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{{redirect|Passion Flower}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Passion Vine NBG LR.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Passiflora incarnata]]''
| image2 = Parcha granadilla.JPG
| image2_caption = ''[[Passiflora platyloba|P. platyloba]]'' fruit, often confused with ''P. quadrangularis''
| display_parents = 2
| taxon = Passiflora
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = About 550, see [[List of Passiflora species|list]]
| synonyms =
*''Anthactinia'' <small>[[Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent|Bory]] ex [[M.Roem.]]</small>
*''Asephananthes'' <small>[[Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent|Bory]]</small>
*''Astrophea'' <small>[[Lam.]] ex [[M.Roem.]]</small>
*''Baldwinia'' <small>[[Raf.]]</small>
*''Ceratosepalum'' <small>[[Oerst.]]</small>
*''Cieca'' <small>[[Medik.]]</small>
*''Decaloba'' <small>[[M.Roem.]]</small>
*''Disemma'' <small>[[Labill.]]</small>
*''Granadilla'' <small>[[Mill.]]</small>
*''Hollrungia'' <small>[[K.Schum.]]</small>
*''Monactineirma'' <small>[[Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent|Bory]]</small>
*''Murucuja'' <small>[[Medik.]]</small>
*''Pentaria'' <small>[[M.Roem.]]</small>
*''Poggendorffia'' <small>[[H.Karst.]]</small>
*''Tacsonia'' <small>[[Juss.]]</small>
*''Tetrapathaea'' <small>([[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle|DC.]]) [[Rchb.]]</small>
*''Tetrastylis'' <small>[[Barb.Rodr.]]</small>
}}

'''''Passiflora''''', known also as the '''passion flowers''' or '''passion vines''', is a [[genus]] of about 550 [[species]] of [[flowering plant]]s, the [[type genus]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Passifloraceae]].

They are mostly [[tendril|tendril-bearing]] [[vine]]s, with some being [[shrub]]s or [[tree]]s. They can be [[wood]]y or [[herbaceous]]. Passion flowers produce regular and usually showy [[flower]]s with a distinctive [[Perianth#Corona|corona]]. The flower is [[merosity|pentamerous]] and ripens into an [[berry (botany)|indehiscent fruit]] with numerous seeds. For more information about the fruit of the ''Passiflora'' plant, see [[passionfruit]].
==List of species==
A list of ''Passiflora'' species is found at [[List of Passiflora species]].

==Distribution==
''Passiflora'' has a largely [[neotropic]] distribution, unlike its family [[Passifloraceae]], which includes more [[Paleotropical Kingdom|Old World]] species (such as the genus ''[[Adenia]]''). The vast majority of ''Passiflora'' are found in [[Mexico]], [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], although there are additional representatives in the [[United States]], [[Southeast Asia]], and [[Oceania]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Krosnick|first=S.E.|last2=Porter-Utley|first2=K.E.|last3=MacDougal|first3=J.M.|last4=Jørgensen|first4=P.M.|last5=McDade|first5=L.A.|date=2013|title=New insights into the evolution of Passiflora subgenus Decaloba (Passifloraceae): phylogenetic relationships and morphological synapomorphies|journal=Systematic Botany|volume=38|issue=3|pages=692–713|doi=10.1600/036364413x670359}}</ref> New species continue to be identified: for example, ''[[Passiflora xishuangbannaensis|P. xishuangbannaensis]]'' and ''[[Passiflora pardifolia|P. pardifolia]]'' have only been known to the scientific community since 2005 and 2006, respectively.

Some species of ''Passiflora'' have been naturalized beyond their native ranges. For example, the [[blue passion flower]] (''P. caerulea'') now grows wild in Spain.<ref name = danaetal2001>Dana ''et al.'' [2001]</ref> The [[Passiflora edulis|purple passionfruit]] (''P. edulis'') and its yellow relative ''flavicarpa'' have been introduced in many tropical regions as commercial crops.

==Ecology==
{{multiple image
|align=left
| direction = vertical
| width = 190
| image1 =P foetida bracts.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 =[[Stinking passion flower]] or [[Wild water lemon]] (''P. foetida'') [[bract]]s with insect-catching hairs.
| image2 =Sword-billed Hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera).jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 =The [[sword-billed hummingbird]] (''Ensifera ensifera'') is adapted to feed on ''[[Passiflora mixta]]'' and similar flowers.
| image3 =Passiflora in Canary Islands.JPG
| caption3 =A ''Passiflora'' introduced in the Canary Islands.
| image4 = Passiflora white.JPG
| caption4 = ''Passiflora foetida'' in [[Tumkur]], [[India]]
| image5 = PassiFloraRed.jpg
| caption5 = ''Red colored passion flower'' in [[Mysore]], [[India]]
}}

Passion flowers have unique floral structures, which in most cases require [[Pollination#Biotic|biotic pollination]]. Pollinators of ''Passiflora'' include [[bumblebee]]s, carpenter bees (''[[Xylocopa varipuncta]]''), [[wasp]]s, [[bat]]s, and [[hummingbird]]s (especially [[hermit (hummingbird)|hermits]] such as ''[[Phaethornis]]''); some others are additionally capable of [[self-pollination]]. ''Passiflora'' often exhibit high levels of pollinator specificity, which has led to frequent coevolution across the genus. The [[sword-billed hummingbird]] (''Ensifera ensifera'') is a notable example: it, with its immensely elongated bill, is the sole pollinator of 37 species of high [[Andes|Andean]] ''Passiflora'' in the supersection ''Tacsonia''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abrahamczyk|first=S.|date=2014|title=Escape from extreme specialization: passionflowers, bats and the sword-billed hummingbird|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|volume=281|issue=1795|doi=10.1098/rspb.2014.0888|pmid=25274372|page=20140888|pmc=4213610}}</ref>

[[File:Knospe der Passionsblume.JPG|thumb|Bud of the passion flower]]

The leaves are used for feeding by the [[larva]]e of a number of species of [[Lepidoptera]]. Famously, they are exclusively targeted by many butterfly species of the tribe [[Heliconiini]]. The many defensive adaptations visible on ''Passiflora'' include diverse leaf shapes (which help disguise their identity), colored nubs (which mimic butterfly eggs and can deter Heliconians from ovipositing on a seemingly crowded leaf), [[Nectar#Extrafloral nectaries|extrafloral nectaries]], [[trichome]]s, [[Variegation#Defensive masquerade|variegation]], and chemical defenses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Castro|first=É.C.P.|last2=Zagrobelny|first2=M.|last3=Cardoso|first3=M.Z.|last4=Bak|first4=S.|date=2017|title=The arms race between heliconiine butterflies and Passiflora plants - new insights on an ancient subject|journal=Biological Reviews|volume=93|issue=1|pages=555–573|doi=10.1111/brv.12357|pmid=28901723}}</ref> These, combined with adaptations on the part of the butterflies, were important in the foundation of [[coevolution|coevolutionary theory]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ehrlich|first=P.R.|last2=Raven|first2=P.H.|date=1964|title=Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution|journal=Evolution|volume=18|issue=4|pages=586–608|doi=10.2307/2406212|jstor=2406212}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Benson|first=W.W|last2=Brown|first2=K.S.|last3=Gilbert|first3=L.E.|date=1975|title=Coevolution of plants and herbivores: passion flower butterflies|journal=Evolution|volume=29|issue=4|pages=659–680|doi=10.2307/2407076|pmid=28563089|jstor=2407076}}</ref>

The following lepidoptera larvae are known to feed on ''Passiflora'':
* Longwing [[butterflies]] ([[Heliconiinae]])
** [[Heliconius cydno|Cydno longwing]] (''Heliconius cydno''), one of few Heliconians to feed on multiple species of ''Passiflora''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Merrill|first=R.M.|last2=Naisbit|first2=R.E.|last3=Mallet|first3=J.|last4=Jiggins|first4=C.D.|date=2013|title=Ecological and genetic factors influencing the transition between host-use strategies in sympatric Heliconius butterflies|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/32972/files/nai_egf.pdf|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology|volume=26|issue=9|pages=1959–1967|via=|doi=10.1111/jeb.12194|pmid=23961921}}</ref>
** [[Gulf fritillary]] (''Agraulis vanillae''), which feeds on several species of ''Passiflora'', such as ''[[Passiflora lutea]]'', ''Passiflora affinis'',<ref name="byron beauty">{{cite journal|last1=Knight|first1=R.J.|last2=Payne|first2=J.A.|last3=Schnell|first3=R.J.|last4=Amis|first4=A.A.|title='Byron Beauty', An Ornamental Passion Vine for the Temperate Zone|journal=HortScience|date=1995|volume=30|issue=5|page=1112|url=http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/30/5/1112.full.pdf}}</ref><ref name="host plants">{{cite journal|last1=Neck|first1=Raymond W.|title=Lepidopteran Foodplant Records from Texas|journal=Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera|date=1976|volume=15|issue=2|pages=75–82|url=http://lepidopteraresearchfoundation.org/journals/15/PDF15/15-075.pdf|accessdate=25 October 2017}}</ref> stinking passion flower (''P. foetida''),<ref>Soule, J.A. 2012. Butterfly Gardening in Southern Arizona. Tierra del Soule Press, Tucson, AZ</ref> and [[Maypop]] (''P. incarnata'')
** American [[Sara longwing]] (''Heliconius sara'')
** Red postman (''[[Heliconius erato]]'')
** Asian [[leopard lacewing]] (''Cethosia cyane'').
** [[Postman butterfly]] (''Heliconius melpomene'') prefer ''[[Passiflora menispermifolia|P. menispermifolia]]'' and ''[[Passiflora oerstedii|P. oerstedii]]''
** [[Zebra longwing]] (''Heliconius charithonia'') feed on yellow passion flower, [[two-flowered passion flower]] (''[[Passiflora biflora|P. biflora]]''), and [[corky-stemmed passion flower]] (''[[Passiflora suberosa|P. suberosa]]'')
** [[Banded orange]] (''Dryadula phaetusa'') feed on ''[[Passiflora tetrastylis|P. tetrastylis]]''
** [[Julia butterfly]] (''Dryas iulia'') feed on yellow passion flower and ''[[Passiflora affinis|P. affinis]]''
* [[Swift moth]] ''[[Cibyra serta]]''

The generally high pollinator and parasite specificity in ''Passiflora'' may have led to the tremendous morphological variation in the genus. It is thought to have among the highest [[leaf|foliar]] diversity among all plant genera,<ref name="Killip 1938">{{Cite book|last=Killip|first=E.P.|date=1938|title=The American Species of Passifloraceae|publisher=Field Museum of Natural History|location=Chicago, US|via=}}</ref> with leaf shapes ranging from unlobed to five-lobed frequently found on the same plant.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chitwood|first=D.|last2=Otoni|first2=W.|date=2017|title=Divergent leaf shapes among Passiflora species arise from a shared juvenile morphology|journal=Plant Direct|volume=1|issue=5|pages=e00028|doi=10.1002/pld3.28}}</ref> [[Coevolution]] can be a major driver of speciation, and may be responsible for the radiation of certain clades of ''Passiflora'' such as ''Tacsonia''.

The [[bract]]s of the [[stinking passion flower]] are covered by hairs which exude a sticky fluid. Many small insects get stuck to this and get digested to [[nutrient]]-rich goo by [[protease]]s and [[acid phosphatase]]s. Since the insects usually killed are rarely major [[Pest (organism)|pests]], this passion flower seems to be a [[protocarnivorous plant]].<ref>Radhamani ''et al.'' (1995)</ref>

[[Banana passion flower]] or "banana poka" (''P. tarminiana''), originally from Central [[Brazil]], is an [[invasive species|invasive]] [[weed]], especially on the islands of [[Hawaii]]. It is commonly spread by [[feral]] [[pig]]s eating the fruits. It overgrows and smothers stands of [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] vegetation, mainly on roadsides. [[Blue passion flower]] (''P. caerulea'') is holding its own in Spain these days, and it probably needs to be watched so that unwanted spreading can be curtailed.<ref name = danaetal2001 />

On the other hand, some species are [[endangered]] due to unsustainable [[logging]] and other forms of [[habitat destruction]]. For example, the [[Chilean passion flower]] (''[[Passiflora pinnatistipula|P. pinnatistipula]]'') is a rare vine growing in the [[Andes]] from [[Venezuela]] to [[Chile]] between 2,500 and 3,800 meters altitude, and in Coastal Central Chile, where it occurs in woody Chilean Mediterranean forests. ''P. pinnatistipula'' has a round fruit, unusual in ''Tacsonia'' group species like banana passion flower and ''[[Passiflora mixta|P. mixta]]'', with their elongated tubes and brightly red to rose-colored petals.

Notable and sometimes economically significant [[pathogen]]s of ''Passiflora'' are several [[sac fungi]] of the genus ''[[Septoria]]'' (including ''[[Septoria passiflorae|S. passiflorae]]''), the undescribed [[proteobacterium]] called "[[Pseudomonas tomato]]" ([[Pathovar|pv.]] ''passiflorae''), the ''[[Potyvirus]]'' ''[[passionfruit woodiness virus]]'', and the ''[[Carlavirus]]'' ''[[Passiflora latent virus]]''.

==Use==
===Ornamental===
[[File:File-Passiflora incarnata 3.jpg|thumb|''[[Passiflora incarnata]]'', one of the most common passion flowers]]
[[File:Joseph Martin Kronheim - The Sunday at Home 1880 - Revelation 22-17.jpg|thumb|Passiflora entwine this 1880 [[Baxter process]] illustration by [[Joseph Martin Kronheim]]]]

A number of species of ''Passiflora'' are cultivated outside their natural range for both their flowers and fruit. Hundreds of hybrids have been named; hybridizing is currently being done extensively for flowers, foliage and fruit. The following hybrids and cultivars have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]]:
*'Amethyst'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=4588 |title=RHS Plant Selector Passiflora 'Amethyst' AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |date= |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref>
*[[Passiflora × exoniensis|''P.'' × ''exoniensis'']]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=5880 |title=RHS Plant Selector Passiflora × exoniensis AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |date= |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> (Exeter passion flower)
*[[Passiflora × violacea|''P.'' × ''violacea'']]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=5915 |title=RHS Plant Selector Passiflora × violacea AGM / RHS Gardening |publisher=Apps.rhs.org.uk |date= |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref>

During the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] era the flower (which in all but a few species lasts only one day) was very popular, and many hybrids were created using the [[winged-stem passion flower]] (''P. alata''), the [[blue passion flower]] (''P. caerulea'') and other tropical species.

Many cool-growing ''Passiflora'' from the Andes Mountains can be grown successfully for their beautiful flowers and fruit in cooler Mediterranean climates, such as the [[Monterey Bay]] and [[San Francisco]] in [[California]] and along the western coast of the U.S. into [[Canada]]. One blue passion flower or hybrid even grew to large size at [[Malmö Central Station]] in [[Sweden]].<ref>Petersen (1966)</ref>

Passion flowers have been a subject of studies investigating [[extranuclear inheritance]]; [[paternal]] inheritance of [[chloroplast]] DNA has been documented in this genus.<ref>E.g. Hansen ''et al.'' (2006)</ref> The [[plastome]] of the [[two-flowered passion flower]] (''P. biflora'') has been [[DNA sequencing|sequenced]].

The French name for this plant has lent itself to ''La Famille Passiflore'', a highly successful children's book series by [[Geneviève Huriet]], and an animated series based upon it. These have been translated into English as ''[[Beechwood Bunny Tales]]'' and ''[[The Bellflower Bunnies]]''.

===Fruit===
[[File:Frucht der Passionsblume.JPG|thumb|Unripened ''Passiflora'' fruit]]
Most species have round or elongated edible fruit from two to eight inches long and an inch to two inches across, depending upon the species or [[cultivar]].

* The [[Passiflora edulis|passion fruit]] or ''maracujá'' (''P. edulis'') is cultivated extensively in the [[Caribbean]], [[South America]], south [[Florida]] and [[South Africa]] for its fruit, which is used as a source of juice. A small pink fruit which wrinkles easily and a larger shiny yellow to orange fruit are traded under this name. The latter is usually considered just a [[variety (biology)|variety]] ''flavicarpa'', but seems to be more distinct in fact.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}
* [[Sweet granadilla]] (''P. ligularis'') is another widely grown species. In large parts of [[Africa]] and [[Australia]] it is the plant called "passionfruit": confusingly, in [[South Africa]]n English the latter species is more often called "granadilla" (without an adjective). Its fruit is somewhat intermediate between the two sold as ''P. edulis''.
* [[Maypop]] (''P. incarnata''), a common species in the southeastern US. This is a subtropical representative of this mostly tropical family. However, unlike the more tropical cousins, this particular species is hardy enough to withstand the cold down to {{convert|-20|C|F}} before its roots die (it is native as far north as [[Pennsylvania]] and has been cultivated as far north as [[Boston]] and [[Chicago]].) The fruit is sweet, yellowish, and roughly the size of a chicken's egg; it enjoys some popularity as a native plant with edible fruit and few [[pest (organism)|pests]].
* [[Giant granadilla]] (giant tumbo or ''badea'', ''P. quadrangularis''), [[water lemon]] (''P. laurifolia'') and [[sweet calabash]] (''P. maliformis'') are ''Passiflora'' species locally famed for their fruit, but not widely known elsewhere yet.
* [[Wild maracuja]] are the fruit of ''P. foetida'', which are popular in [[Southeast Asia]].
* [[Banana passionfruit]]s are the very elongated fruits of [[Passiflora tripartita|''P. tripartita'' var. ''mollissima'']] and ''[[Passiflora tarminiana|P. tarminiana]]''. These are locally eaten, but their invasive properties make them a poor choice to grow outside of their native range.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/cw_smith/impact.htm |title=Impact of Alien Plants on Hawai'i's Native Biota |author=Smith, Clifford W. |date= |website= |publisher=University of Hawaii |accessdate=8 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713071816/http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/cw_smith/impact.htm |archivedate=13 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.html?sub=6142 |title=Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States |author= The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health and the National Park Service |date=17 February 2011 |website= |publisher= |accessdate=8 March 2011}}</ref>

===Traditional medicine===
{{medical citations needed|section|date=September 2015}}
''[[Passiflora incarnata|P. incarnata]]'' (maypop) leaves and roots have a long history of use among [[Indigenous people of the Americas|Native Americans]] in [[North America]] and were adapted by the [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonists]]. The fresh or dried leaves of maypop are used to make a tea that is used for [[insomnia]], [[hysteria]], and [[epilepsy]], and is also valued for its [[analgesic]] properties.<ref name="UMMC">UMMC (2008) {{dead link|date=June 2014}}</ref>{{medcn|date=June 2014}} ''[[Passiflora edulis|P. edulis]]'' (passion fruit) and a few other species are used in Central and South America for similar purposes. Once dried, the leaves can also be smoked.

The medical utility of only a few species of ''Passiflora'' has been scientifically studied.<ref name="Duke" /> In initial study in 2001 for treatment of [[generalized anxiety disorder]], maypop extract performed as well as [[oxazepam]] but with fewer short-term side effects.<ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1046/j.1365-2710.2001.00367.x | volume=26 | issue=5 | title=Passionflower in the treatment of generalized anxiety: a pilot double-blind randomized controlled trial with oxazepam |date=October 2001 | journal=Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics | pages=363–367 | last1 = Akhondzadeh | first1 = S.}}</ref> It was recommended to follow up with long-term studies to confirm these results.

A study performed on mice demonstrated that ''Passiflora alata'' has a [[genotoxic]] effect on cells, and suggested further research was recommended before this one species is considered safe for human consumption.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=19799991 | doi=10.1016/j.jep.2009.09.037 | volume=128 | issue=2 | title=Toxicity and genotoxicity evaluation of Passiflora alata Curtis (Passifloraceae) |date=March 2010 | journal=J Ethnopharmacol | pages=526–32 | last1 = Boeira | first1 = JM | last2 = Fenner | first2 = R | last3 = Betti | first3 = AH | display-authors = 3 | last4 = et al}}</ref>

In another study performed with non-smoking patients, it demonstrates that oral administration of [[Passiflora incarnata|''Passifora incarnata'']] following extubation for patients surgery reduced the patients coughing versus the control group. By administering ''Passiflora incarnata'' orally with the correct dosage, it can result in antitussive activities without impairing the patient drastically. The results presented show a decrease of post extubation cough after out-patient surgery but it was only recorded early on. With this information, further research can be applied to create other medications for coughing but the authors note the limitations on the study included short observation period as well as a small sample size.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saliminia|first=Alireza|last2=Azimaraghi|first2=Omid|date=June 12, 2017|title=Preoperative Oral Passiflora Incarnata Reduces Coughing Following Extubation: A Double Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study|url=http://aacc.tums.ac.ir/index.php/aacc/article/view/118|journal=Archives of Anesthesiology and Critical Care|volume=3|issue=3|pages=338–341|issn=2423-5849|via=}}</ref>

Passionflower herb (Passiflorae herba) from ''[[Passiflora incarnata|P. incarnata]]'' is listed in the [[European Pharmacopoeia]]. The herbal drug should contain not less than 1.5% total flavonoids expressed as [[vitexin]].{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

Passionflower is reputed to have sedative effects and has been used in sedative products in Europe, but in 1978, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration prohibited its use in over-the-counter sedative preparations because it had not been proven safe and effective. In 2011, the University of Maryland Medical Center reported that passionflower "... can trigger side effects and can interact with other herbs, supplements, or medications. For these reasons, you should take herbs with care, under the supervision of a health care provider."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/871.html|title=Passionflower|work=nih.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/herb/passionflower|title=Passionflower|work=University of Maryland Medical Center}}</ref>

Passionflower is classified as [[generally recognized as safe]] (GRAS) for use in foods in the US,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=172.510|title=CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21|work=fda.gov}}</ref> and is “possibly safe when used orally and appropriately for short-term medicinal purposes,” “possibly unsafe when used in excessive amounts,” but unsafe when used orally during pregnancy since “...passionflower constituents show evidence of uterine stimulation.” The database suggests it is possibly effective for adjustment disorder with anxious mood, anxiety, and opiate withdrawal, but it “can cause dizziness, confusion, sedation, and ataxia” and there are some reports of more severe side effects including vasculitis and altered consciousness.

==Chemistry==
{{multiple image
| width1 = 239
| image1 =Chrysin.svg
| alt1 =
| caption1 =[[Chrysin]], a commercially important [[flavone]] found in the [[Passiflora caerulea|blue passion flower, ''P. caerulea'']]
| image2 =Harman.svg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 =
| caption2 =Harman, a [[harmala alkaloid]] found in many species of ''Passiflora''
}}
Many species of ''Passiflora'' have been found to contain [[beta-carboline]] [[harmala alkaloid]]s,<ref name="Duke">Duke (2008)</ref><ref name="Drugs">''Drugs.com'' (2008)</ref><ref name="Meuninck">Medicinal Plants of North America: A Field Guide
By Jim Meuninck, p. 38, https://books.google.com/books?id=AVOsBwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA38&ots=2Mqv0Yy6Jx&dq=native%20%22north%20america%22%20%22beta-Carboline%22&pg=PA38#v=onepage&q=beta-Carboline&f=false</ref> some of which are [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor|MAO inhibitors]]. The flower and fruit have only traces of these chemicals, but the leaves and the roots often contain more.<ref name="Meuninck" /> The most common of these alkaloids is [[Harmala alkaloid|harman]], but [[harmaline]], [[harmalol]], [[harmine]], and [[harmol]] are also present.<ref name="Duke" /><ref name="Drugs" /> The species known to bear such alkaloids include: ''[[Passiflora actinea|P. actinea]]'', ''[[Passiflora alata|P. alata]]'' (winged-stem passion flower), ''[[Passiflora alba|P. alba]]'', ''[[Passiflora bryonioides|P. bryonioides]]'' (cupped passion flower), ''[[Passiflora caerulea|P. caerulea]]'' (blue passion flower), ''[[Passiflora capsularis|P. capsularis]]'', ''[[Passiflora decaisneana|P. decaisneana]]'', ''[[Passiflora edulis|P. edulis]]'' (passion fruit), ''[[Passiflora eichleriana|P. eichleriana]]'', ''[[Passiflora foetida|P. foetida]]'' (stinking passion flower), ''[[Passiflora incarnata|P. incarnata]]'' (maypop), ''[[Passiflora quadrangularis|P. quadrangularis]]'' (giant granadilla), ''[[Passiflora suberosa|P. suberosa]]'', ''[[Passiflora subpeltata|P. subpeltata]]'' and ''[[Passiflora warmingii|P. warmingii]]''.<ref name="Duke" /><ref name="Drugs" />

Other compounds found in passion flowers are [[coumarins]] (e.g. [[scopoletin]] and [[umbelliferone]]), [[maltol]], [[phytosterol]]s (e.g. [[lutenin]]) and [[cyanogenic glycosides]] (e.g. [[gynocardin]]) which render some species, i.e. ''[[Passiflora adenopoda|P. adenopoda]]'', somewhat poisonous. Many [[flavonoid]]s and their [[glycoside]]s have been found in ''Passiflora'', including [[apigenin]], [[beta-Naphthoflavone|benzoflavone]], [[homoorientin]], [[7-isoorientin]], [[isoshaftoside]], [[isovitexin]] (or [[saponaretin]]), [[kaempferol]], [[lucenin]], [[luteolin]], n-[[orientin]], [[passiflorine]] (named after the genus), [[quercetin]], [[rutin]], [[saponarin]], [[shaftoside]], [[vicenin]] and [[vitexin]]. Maypop, [[blue passion flower]] (''P. caerulea''), and perhaps others contain the [[flavone]] [[chrysin]]. Also documented to occur at least in some ''Passiflora'' in quantity are the [[hydrocarbon]] [[nonacosane]] and the [[anthocyanidin]] [[pelargonidin]]-3-diglycoside.<ref name="Duke" /><ref name="Drugs" /><ref name="dd2008">Dhawan, ''et al.'' (2002)</ref>

The genus is rich in [[organic acid]]s including [[Formic acid|formic]], [[Butyric acid|butyric]], [[Linoleic acid|linoleic]], [[α-Linolenic acid|linolenic]], [[Malic acid|malic]], [[Myristic acid|myristic]], [[oleic acid|oleic]] and [[palmitic acid]]s as well as [[natural phenol|phenolic]] compounds, and the [[amino acid]] α-[[alanine]]. [[Ester]]s like [[ethyl butyrate]], [[ethyl caproate]], ''n''-[[hexyl butyrate]] and ''n''-[[hexyl caproate]] give the fruits their flavor and appetizing smell. [[Sugar]]s, contained mainly in the fruit, are most significantly d-[[fructose]], d-[[glucose]] and [[raffinose]]. Among [[enzyme]]s, ''Passiflora'' was found to be rich in [[catalase]], [[Pectinesterase|pectin methylesterase]] and [[phenolase]].<ref name="Duke" /><ref name="Drugs" />

==Etymology and names==
The "Passion" in "passion flower" refers to [[Passion (Christianity)|the passion of Jesus]] in [[Christianity|Christian theology]].<ref name= "Kostka ">{{citeweb | last = Kostka | first = Arun Oswin |url = http://saintscatholic.blogspot.com/p/saint-symbols.html | title = Flowers in Christian Symbolism}}</ref> In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish Christian missionaries adopted the unique physical structures of this plant, particularly the numbers of its various flower parts, as symbols of the last days of [[Jesus]] and especially his [[crucifixion]]:<ref name="Hammer2015">{{cite book|author=Roger L. Hammer|title=Everglades Wildflowers: A Field Guide to Wildflowers of the Historic Everglades, including Big Cypress, Corkscrew, and Fakahatchee Swamps|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-S0aBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA206|date=6 January 2015|publisher=Falcon Guides|isbn=978-1-4930-1459-0|pages=206–}}</ref>
[[File:Passiflora caerulea (makro close-up).jpg|thumb|right|[[Blue passion flower]] (''P. caerulea'') showing most elements of the Christian symbolism]]
* The pointed tips of the leaves were taken to represent the [[Holy Lance]].
* The [[tendril]]s represent the [[whip]]s used in the [[flagellation of Christ]].
* The ten [[petal]]s and [[sepal]]s represent the ten faithful [[apostles]] (excluding [[St. Peter]] the denier and [[Judas Iscariot]] the betrayer).
* The flower's [[Perianth#Corona|radial filaments]], which can number more than a hundred and vary from flower to flower, represent the [[crown of thorns]].
* The [[Chalice (cup)|chalice]]-shaped [[Ovary (plants)|ovary]] with its [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]] represents a hammer or the [[Holy Grail]].
* The 3 [[gynoecium|stigmas]] represent the 3 [[Nail (fastener)|nails]] and the 5 [[anther]]s below them the 5 [[stigmata|wounds]] (four by the nails and one by the lance).
* The blue and white colors of many species' flowers represent [[Heaven]] and [[virtue|Purity]].

The flower has been given names related to this symbolism throughout Europe since that time. In [[Spain]], it is known as ''espina de Cristo'' ("thorn of Christ'"). Older [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] names<ref>Marzell (1927)</ref> include ''Christus-Krone'' ("Christ's crown"), ''Christus-Strauss'' ("Christ's bouquet"<ref>"Christ's flower" is a mistranslation of Marzell (1927)</ref>), ''Dorn-Krone'' ("crown of thorns"), ''Jesus-Lijden'' ("Jesus' passion"), ''Marter'' ("passion"<ref>"Martyr" is a mistranslation of Marzell (1927)</ref>) or ''Muttergottes-Stern'' ("Mother of God's star"<ref>''Muttergottes-Schuzchen'' (or ''-Schurzchen'') is a nonsensical misreading of Marzell (1927)</ref>).

Outside the Roman Catholic heartland, the regularly shaped flowers have reminded people of the face of a [[clock]]. In [[Israel]] they are known as "clock-flower" (שעונית) and in Greece as "clock plant" (ρολογιά); in [[Japan]] too, they are known as '''''tokeisō''''' (時計草, "clock plant"). In Hawaiian, they are called '''''lilikoʻi''''';<ref>{{Hawaiian Dictionaries
| lilikoʻi
| dic=pk
| q=lilikoi
| accessdate=2014-11-02
}}</ref> ''lī'' is a string used for tying fabric together, such as a [[shoelace]], and ''liko'' means "to spring forth leaves".<ref>Pukui ''et al.'' (1992)</ref>

In [[India]], blue passionflowers are called '''Krishnakamala''' in Karnataka and Maharashtra, while in Uttar Pradesh and generally north it is colloquially called "Panch Pandav" (referring to the five [[Pandavas]] in the Hindu epic, the [[Mahabharata]]). The five anthers are interpreted as the five Pandavas, the divine [[Krishna]] is at the centre, and the radial filaments are opposing hundred. The colour blue is moreover associated with Krishna as the colour of his aura. [[File:Passiflora Krishnakamal Karnataka India.jpg|thumb|right|''Passiflora'' 'Soi Fah' aka '''Krishnakamala''' in India]]

In northern [[Peru]] and Bolivia, the [[banana passionfruit]]s are known as '''''tumbos'''''. This is one possible source of the name of the [[Tumbes region]] of Peru.

In [[Turkey]], the shape of the flowers have reminded people of [[Rota Fortunae]], thus it called '''''Çarkıfelek'''''.

==Taxonomy==
{{See also|List of Passiflora species}}

''Passiflora'' is the most species rich genus of both the family Passifloraceae and the tribe Passifloreae. With over 550 species, an extensive hierarchy of infrageneric ranks is required to represent the relationships of the species. The infrageneric classification of ''Passiflora'' not only uses the widely used ranks of subgenus, section and series, but also the rank of supersection.

The New World species of ''Passiflora'' were first divided among 22 subgenera by Killip (1938) in the first monograph of the genus.<ref name="Killip 1938"/> More recent work has reduced these to 4, which are commonly accepted today (in order from most basally to most recently branching):<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Feuillet|first=C.|last2=MacDougal|first2=J.|date=2004|title=A new infrageneric classification of Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae)|journal=Passiflora|volume=13|issue=2|pages=34–35, 37–38|via=}}</ref>
* ''Astrophea'' (Americas, ~60 species), trees and shrubs with simple, unlobed leaves
* ''Passiflora'' (Americas, ~250 species), woody vines with large flowers and elaborate [[corolla (botany)|corolla]]
* ''Deidamioides'' (Americas, 13 species), woody or herbaceous vines
* ''Decaloba'' (Americas, Asia and Australasia, ~230 species), herbaceous vines with palmately veined leaves

Some studies have shown that the segregate Old World genera ''[[Hollrungia]]'' and ''[[Tetrapathaea]]'' are nested within ''Passiflora'', and form a fifth subgenus (''Tetrapathaea'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Krosnick|first=S.E.|last2=Ford|first2=A.J.|last3=Freudenstein|first3=J.V.|date=2009|title=Taxonomic Revision of Passiflora Subgenus Tetrapathea Including the Monotypic Genera Hollrungia and Tetrapathea (Passifloraceae), and a New Species of Passiflora|journal=Systematic Botany|volume=34|issue=2|pages=375–385|via=|doi=10.1600/036364409788606343}}</ref> Other studies support the current 4 subgenus classification.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hansen|first=K.A.|last2=Gilbert|first2=L.E.|last3=Simpson|first3=B.B.|last4=Downie|first4=S.R.|last5=Cervi|first5=A.C.|last6=Jansen|first6=R.K.|date=2006|title=Phylogenetic Relationships and Chromosome Number Evolution in Passiflora|journal=Systematic Botany|volume=31|issue=1|pages=138–150|via=|doi=10.1600/036364406775971769}}</ref>

Relationships below the subgenus level are not known with certainty and are an active area of research. The Old World species form two clades - supersection ''Disemma'' (part of subgenus ''Decaloba'') and subgenus ''Tetrapathaea''. The former is composed of 21 species divided into sections ''Disemma'' (3 Australian species), ''Holrungiella'' (1 New Guinean species) and ''Octandranthus'' (17 south and east Asian species).<ref>Shawn Elizabeth Krosnick, Ph.D. thesis, [http://drc.ohiolink.edu/handle/2374.OX/6144 Phylogenetic relationships and patterns of morphological evolution in the Old Word species of ''Passiflora'' (subgenus ''Decaloba'': supersection ''Disemma'' and subgenus ''Tetrapathaea'')]</ref>

The remaining (New World) species of subgenus ''Decaloba'' are divided into 7 supersections. Supersection ''Pterosperma'' includes 4 species from Central America and southern Mexico. Supersection ''Hahniopathanthus'' includes 5 species from Central America, Mexico and northernmost South America. Supersection ''Cicea'' includes 19 species, with apetalous flowers. Supersection ''Bryonioides'' includes 21 species, with a distribution centered on Mexico. Supersection ''Auriculata'' includes 8 species from South America, one of which is also found in Central America. Supersection ''Multiflora'' includes 19 species. Supersection ''Decaloba'' includes 123 species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/passiflora/|title=MBG: Research: Passiflora Research Network|work=mobot.org}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of culinary fruits]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==References==
* {{cite journal | last1 = Akhondzadeh | first1 = Shahin | last2 = Naghavi | first2 = H.R. | last3 = Vazirian | first3 = M. | last4 = Shayeganpour | first4 = A. | last5 = Rashidi | first5 = H. | last6 = Khani | first6 = M. | year = 2001 | title = Passionflower in the treatment of generalized anxiety: a pilot double-blind randomized controlled trial with oxazepam | url = http://jerrycott.com/user/passionanxiety.pdf | journal = Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 363–367 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2710.2001.00367.x | access-date = 6 September 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090326112648/http://jerrycott.com/user/passionanxiety.pdf | archive-date = 26 March 2009 | dead-url = yes | df = dmy-all }}
* Dana, E.D.; Sanz-Elorza, M. & Sobrino, E. [2001]: Plant Invaders in Spain Check-List. [http://www.ual.es/personal/edana/alienplants/checklist.pdf PDF fulltext]
* {{cite journal | last1 = Dhawan | first1 = Kamaldeep | last2 = Kumar | first2 = Suresh | last3 = Sharma | first3 = Anupam | year = 2002 | title = Beneficial Effects of Chrysin and Benzoflavone on Virility in 2-Year-Old Male Rats | url = | journal = Journal of Medicinal Food | volume = 5 | issue = 1| pages = 43–48 | doi = 10.1089/109662002753723214 | pmid = 12511112 }}
* Drugs.com [2008]: [https://www.drugs.com/npp/passion-flower.html Passion Flower]. Retrieved 2008-NOV-01.
* Duke, James A. [2008]: [https://web.archive.org/web/20141227143201/http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/plants.html Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases] – ''Passiflora'' spp. Retrieved 2008-NOV-01.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hansen | first1 = A. Katie | last2 = Escobar | first2 = Linda K. | last3 = Gilbert | first3 = Lawrence E. | last4 = Jansen | first4 = Robert K. | year = 2006 | title = Paternal, maternal, and biparental inheritance of the chloroplast genome in ''Passiflora'' (Passifloraceae): implications for phylogenic studies | url = http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/reprint/94/1/42.pdf | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 94 | issue = 1| pages = 42–46 | doi=10.3732/ajb.94.1.42 | pmid=21642206}}
* Marzell, Heinrich (1927): ''Deutsches Wörterbuch der Pflanzennamen'' ["German Plant Name Dictionary"]. Leipzig.
* [[Mary Kawena Pukui|Pukui, Mary Kawena]]; [[Samuel Hoyt Elbert|Elbert, Samuel Hoyt]]; Mookini, Esther T. & Nishizawa, Yu Mapuana (1992): ''New Pocket Hawaiian Dictionary with a Concise Grammars and Given Names in Hawaiian''. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. <small>{{ISBN|0-8248-1392-8}}</small>
* Petersen, Elly (1966): Passionsblume ["Passion flowers"]. ''In: Praktisches Gartenlexikon der Büchergilde'' (2nd ed.): 270-271 [in German]. Büchergilde Gutenberg. Frankfurt am Main, Vienna, Zürich.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Radhamani | first1 = T.R. | last2 = Sudarshana | first2 = L. | last3 = Krishnan | first3 = R. | year = 1995 | title = Defence and carnivory: dual roles of bracts | url = | journal = Passiflora Foetida. Journal of Biosciences | volume = 20 | issue = 5| pages = 657–664 | doi = 10.1007/BF02703305 }}
* [[University of Maryland Medical Center]] (UMMC) (2008): [http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsHerbs/Passionflowerch.html Passionflower]. Retrieved 2008-NOV-01.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Passiflora}}
{{NIE Poster|year=1905|Passion-flower}}
* {{EOL}}
* [http://www.passiflorasociety.org/ The Passiflora Society International]
* [https://archive.org/search.php?query=Fieldiana%20Killip Killip, The American Species of Passifloraceae, Fieldiana, Bot. 19 (1938)]
* [http://www.passionflow.co.uk/ Passiflora online]
* [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/passionfruit.html Passiflora edulis]
* [http://www.floridanaturepictures.com/flowers/flowers.html Passiflora Picture Gallery]
* [http://www.chilebosque.cl/epiv/ppinn.html Chilean Passiflora pictures]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060711234117/http://www.heliconius.co.uk/foodplants.htm A list of Heliconius Butterflies and the Passiflora species their larvae consume]

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2011}}
{{Carnivorous plants}}
{{Passiflora}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q161185}}

[[Category:Passiflora| ]]
[[Category:Malpighiales genera]]
[[Category:Butterfly food plants]]
[[Category:Flora of Central America]]
[[Category:Flora of South America]]
[[Category:Garden plants of North America]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Central America]]
[[Category:Garden plants of South America]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Edible fruits]]
[[Category:Tropical fruit]]
[[Category:Vines]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Pantropical flora]]

Revision as of 11:48, 28 January 2019

There won't be anymore research on this, because the medical industrial complex has little interest in horticulture, only patents.

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