}</ref> Elk have also been reintroduced to a number of other states, including [[Pennsylvania]] <ref>Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, [http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/info/pawilds/recplan-app05b.pdf Plan for Elk Watching and Nature Tourism in North Central Pennsylvania], August 2002.</ref><ref>Genaro C. Armas, [http://travel.usatoday.com/destinations/2010-12-06-pennsylvania-elk-country-visitors-center_N.htm Pennsylvania banks on elk to draw visitors], ''USA Today'', December 6, 2010.</ref>), [[Michigan]], [[Wisconsin]], and islands in [[Alaska]].<ref>[http://www.wildlife.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=elk.main Elk hunting in Alaska, ''[[Alaska Department of Fish and Game]], Division of Wildlife Conservation'']</ref> As of 1989, population figures for the Rocky Mountain subspecies were 782,500, and estimated numbers for all North American subspecies exceeded 1 million.<ref name=Peek>{{cite web|last = Peek| first =James|title =North American Elk | publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| url = http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/noframe/c273.htm | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060927171616/http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/noframe/c273.htm | archivedate = 2006-09-27 | accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Prior to the European colonization of North America, there were an estimated 10 million elk on the continent.<ref name="facts"/> |
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Outside their native habitat, elk and other deer species, especially [[White-tailed deer|white tails]] were introduced in areas that previously had few if any large native ungulates. Brought to these countries for hunting and ranching for meat, hides and antler velvet, they have proven highly adaptable and have often had an adverse impact on local ecosystems. Elk and red deer were introduced to [[Argentina]] in the early 20th century.<ref name=Petersens>{{cite web|last = | first =|title =Elk and Elk Hunting | publisher = Petersen's Hunting| url = http://www.huntingmag.com/big_game/elk_hunting/index1.html| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060806021213/http://www.huntingmag.com/big_game/elk_hunting/index1.html| archivedate = 2006-08-06| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> There they are now considered an [[invasive species]], encroaching on Argentinian ecosystems where they compete for food with the indigenous [[South Andean Deer|Chilean Huemul]] and other herbivores.<ref name="Galende">{{cite web|title =Diet of Huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) in Nahuel Huapi National Park, Argentina | publisher = Taylor and Francis Ltd| url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/snfe/2005/00000040/00000001/art00001| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> This negative impact on native animal species has led the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources|IUCN]] to identify the elk as one of the world's 100 worst invaders.<ref name=Flueck>{{cite web|last = Flueck| first =Werner |title =Cervus elaphus (mammal) |work= Global Invasive Species Database| publisher = International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources | url = http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=119&fr=1&sts=sss| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Both elk and red deer have also been introduced into [[Australia]].<ref name="wildlifeinfo">{{cite web|title = Distribution and Movement|work= Cervus elaphus – Red deer (North American Elk)| publisher = Wildlife Information| url = http://www.wildlifeinformation.org/Subdirectories_for_Search2/SampleSpecies/Cervus_elaphus/Cervus_elaphus.html| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref><ref name="Corbet">{{cite book| last = Corbet| first = G.B.| coauthors = S. Harris| title = The Handbook of British Mammals | publisher = Blackwell Science, Inc| year= 1996| isbn = 978-0-86542-711-2| oclc = 36133032}}</ref> |
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The introduction of deer to [[New Zealand]] began in the middle of the 19th century, and current populations are primarily European red deer, with only 15 percent being elk.<ref name="farming">{{cite web|title =Deer farming in New Zealand | publisher = Deer Farmer|date=November 29, 2003 | url = http://www.deer-library.com/artman/publish/article_99.shtml| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> There is significant hybridisation of elk with the more numerous red deer to the extent that pure elk may no longer exist in the wild in New Zealand. These deer have had an adverse impact on forest regeneration of some plant species, as they consume more palatable species which are replaced with those that are less favored by the elk. The long term impact will be an alteration of the types of plants and trees found, and in other animal and plant species dependent upon them.<ref name="Husheer">{{cite journal| last =Husheer| first =Sean W.| title =Introduced red deer reduce tree regeneration in Pureora Forest, central North Island, New Zealand| journal =New Zealand Journal of Ecology| volume =31| issue =1| publisher =New Zealand Ecological Society| date =April 30, 2007}}</ref> As in Chile and Argentina, the IUCN has declared that red deer and elk populations in New Zealand are an invasive species.<ref name=Flueck/> |
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==Cultural references== |
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[[File:William S. Soule - Eonah-pah and Wife.jpg|thumb|190 px|A [[Kiowa]] couple. The woman to the right is wearing an elk tooth dress.]] |
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Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples. [[Pictogram]]s and [[petroglyph]]s of elk were carved into cliffs thousands of years ago by the [[Ancient Pueblo Peoples|Anasazi]] of the southwestern U.S. More recent Native American tribes, including the [[Kootenai (tribe)|Kootenai]], [[Cree]], [[Blackfeet]], [[Ojibwa]] and [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]], produced blankets and robes from elk hides. The elk was of particular importance to the [[Lakota people|Lakota]], and played a spiritual role in their society.<ref name=History>{{cite web|title = Elk In History | publisher = Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation| url = http://www.rmef.org/AllAboutElk/ElkInHistory/| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> At birth, Lakota males were given an elk's tooth to promote a long life since that was seen as the last part of dead elk to rot away. The elk was seen as having strong sexual potency and young Lakota males who had dreamed of elk would have an image of the mythical representation of the elk on their "courting coats" as a sign of sexual prowess. The Lakota believed that the mythical or spiritual elk, not the physical one, was the teacher of men and the embodiment of strength, sexual prowess and courage. |
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[[Neolithic]] petroglyphs from Asia depict antler-less female elk, which have been interpreted as symbolizing rebirth and sustenance. By the beginning of the [[Bronze Age]], the elk is depicted less frequently in rock art, coinciding with a cultural transformation away from hunting.<ref name="Jacobson">{{cite book| last =Jacobson| first =Esther| title =The Deer Goddess of Ancient Siberia: A Study in the Ecology of Belief | publisher =Brill Academic Publishers| year= 1993| location = Leiden, The Netherlands| isbn = 978-90-04-09628-8| oclc =185933267 }}</ref> |
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The Rocky Mountain Elk is the [[List of U.S. state mammals|official state animal]] for [[Utah]].<ref name=Utah>{{cite web|title = Utah State Symbols | publisher = Utah.com LC |
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| url = http://www.utah.com/visitor/state_facts/symbols.htm| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> An image of an elk and a moose appear on the state flag of [[Michigan]].<ref name=Michigan>{{cite web|title = The Michigan State Flag| publisher = NSTATE, LLC| url = http://www.netstate.com/states/symb/flags/mi_flag.htm| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> The [[Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks]] (B.P.O.E.) chose the elk as its namesake because a number of its attributes seemed appropriate for cultivation by members of the fraternity. A representation of the majestic head of the male, with its spreading antlers, was adopted as the first badge of the Order; and is still the most conspicuous element of its copyrighted fraternal emblem.<ref name=BPOE>{{cite web|title = California-Hawaii Elks Association | publisher = Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks | url = http://www.chea-elks.org/name.html| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> A prized possession of many members of the B.P.O.E. are jewel encrusted, gold mounted elk teeth – which are actually ivory.<ref name=Teeth>{{cite web|title = Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks | publisher = Phoenixmasonry, Inc| url = http://www.phoenixmasonry.org/masonicmuseum/fraternalism/elks.htm| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> |
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== Commercial uses == |
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[[File:Elkpatties.JPG|thumb|left|Approximately {{convert|1|lb}} of ground elk meat formed into patties; note the relatively small fat content]] |
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Although breakdown figures for each game species are not available in the 2006 National Survey from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, hunting of wild elk is most likely the primary economic impact.<ref name=USFWS>{{cite web| title =2006 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation| publisher =United States Fish and Wildlife Service| year= 2006| url =http://wsfrprograms.fws.gov/Subpages/NationalSurvey/nat_survey2006_final.pdf| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> |
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Elk are held in captivity, or farmed, for hunting, meat production and velvet collection. In what is known as a [[canned hunt]], a hunter pays a fee for an essentially guaranteed chance to shoot an elk in an escape-proof range. While elk are not generally harvested for meat production on a large scale, some restaurants offer the meat as a specialty item and it is also available in some grocery stores. The meat has a taste somewhere between [[beef]] and [[venison]] and is higher in [[protein]] and lower in [[fat]] and [[cholesterol]] than beef, [[pork]], and [[chicken]].<ref name=Nutrition>{{cite web|title = Elk Meat Nutritional Information | publisher = Wapiti.net| url = http://www.wapiti.net/nutrition.cfm| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> Elk meat is also a good source of [[iron]], [[phosphorus]] and [[zinc]].<ref name=Iron>{{cite web| title =Nutritional Summary for Game meat, elk, raw | publisher =Condé Nast Publications| year= 2007| url =http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-C00001-01c21Cl.html| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> |
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A male elk can produce {{convert|10|to|11|kg|lb}} of [[Velvet antler|antler velvet]] annually and on ranches in the United States, [[Canada]] and [[New Zealand]], this velvet is collected and sold to markets in east Asia, where it is used in medicine. Velvet is also considered by some cultures to be an [[aphrodisiac]].<ref name=Hansen/> However, consuming velvet from elk in North America may be risky since velvet from animals infected with [[chronic wasting disease]] may contain [[prions]] that could result in a human getting [[variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Rachel C. |last1=Angers |first2=Tanya S. |last2=Seward |first3=Dana |last3=Napier |first4=Michael |last4=Green |first5=Edward |last5=Hoover |first6=Terry |last6=Spraker |first7=Katherine |last7=O'Rourke |first8=Aru |last8=Balachandran |first9=Glenn C. |last9=Telling |title=Chronic Wasting Disease Prions in Elk Antler Velvet |pmid=19402954 |year=2009 |pages=696–703 |issue=5 |volume=15 |journal=Emerging infectious diseases |pmc=2687044 |doi=10.3201/eid1505.081458}}</ref> |
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Antlers are also used in artwork, furniture and other novelty items. All Asian subspecies, along with other deer, have been raised for their antlers in central and eastern Asia by [[Han Chinese]], [[Turkic peoples]], [[Tungusic peoples]], [[Mongolians]], and [[Koreans]]. Elk farms are relatively common in North America and New Zealand.<ref name="farming"/> |
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Elk hides have been used for thousands of years for [[tepee]] covering, blankets, clothing and footwear. Modern uses are more decorative, but elk skin shoes, gloves and belts are not uncommon.<ref name="facts"/> |
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Since 1967, the [[Boy Scouts of America]] have assisted employees at the [[National Elk Refuge]] in Wyoming by collecting the antlers which are shed each winter. The antlers are then auctioned with 80% of the proceeds returned to the refuge. In 2010, {{convert|2520|kg|lb}} of antlers were auctioned, bringing in over [[United States dollar|$]]46,000.<ref name=Boyscout>{{cite press release| title =43rd annual elk antler auction held in Jackson| publisher =U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service| date =May 22, 2006| url =http://www.fws.gov/nationalelkrefuge/Documents/Press%20Releases/2010/05_23_10Auction.pdf|format=PDF| accessdate = 2010-12-04}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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{{Portal|Mammals}} |
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*[[Roosevelt elk]] |
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*[[Tule Elk]] |
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*[[Manitoban Elk]] |
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*[[Rocky Mountain Elk]] |
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*[[Altai Wapiti]] |
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*[[Tian Shan Wapiti]] |
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*[[Manchurian wapiti]] |
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*[[Alashan wapiti]] |
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==Notes and references== |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Wikispecies|Cervus canadensis}} |
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{{Commons|Cervus canadensis}} |
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*[http://www.azgfd.gov/h_f/game_elk.shtml Arizona Elk] [[Arizona Game and Fish Department]] |
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*[http://www.rmef.org/ Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation] |
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*[http://www.greater-yellowstone.com/animals/elk.html Yellowstone Elk – Greater Yellowstone Resource Guide] |
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*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/mna/image_info.cfm?species_id=33 Smithsonian Institution - North American Mammals: Cervus (elaphus) canadensis] |
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{{Artiodactyla|R.1}} |
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{{North American Game}} |
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{{featured article}} |
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[[Category:Elk and Red Deer]] |
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[[Category:Mammals of Asia]] |
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[[Category:Mammals of North America]] |
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[[Category:Megafauna of Eurasia]] |
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[[Category:Megafauna of North America]] |
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[[Category:Wildlife of Siberia]] |
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{{Link GA|zh}} |
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{{Link FA|de}} |
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{{Link FA|hu}} |
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{{Link FA|ca}} |
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[[az:Cervus canadensis]] |
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[[bg:Уапити]] |
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[[bo:ཤྭ་བ་རྔ་རིང་།]] |
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[[br:Wapiti]] |
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[[ca:Uapití]] |
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[[cs:Wapiti]] |
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[[da:Wapiti]] |
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[[de:Wapiti]] |
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[[nv:Dzeeh]] |
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[[es:Cervus canadensis]] |
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[[eo:Kanada cervo]] |
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[[fr:Wapiti]] |
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[[ga:Fia mór]] |
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[[ko:와피티사슴]] |
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[[it:Cervus elaphus canadensis]] |
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[[he:אייל קנדי]] |
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[[kk:Вапити]] |
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[[sw:Wapiti]] |
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[[lv:Vapiti]] |
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[[hu:Vapiti]] |
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[[ml:എൽക്]] |
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[[ms:Elk]] |
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[[nl:Wapiti]] |
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[[ja:アメリカアカシカ]] |
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[[no:Wapiti]] |
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[[pnb:ایلک]] |
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[[pl:Wapiti]] |
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[[pt:Uapiti]] |
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[[qu:Wapiti]] |
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[[ru:Вапити]] |
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[[simple:Wapiti]] |
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[[sk:Jeleň americký]] |
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[[sr:Вапити]] |
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[[fi:Vapiti]] |
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[[sv:Wapitihjort]] |
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[[tl:Cervus canadensis]] |
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[[th:กวางเอลก์]] |
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[[chy:Mo'ehe]] |
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[[tr:Kanada geyiği]] |
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[[yi:לאס]] |
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[[zh:加拿大馬鹿]] |
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Latest revision as of 17:59, 29 August 2023
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