Incandescent light bulb and Esnaf: Difference between pages
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[[Image:Light bulb Edison 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Illustration from U.S. Patent #223898: Electric-Lamp. Issued January 27, 1880 to [[Thomas Edison]].]] |
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The '''incandescent light bulb''', '''incandescent lamp''' or '''incandescent light globe''' is a source of electric [[light]] that works by [[incandescence]], (a general term for heat-driven light emissions which includes the simple case of [[black body]] radiation). An [[electric current]] passes through a thin [[electrical filament|filament]], heating it until it produces light. The enclosing glass bulb prevents the [[oxygen]] in air from reaching the hot filament, which otherwise would be destroyed rapidly by [[oxidation]]. Incandescent bulbs are also sometimes called ''electric lamps'', a term also applied to the original [[arc lamp]]s. |
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'''Esnaf''' is a [[Turkish language|Turkish]] word which means “guild” or “corporation”. During the Early Modern Period belonging to a guild gave people a voice and was an important part of ones identity. Handicraft producers were linked to one another by a range of social, political, and economic ties.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later [[Ottoman Empire]], 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 336.</ref> Guilds varied among societies, social class, and genders. There were many misconceptions, differences, as well as similarities between Europe and the Ottoman Empire. There were hierarchies within guilds; sometimes they shared tools, worked together, or worked alone. |
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Incandescent bulbs are made in a wide range of sizes and [[voltage]]s, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external regulating equipment and have a low manufacturing cost, and work well on either alternating current or direct current. As a result the incandescent lamp is widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting, such as table lamps, some car [[headlamp]]s and electric [[flashlight]]s, and for decorative and advertising lighting. |
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==History== |
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Some applications of the incandescent bulb make use of the heat generated, such as [[incubators]] (for hatching [[eggs]]), brooding boxes for young [[poultry]], heat lights for [[reptile]] [[terrarium|tanks]], [[Infrared heater|infrared heating]] for industrial heating and drying processes, and the [[Easy-Bake Oven]] toy. In cold weather the heat shed by incandescent lamps contributes to building heating, but in hot climates lamp losses increase the energy used by [[air conditioning]] systems. |
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In the Early Modern Period, collective identity was mainly established by normative framework, but was also a result of the process of interaction itself, and could be manipulated according to the circumstances.<ref>Trivellato, Francesca. 2002. “Jews of Leghorn, Italians of Lisbon, and Hindus of Goa. Merchant Networks and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period.” In Commercial Networks in the Early Modern World. Eds. Diogo R. Curto and Anthony Molho. Badia Fiesolana: European University Institute, 88.</ref> During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Islamic state created a system, based upon an open- minded interpretation of Islam’s attitude toward rival monotheists that allowed inclusion for the Christians and Jews who populated the conquered lands of Anatolia and the Balkans.<ref>Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, 169.</ref> The uprising of Istanbul in 1651 was a successful protest against dominant authority. The people marched on the palace and got a powerful religious leader on their side in order to get the vizier to step down. They made their voices heard as a group within their guild, and gave people a sense of pride to belong to a guild. Economic activity within guilds was controlled by political powers.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 336.</ref> |
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Incandescent light bulbs are gradually being replaced in many applications by ([[Compact fluorescent lamp|compact]]) [[fluorescent light]]s, [[high-intensity discharge lamp]]s, [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs), and other devices, which give more visible light for the same amount of electrical energy input. Some jurisdictions are attempting to [[Banning of incandescent lightbulbs|ban the use of incandescent lightbulbs]] in favour of more energy-efficient lighting. |
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==Misconceptions== |
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==History of the light bulb== |
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[[Image:Edison Carbon Bulb.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Original carbon-filament bulb from [[Thomas Edison]]]] |
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In addressing the question "Who invented the incandescent lamp?" historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel <ref> Friedel, Robert, and Paul Israel. 1987. ''Edison's electric light: biography of an invention''. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. pages 115-117 </ref> list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to [[Joseph Wilson Swan]] and [[Thomas Edison]]. They conclude that Edison's version was able to outstrip the others because of a combination of factors: an effective [[incandescent]] material, a higher [[vacuum]] than others were able to achieve and a high [[Electrical resistance|resistance]] lamp that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable. |
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Contrary to general assumption, even in the highly segmented world of the Early Modern Period, trading Diasporas did not simply act as middlemen within dominant societies, but also developed durable commercial ties with other merchant groups outside any institutional structure.<ref>Trivellato, Francesca. 2002. “Jews of Leghorn, Italians of Lisbon, and Hindus of Goa. Merchant Networks and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period.” In Commercial Networks in the Early Modern World. Eds. Diogo R. Curto and Anthony Molho. Badia Fiesolana: European University Institute, 89.</ref> Not all workers were equal among guilds; many of them had hierarchies which varied among different regions. “There might be four or five different shoemakers”.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 340.</ref> Being apart of a guild was a great way for people to create compositions; it became a major part of ones identity. It was assumed that guilds declined due to repressed innovations but in all truth guilds declined mainly due to political issues. Political authorities were very much apart of production within guilds and controlled all economic factors involved. The prosperity and commercial success of merchants were both a cause and consequence of their domination of urban politics.<ref>Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, 207.</ref> Guilds are often associated with the medieval times in nature but guilds have been along for a long time; even prior the medieval era. Guilds are often associated with Europe only as well, but in fact guilds were a massive part of the Ottoman Empire too. Guilds within the Ottoman Empire and Europe had both there similarities and differences |
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Another historian, Thomas Hughes, has attributed Edison's success to the fact that he invented an entire, integrated system of electric lighting. "The lamp was a small component in his system of electric lighting, and no more critical to its effective functioning than the Edison Jumbo [[generator]], the Edison main and feeder, and the parallel-distribution system. Other inventors with generators and incandescent lamps, and with comparable ingenuity and excellence, have long been forgotten because their creators did not preside over their introduction in a system of lighting."<ref> Hughes, Thomas P. 1977. Edison's method. In ''Technology at the Turning Point'', edited by W. B. Pickett. San Francisco: San Francisco Press Inc., 5-22. </ref><ref> Hughes, Thomas P. 2004. ''American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm''. 2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press </ref> |
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==Europe== |
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!colspan="2" | Early evolution of the light bulb |
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Metal products created a significant share of the goods handled by European merchants; but there most important commodities were raw and finished cloth.<ref>Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, 202.</ref> Guilds were mainly male dominated but wives and servants still played an important role in production. In some cases woman could even hold formal positions and widows could inherit. Stocking knitting became a common livelihood for the poor in numerous parts of Europe, because it required more or less no capital investment; knitters would use yearn from their own sheep or yarn given by merchants.<ref>Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, 202.</ref> All social classes were allowed, but there still was an evident hierarchy within the guilds. Although, religion was more exclusive; therefore Jews were marginalized. Europe was a very spiritual economy meaning people took care of each other and would help when one another when they could. For example, there were charitable services. Around 1560, Antwerp reached its peak of its success just before the revolt of the Netherlands.<ref>Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, 207.</ref> |
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{{Early evolution of the light bulb}}<ref>{{cite book |
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| title = Edison: a biography |
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| publisher = McGraw Hill |
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| date = 1959}} |
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</ref> |
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==The Ottoman Empire== |
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=== Early pre-commercial research=== |
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In 1802, [[Humphry Davy]] had what was then the most powerful [[Battery (electricity)|electrical battery]] in the world at the [[Royal Institution]] of Great Britain. In that year, he created the first incandescent light by passing the current through a thin strip of [[platinum]], chosen because the metal had an extremely high [[melting point]]. It was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years until [[Thomas Edison]]'s creation of the first commercially practical incandescent lamp in 1879.<ref name=Davis>Davis, L.J. "Fleet Fire." Arcade Publishing, New York, 2003. ISBN 1-55970-655-4</ref> In 1809, Davy also created the first [[arc lamp]] by making a small but blinding electrical connection between two [[carbon]] [[charcoal]] rods connected to a 2000 cell battery; it was demonstrated to the Royal Institution in 1810. |
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In the Ottoman Empire many young woman were hired to unwind cocoon, spin silk threads, and weave.<ref>Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, 203.</ref> Also, there were many woman groups outside of guilds such as cloth makers. Woman would exchange good among each other within female markets. In the late sixteenth century estates of peasant woman living near Konya and owning some jewellery have been stumbled upon, which indicates market links.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 338.</ref> |
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In 1835, [[James Lindsay]] demonstrated a constant electric light at a public meeting in Dundee, Scotland. He stated that he could "read a book at a distance of one and a half feet". However, having perfected the device to his own satisfaction, he turned to the problem of [[wireless telegraphy]] and did not develop the electric light any further. His claims are not well documented. |
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Guilds were a major part of an economy that was very state dominated like the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman dynasty, especially along its seaboards and borderlands opportunities of commerce tended to diversify economies and put together sundry people and ideas.<ref>Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, 171.</ref> The Ottoman society was extremely mixed main due to conquest and immigration; therefore there was a vast number of religion and Jews were very much included. The Ottoman society was a spiritual economy but not as much as Europe. This was mainly because the Ottoman Empire was mixed religiously meaning there were many different religions mixed within guilds. |
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In 1840, British scientist [[Warren de la Rue]] enclosed a [[coil|coiled]] platinum [[filament]] in a [[vacuum]] tube and passed an [[electric]] current through it. The design was based on the concept that the high [[melting point]] of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity. Although an efficient design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title = The History Of The Light Bulb |
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| url = http://www.thehistoryof.net/the-history-of-the-light-bulb.html |
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<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://invsee.asu.edu/Modules/lightbulb/meathist.htm |
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Guilds were an urban phenomenon. The Ottomans had politics as much as commerce in mind when they negotiated and dispersed capitulations.<ref>Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, 176.</ref> The Ottoman- Venetian conflicts led to international commerce booms in Dubrovnik, Florence, Ancona, and Genoa. In the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries Florence, Genoa, and Venice vied for control of Ottoman markets and merchandises.<ref>Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, 187.</ref> Primarily in the north and east, Muslim traders dominated several Ottoman exchanges and some international routes.<ref>Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, 182.</ref> There were links between cities and the countryside; although, direct commercial exchanges were probably the exception rather than the rule.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 338.</ref> The Empire was separated into zones so that civilians were limited to buying only from the source that they had been assigned to.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 339.</ref> |
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In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first [[patent]] for an incandescent lamp, with a design using powdered charcoal heated between two platinum wires contained within a vacuum bulb. |
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==Division of labor== |
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In 1845, American John W. Starr acquired a patent for his incandescent light bulb involving the use of carbon filaments.<ref name=Derry&Williams> {{cite book |
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| first = Trevor Williams |
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| title = A Short History of Technology |
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| publisher = Oxford University Press |
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| date = 1960 }}</ref> |
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He died shortly after obtaining the patent. Aside from the information contained in the patent itself, little else is known about him. |
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In small towns, craft structures might be reasonably simple, for example, with one type or a few types at the most of tailors who made up fabrics into ready to wear clothing; but large cities producers were highly specialized.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 339.</ref> Different guilds often produced similar goods. “Collective workshops were considered more desirable by more substantial craftsmen themselves”.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 340.</ref> This would make collective workshops a suitable means of social control. Every member was monitored very closely; there were influential members but no one completely controlled the productivity of other fellow members.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 341.</ref> Partnerships existed, although it’s unknown how common partnerships occurred. A more modern type of labor division also existed during the Early Modern Period.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 341.</ref> During this time bleachers, twisters, and dyers craftsmen not only owned their own equipment but heir own shops as well. A compound product such as silk may go through the hands of many different craftsmen prior to reaching the consumer.<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 341.</ref> |
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In 1851, [[Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin]] publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois, France. His light bulbs are on permanent display in the museum of the Chateau of Blois. |
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In 1872 [[Alexander Nikolayevich Lodygin|A. N. Lodygin]] invented an incandescent light bulb. In 1874 he obtained a patent for his invention. |
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In a suit filed by rivals seeking to get around Edison's lightbulb patent, German-American inventor [[Heinrich Göbel]] claimed he developed the first light bulb in 1854: a carbonized [[bamboo]] filament, in a vacuum bottle to prevent oxidation, and that in the following five years he developed what many call the first practical light bulb. [[Lewis Latimer]] demonstrated the bulbs that Göbel had purportedly built in the 1850s had actually been built much later, and found the glassblower who had constructed the fraudulent exhibits.<ref name="Fouché">Fouché, Rayvon, ''Black Inventors in the Age of Segregation: Granville T. Woods, Lewis H. Latimer, and Shelby J. Davidson.'') (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore & London, 2003, pp.115-116. ISBN 0-8018-7319-3</ref> In a patent interference suit in 1893, the judge ruled Göbel's claim "extremely improbable." |
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[[Image:carbonfilament.jpg|thumb|Carbon filament lamp (E27 socket, 220 volts, approx. 30 watts, left side: running with 100 volts]] |
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=== Commercialization === |
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[[Joseph Wilson Swan]] (1828–1914) was an English physicist and chemist. In 1850 he began working with carbonized paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860 he was able to demonstrate a working device but the lack of a good vacuum and an adequate supply of electricity resulted in a short lifetime for the bulb and an inefficient source of light. By the mid-1870s better pumps became available, and Swan returned to his experiments. |
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With the help of Charles Stearn, an expert on vacuum pumps, in 1878 Swan developed a method of processing that avoided the early bulb blackening. This received a British Patent No 8 in 1880.<ref>Swan K R Sir Joseph Swan and the Invention of the Incandescent Electric Lamp. 1946 Longmans, Green and Co. Pp 21-25.</ref> On 18th December 1878 a lamp using a slender carbon rod was shown at a meeting of the Newcastle Chemical Society, and Swan gave a working demonstration at their meeting on 17th January 1879. It was also shown to 700 who attended a meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle on 3rd February 1879. These lamps used a carbon rod from an arc lamp rather than a slender filament. Thus they had low resistance and required very large conductors to supply the necessary current, so they were not commercially practical, although they did furnish a demonstration of the possibilities of incandescent lighting with relatively high vacuum, a carbon conductor, and platinum lead-in wires. Besides requiring too much current for a central station electric system to be practical, they had a very short lifetime.<ref>[http://americanhistory.si.edu/lighting/bios/swan.htm] "Lamp Inventors 1880-1940: |
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Carbon Filament Incandescent" Smithsonian National Museum of American History. retrieved February 6, 2008</ref> Swan turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce 'parchmentised thread' and obtained British Patent 4933 in 1880.<ref> Swan K R Sir Joseph Swan and the Invention of the Incandescent Electric Lamp. 1946 Longmans, Green and Co. Pp 21-25.</ref> From this year he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England, and in the early 1880s he had started his company.<ref>R.C. Chirnside. Sir Joseph Wilson Swan FRS - The Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne 1979.</ref> |
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In North America, parallel developments were also taking place. On [[July 24]] [[1874]] a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[patent]] was filed for the Woodward and Evans Light by a [[Toronto]] medical electrician named [[Henry Woodward (inventor)|Henry Woodward]] and a colleague [[Mathew Evans]]. They built their lamps with different sizes and shapes of [[carbon]] rods held between [[electrodes]] in glass cylinders filled with [[nitrogen]]. Woodward and Evans attempted to commercialize their lamp, but were unsuccessful. They ended up selling their patent ({{US patent|0181,613}}) to Thomas Edison in 1879 [http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/summer/scor/articles/scor18.htm]. |
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[[Thomas Edison]] (1847-1931) began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement In Electric Lights" on October 14, 1878 ({{US patent|0214636}}). After many experiments with platinum and other metal filaments, Edison returned to a [[carbon]] filament. The first successful test was on [[October 22]], [[1879]],<ref>Paul Israel, ''Edison: a Life of Invention'', Wiley (1998), page 186.</ref> and lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by Nov 4, 1879, filed for a U.S. patent (granted as {{US patent|0223898}} on Jan 27, 1880) for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected ... to platina contact wires."<ref name=Patent898> {{US patent|0223898}}</ref> Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including using "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways,"<ref name="Patent898"/> it was not until several months after the patent was granted that Edison and his team discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last over 1200 hours. |
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[[Hiram S. Maxim]] started a lightbulb company in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of William Sawyer. His United States Electric Lighting Company was the second company, after Edison, to sell practical incandescent electric lamps. They made their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in [[New York City]] in the fall of 1880, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the steamer Columbia. In October 1880, Maxim patented a method of coating carbon filaments with [[hydrocarbon]]s to extend their life. [[Lewis Latimer]], his employee at the time, developed an improved method of heat-treating them which reduced breakage and allowed them to be molded into novel shapes, such as the characteristic "M" shape of Maxim filaments. On January 17, 1882, Latimer received a patent for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons," an improved method for the production of light bulb filaments which was purchased by the United States Electric Light Company. Latimer patented other improvements such as a better way of attaching filaments to their wire supports.<ref name="Fouché"/> |
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In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the Edison and Swan companies merged into the Edison and Swan United Electric Company (later known as [[Joseph Swan#Ediswan|Ediswan]], which was ultimately incorporated into [[Thorn Lighting Ltd]]). Edison was initially against this combination, but after Swan [[sue]]d him and won, Edison was eventually forced to cooperate, and the merger was made. Eventually, Edison acquired all of Swan's interest in the company. Swan sold his United States patent rights to the [[Brush Electric Company]] in June 1882. Swan later wrote that Edison had a greater claim to the light than he did, in order to protect Edison's patents from claims against them in the [[US]]. |
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[[Image:Light bulb.png|thumb|left|280px|{{US patent|0223898}} by [[Thomas Edison]] for an improved electric lamp, [[January 27]] [[1880]]]] |
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In 1882, the first recorded set of [[Christmas lights|miniature incandescent lamps]] for lighting a [[Christmas tree]] was installed. These did not become common in homes for many years. |
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The [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|United States Patent Office]] gave a ruling [[October 8]], [[1883]], that Edison's patents were based on the prior art of [[William Sawyer]] and were invalid. Litigation continued for a number of years. Eventually on [[October 6]], [[1889]], a judge ruled that Edison's electric light improvement claim for "a filament of carbon of high resistance" was valid. |
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In the 1890s, the Austrian inventor [[Carl Auer von Welsbach]] worked on |
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metal-filament mantles, first with [[platinum]] wiring, and then [[osmium]], and produced an operative version in 1898. |
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In 1897, German physicist and chemist [[Walther Nernst]] developed the [[Nernst lamp]], a form of incandescent lamp that used a ceramic [[globar]] and did not require enclosure in a vacuum or inert gas. Twice as efficient as carbon filament lamps, Nernst lamps were briefly popular until overtaken by lamps using metal filaments. |
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In 1903, Willis Whitnew invented a metal-coated carbon filament that would not blacken the inside of a light bulb. (Some of Edison's experiments to stop this blackening led to the invention of the [[electronics|electronic]] [[vacuum tube]].) On December 13th 1904, Sándor Just and [[Franjo Hannaman|Ferenc Hanaman]] were granted a Hungarian patent (No. 34541) for a [[tungsten]] filament lamp, which lasted longer and gave a brighter light than the carbon filament. Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] company [[Tungsram]] in 1905, so this type is often called Tungsram-bulbs in many European countries.<ref>{{cite web |
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In 1906, the [[General Electric|General Electric Company]] patented a method of making tungsten filaments for use in incandescent light bulbs. |
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[[Sinter]]ed tungsten filaments were costly, but by 1910 [[William David Coolidge]] (1873–1975) had invented an improved method of making tungsten filaments. The tungsten filament outlasted all other types of filaments and Coolidge made the costs practical. |
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In 1913 [[Irving Langmuir]] found that filling a lamp with [[inert gas]] instead of a vacuum resulted in twice the luminous efficacy and reduction of bulb blackening. In 1924, [[Marvin Pipkin]], an American chemist, patented a process for frosting the inside of lamp bulbs without weakening them, and in 1947 he patented a process for coating the inside of lamps with [[silica]]. In 1936, the coiled-coil filament was introduced, which further improved the efficiency of lamps. <ref> ''Incandescent Lamps publication TP-110'', General Electric, Nela Park, 1964 , page 3 </ref> |
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By 1964, improvements in efficiency and production of incandescent lamps had reduced the cost of providing a given quantity of light by a factor of thirty, compared with the cost at introduction of Edison's lighting system <ref> General Electric TP-110 pg. 3 </ref> |
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===Cartels=== |
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{{main|Phoebus cartel}} |
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Between 1924 and 1939 the international market for incandescent light bulbs was controlled by the Phoebus cartel, which dictated wholesale prices and whose members controlled most of the world market for lamps. |
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==Construction== |
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Modern incandescent light bulbs consist of a [[glass]] enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a [[electrical filament|filament]] of [[tungsten]] wire inside the bulb, through which an [[electric current]] is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base which allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without gas/air leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and/or its lead wires. The bulb is filled with an [[inert gas]] such as [[argon]] to reduce [[evaporation]] of the filament. |
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An electrical current of appropriate [[volt]]age and [[ampere]]age, when supplied to the lamp, heats the filament to an extremely high temperature, typically 2000 K to 3300 K (about 3100-5400° F), well below tungsten's melting point of 3695 K (6192° F). Filament temperatures depend on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn. The heated filament emits light that approximates a [[black body|continuous spectrum]]. The useful part of the emitted energy is [[visible light]], but most energy is given off as [[heat]] in the near-[[infrared]] wavelengths. |
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Three-way light bulbs have two filaments and three conducting contacts in their bases. The filaments share a common ground, and can be lit separately or together. Common wattages include 30-70-100, 50-100-150, and 100-200-300, with the first two numbers referring to the individual filaments, and the third giving the combined wattage. |
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While most light bulbs have clear or frosted glass, other kinds are also produced, including the various colors used for [[Christmas tree]] lights and other decorative lighting. [[Neodymium]]-containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more natural-appearing light. |
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#Outline of Glass bulb |
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#Low pressure inert gas (argon, neon, nitrogen) |
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#Tungsten filament |
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#Contact wire (goes out of stem) |
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#Contact wire (goes into stem) |
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#Support wires |
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#Stem (Glass mount) |
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#Contact wire (goes out of stem) |
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#Cap (Sleeve) |
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#Insulation (Vitrite) |
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#Electrical contact |
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Many arrangements of electrical contacts are used. Large lamps may have a screw base (one or more contacts at the tip, one at the shell) or a bayonet base (one or more contacts on the base, shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support). Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a wedge base and wire contacts, and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires. Contacts in the lamp socket allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. Power ratings for incandescent light bulbs range from about 0.1 [[watt]] to about 10,000 watts. |
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To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of coils of fine wire, also known as a 'coiled coil.' For a 60-watt 120-volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually 22.8 inches or 580 mm <ref> General Electric TP-110, page 22</ref>, and the filament diameter is 0.0018 inches (0.045 mm). The advantage of the coiled coil comes from an effect where the evaporation of the tungsten filament behaves as though the filament were made from a solid piece of tunsten cylinder having a diameter equal to the overall diameter of the coiled coil. Such a filament would have a lower surface area than the surface area of the actual filament and thus evaporation is reduced. In practice, the filament is run hotter to bring the evaporation back to the same level. The hotter filament is more efficient. |
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===Reducing filament evaporation=== |
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One of the problems of the standard electric light bulb is evaporation of the filament. Small variations in [[electrical resistivity|resistivity]] along the filament cause "hot spots" to form at points of higher resistivity; a variation of diameter of only 1% will cause a 25% reduction in service life <ref> General Electric TP-110 page 7</ref>. The hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, increasing resistance at that point—a [[positive feedback]] which ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy-looking filament. [[Irving Langmuir]] found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly [[argon]] and some [[nitrogen]],<ref> John Kaufman (ed.), ''IES Lighting Handbook 1981 Reference Volume'', Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 1981 ISBN 0-87995-007-2 page 8-6 </ref> or sometimes [[krypton]]<ref> Burgin. Lighting Research and Technology 1984 16.2 61-72</ref>. [[Xenon]] gas, much more expensive, is used occasionally in small bulbs, such as those for flashlights. Since a filament breaking in a gas-filled bulb can form an [[electric arc]] which may spread between the terminals and draw very heavy current, intentionally thin lead-in wires or more elaborate protection devices are therefore often used as [[fuse (electrical)|fuses]] built into the light bulb. <ref>{{cite web |
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| last = Robert |
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| first = Hunt |
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| title = Glass Blowing for Vacuum Devices - Lamp Autopsy |
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| publisher = Teralab |
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| date = 2001-2006 |
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| url = http://www.teralab.co.uk/Glass_Blowing/Lamp_Autopsy/Lamp_Autopsy_Page1.htm |
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| accessdate = 2007-05-02 }}</ref> |
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More nitrogen is used in higher-voltage lamps to reduce the possibility of arcing. |
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During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more-efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade-off between efficiency and longevity. The trade-off is typically set to provide a lifetime of several hundred to 2,000 hours for lamps used for general illumination. Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps may have a useful life of only a few hours, trading life expectancy for high output in a compact form. Long-life general service lamps have lower efficiency but are used where the cost of changing the lamp is high compared to the value of energy used. |
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In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried in the thermal convection currents of the gas, depositing preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope and blackening just that portion of the envelope. An incandescent lamp which gives 93% or less of its initial light output at 75% of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory, when tested according to IEC Publication 60064. Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening. <ref> IEC 60064 Tungsten filament lamps for domestic and similar general lighting purposes. </ref> |
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''Filament notching'' describes another phenomenon that limits the life of lamps. Lamps operated on direct current develop random stair-step irregularities on the filament surface, reducing the cross section and further increasing heat and evaporation of tungsten at these points. In small lamps operated on direct current, lifespan may be cut in half compared to AC operation. Different alloys of tungsten and [[rhenium]] can be used to counteract the effect.<ref>[http://www.toshiba-lighting.com/servlet/ShowInfoSR?M=S97SFR11RFK1KFL1LF Toshiba Lighting Products Miniature Lamp Characteristics], retrieved 2008 March 23 </ref><ref> John Kaufman (ed.), ''IES Lighting Handbook 1981 Reference Volume'', Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 1981 ISBN 0-87995-007-2 page 8-9 </ref> |
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A very small amount of water vapor inside a light bulb can significantly affect lamp darkening. Water vapor dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen at the hot filament. The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp. Hydrogen from water vapor reduces the oxide, reforming water vapor and continuing this ''water cycle''. The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps will significantly increase darkening.<ref>General Electric manual TP 110</ref> |
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Some old, high-powered lamps used in theater, projection, searchlight, and lighthouse service with heavy, sturdy filaments contained loose tungsten powder within the envelope. From time to time, the operator would remove the bulb and shake it, allowing the tungsten powder to scrub off most of the tungsten that had condensed on the interior of the envelope, removing the blackening and brightening the lamp again.<ref>John Kaufman (ed.), ''IES Lighting Handbook 1981 Reference Volume'', Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 1981 ISBN 0-87995-007-2 page 8-10</ref> |
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If a light bulb envelope leaks, the hot tungsten filament reacts with air, yielding an aerosol of brown [[tungsten nitride]], brown [[tungsten dioxide]], violet-blue [[tungsten pentoxide]], and yellow [[tungsten trioxide]] which then deposits on the nearby surfaces or the bulb interior.<ref>{{cite web |
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| last = Hochgraf |
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| first = Fredrick G. |
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| title = Review of Lamp Examination for ON or OFF in Traffic Accidents |
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| publisher = Northwestern University Traffic Institute |
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| date = 1985 |
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| url = http://mfes.com/lamps.htm |
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| accessdate = 2007-05-02 }}</ref> |
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The glass bulb of a general service lamp can reach temperatures between 400 and 550 degrees Fahrenheit (200 to 260 degrees Celsius). Lamps intended for high power operation or used for heating purposes will have envelopes made of hard glass or fused quartz.<ref> General Electric TP-110 page 26</ref> |
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===Halogen lamps=== |
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[[Image:Tungsten filament in halogen lamp.JPG|thumb|Close-up of a tungsten filament inside a halogen lamp. The two ring-shaped structures left and right are filament supports.]] |
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The [[halogen lamp]] reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a [[halogen]] gas at low pressure, rather than an inert gas. These lamps can operate at a higher filament temperature without unacceptable loss of life, giving them a higher luminous efficiency. |
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===Incandescent arc lamps=== |
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A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a heated filament of wire to produce light but instead used an arc struck between bead-shaped electrodes to produce heat; the electrodes then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for scientific instruments. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start ionization within the envelope. They provided the intense concentrated light of an [[arc lamp]] but were easier to operate. Developed around 1915, these lamps were displaced by mercury and xenon arc lamps. <ref> http://www.lamptech.co.uk/Miscellaneous.htm Incandescent arc lamps retrieved June 16, 2008 </ref> |
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==Electrical characteristics== |
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Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a [[power factor]] of 1. This means the actual power consumed (in [[watts]]) and the apparent power (in [[volt-ampere]]s) are equal. The actual resistance of the filament is temperature-dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the hot-filament resistance when the lamp is operating. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp has a resistance of 144 [[ohms]] when lit, but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms) <ref> General Electric TP-110 page 24 </ref> <ref> Edison's research team was aware of the large negative temperature coefficient of resistance of possible lamp filament materials and worked extensively during the period 1878-1879 on devising an automatic regulator or ''ballast'' to stabilize current. It wasn't until 1879 that it was realized a self-limiting lamp could be built. See Friedel and Israel ''Edison's Electric Light'' pages 29-31 </ref>. Since incandescent lamps are resistive loads, simple [[thyristor|triac]] dimmers can be used to control brightness. Electrical contacts may carry a "T" rating symbol indicating that they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100-watt, 120 volt general-service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and the lamp reaches 90% of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds. <ref> General Electric TP-110 page 23, 24</ref> |
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===Power=== |
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{| class="wikitable" | align="right" |
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|+ Comparison of efficacy by power (120 Volt lamps) |
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!Power ([[Watt|W]])||Output ([[lumen (unit)|lm]])||Efficacy (lm/W) |
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|- |
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|5 |
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|25 |
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|5 |
|||
|- |
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|15 |
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|110 |
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|7.3 |
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|- |
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|25 |
|||
|200 |
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|8.0 |
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|- |
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|35 |
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|350 |
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|10.0 |
|||
|- |
|||
|40 |
|||
|500 |
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|12.5 |
|||
|- |
|||
|50 |
|||
|700 |
|||
|14.0 |
|||
|- |
|||
|55 |
|||
|800 |
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|14.5 |
|||
|- |
|||
|60 |
|||
|850 |
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|14.2 |
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|- |
|||
|65 |
|||
|1000 |
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|15.4 |
|||
|- |
|||
|70 |
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|1100 |
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|15.7 |
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|- |
|||
|75 |
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|1200 |
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|16.0 |
|||
|- |
|||
|90 |
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|1450 |
|||
|16.1 |
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|- |
|||
|95 |
|||
|1600 |
|||
|16.8 |
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|- |
|||
|100 |
|||
|1700 |
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|17.0 |
|||
|- |
|||
|135 |
|||
|2350 |
|||
|17.4 |
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|- |
|||
|150 |
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|2850 |
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|19.0 |
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|- |
|||
|200 |
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|3900 |
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|19.5 |
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|- |
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|300 |
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|6200 |
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|20.7 |
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|} |
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Incandescent light bulbs are usually [[marketing|marketed]] according to the [[electric power|electrical power]] consumed. This is measured in [[watt]]s and depends mainly on the [[electrical resistance|resistance]] of the filament, which in turn depends mainly on the filament's length, thickness, and material. For two bulbs of the same voltage, type, color, and clarity, the higher-powered bulb gives more light. |
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The table shows the approximate typical output, in lumens, of standard incandescent light bulbs at various powers. Note that the lumen values for "soft white" bulbs will generally be slightly lower than for standard bulbs at the same power, while clear bulbs will usually emit a slightly brighter light than correspondingly-powered standard bulbs. |
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===Comparison of electricity cost=== |
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The [[watt-hour|kilowatt-hour]] is the usual unit of electrical energy purchase. The cost of electricity in the United States normally ranges from $0.06 to $0.18 per kilowatt-hour (kWh), but can be as high as $0.23 per kWh in certain areas such as [[Hawaii]]. |
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As for any other electrical appliance, the hourly cost of operation can be calculated by multiplying the input in watts by the cost per kilowatt-hour and dividing by 1000; for example, a 100-watt lamp operated on electricity that costs 10 cents per kilowatt-hour will cost 100 * 10/1000 = 1 cent per hour to operate. |
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The desired product of any electric lighting system is illumination (lumens), not power. To compare incandescent lamp operating cost with other light sources, the calculation must also consider the lumens produced by each lamp. For commercial and industrial lighting systems the comparison must also include the required illumination level, effectiveness of the lighting fixtures, the capital cost of the lamp, the labor cost to replace lamps, the various depreciation factors for light output as the lamp ages, effect of lamp operation on heating and air conditioning systems, as well as the energy consumption. |
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Overall cost of lighting must also take into account light lost within the lamp holder fixture; internal reflectors and updated design of lighting fixtures can improve the amount of usable light delivered. Since human vision adapts to a wide range of light levels, a 10% or 20% decrease in lumens may still provide acceptable illumination, especially if the changeover is accompanied by cleaning of lighting equipment or improvements in fixtures. |
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==Physical characteristics== |
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=== Bulb shapes, sizes, and terms === |
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Incandescent light bulbs come in a range of shapes and sizes. |
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The names of the shapes may be slightly different in some regions. |
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Many of these shapes have a designation consisting of one or more letters followed by one or more numbers, e.g. A55 or PAR38. The letters represent the shape of the bulb. The numbers represent the maximum diameter, either in eights of an inch, or in milimetres, depending on the shape and the region. For example, in Europe, Australia and elsewhere, 63mm reflectors are known as R63, whereas in the US they are known as R20 (2.5 inches). However, in both regions, a PAR38 reflector is known as PAR38. |
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These designations may also apply to non-incandescent lamps, such as [[compact fluorescent lamp]]s or [[LED]]s. |
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Common shapes: |
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;General Service |
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:Light emitted in (nearly) all directions. Available in either clear or frosted. |
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:Types: General (A), Mushroom |
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;High Wattage General Service |
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:Lamps greater than 200 watts. |
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:Types: Pear-shaped (PS) |
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;Decorative |
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:lamps used in chandeliers, etc. |
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:Types: Candle (B), Twisted Candle, Bent-tip Candle (CA & BA), Flame (F), Fancy Round (P), Globe (G) |
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;Reflector (R): Reflective coating inside the bulb directs light forward. Flood types (FL) spread light. Spot types (SP) concentrate the light. Reflector (R) bulbs put approximately double the amount of light (foot-candles) on the front central area as General Service (A) of same wattage. |
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:Types: Standard Reflector (R), Elliptical Reflector (ER), Crown Silvered |
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;Parabolic Aluminized Reflector (PAR): Parabolic Aluminized Reflector (PAR) bulbs control light more precisely. They produce about four times the concentrated light intensity of General Service (A), and are used in recessed and track lighting. Weatherproof casings are available for outdoor spot and flood fixtures. |
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:120V Sizes:PAR 16, 20, 30 and 38 |
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:230V Sizes:Par 38 & 56 |
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:Available in numerous spot and flood beam spreads. Like all light bulbs, the number represents the diameter of the bulb in 1/8s of an inch. Therefore, a PAR 16 is 2" in diameter, a PAR 20 is 2.5" in diameter, PAR 30 is 3.75" and a PAR 38 is 4.75" in diameter. |
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;Multifaceted Reflector (MR) |
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;HIR: "HIR" means that the bulb has a special coating that reflects infrared back onto the filament. Therefore, less heat escapes, so the filament burns hotter and more efficiently.<ref>[http://www.gelighting.com/na/business_lighting/education_resources/glossary.htm Lighting Glossary]</ref> |
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===Lamp bases=== |
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[[Image:Gluehlampe 01 KMJ.png|right|thumb|100px|A light bulb with a standard E27 Edison screw base]] |
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[[Image:BCincandescentlamp.jpg|right|thumb|100px|The double-contact bayonet cap on an incandescent bulb]] |
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Most domestic and industrial light bulbs have a metal fitting (or lamp base) compatible with standard sockets. The lamp base must carry current to the lamp, provide physical support, and resist heat. Lamp bases may be secured to the bulb with a cement, or by mechanical crimping to indentations molded into the glass bulb. Some miniature lamps have no metal bases at all and have only wire leads molded into the bulb. [[General Electric]] introduced standard base sizes for tungsten incandescent lamps under the [[Mazda (light bulb)|Mazda]] trademark in 1909. This standard was soon adopted across the United States, and the Mazda name was used by many manufacturers under license through 1945. |
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====Screw thread==== |
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{{main|Edison screw}} |
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In each designation, the E stands for Edison, who created the screw-base lamp, and the number is the [[diameter]] of the screw base in millimeters. (This is even true in North America, where designations for the bulb glass diameter are in eighths of an [[inch]].) There are four common sizes of screw-in sockets used for line-voltage lamps: |
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*[[candelabra]]: E12 North America, E10 & E11 in Europe |
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*intermediate: E17 North America, E14 (SmallES) in Europe |
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*medium or standard: E26 (MES) in North America, E27 (ES) in Europe |
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*mogul: E39 North America, E40 (GoliathES) in Europe. |
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Other screw thread sizes include: |
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*"admedium" size (E29), larger than common lamp sockets, intended to frustrate thieves of bulbs used in public places; |
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* miniature size (E5) generally used only for low-voltage applications such as with a [[battery (electricity)|battery]]. |
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The largest size E39 is used on large [[street light]]s, and high-wattage lamps (such as a 100/200/300- Watt three-way) and many non-incandescent high-intensity discharge bulbs. Medium Edison screw (MES) bulbs for 12 V are also produced for [[recreational vehicle]]s. Large outdoor Christmas lights use an intermediate base, as do some desk lamps and many [[microwave oven]]s. Formerly [[Emergency exit]] signs also tended to use the intermediate base (but US and Canadian rules now require more energy-efficient lamps). A medium screw base should not carry more than 25 amperes current; this may limit the practical rating of low-voltage lamps. <ref> General Electric TP 110 page 12 </ref> |
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Screw bases suffer from the disadvantage that as they only have a single central contact, the metal screw itself forms one of the contacts for the circuit. If the lighting system is not correctly designed or wired, the metal screw can become live presenting a hazard to anyone attempting to change the bulb. |
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====Bayonet==== |
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Bulbs with a bayonet (push-twist) base for use with sockets having spring-loaded base plates, are produced in similar sizes and are given a B, BA or BY designation. These are common in 12-volt [[automobile lighting]] worldwide. |
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BC or B22 or B22d or double-contact [[Bayonet mount|bayonet cap]] light bulbs are used for most 220–240 V mains lamps in the [[UK]], [[Ireland]], [[Cyprus]], [[Australia]], [[India]], [[New Zealand]], and various other parts of the [[British Commonwealth]] (but not [[Canada]]). A smaller version, the B15 or SBC, is sometimes used for candle bulbs for chandeliers. A miniature bayonet is used in North America for appliances such as [[sewing machine]]s and [[vacuum cleaner]]s. |
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<br /> |
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<br />These are the available sizes in the UK:<ref>see http://technical.greenstock.co.uk/KYBLampBases.htm</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|- |
|||
! designation |
|||
! alternative designation |
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! dimension, etc. |
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|- |
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| Ba5s |
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| |
|||
| 5 mm |
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|- |
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| Ba7s |
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| |
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| 7 mm |
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|- |
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| Bax9s |
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| |
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| 9 mm |
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|- |
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| Ba9s |
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| MBC |
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| 9 mm Miniature Bayonet Cap |
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|- |
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| Ba15d |
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| SBC |
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| 15 mm Small Bayonet Cap |
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|- |
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| Bax15s |
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| |
|||
| 15 mm |
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|- |
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| Ba15s |
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| SCC |
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| 15 mm Single Centre Contact |
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|- |
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| Ba20s |
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| |
|||
| 20 mm |
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|- |
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| Ba20d |
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| |
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| 20 mm |
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|- |
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| Ba21d |
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| |
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| 21 mm |
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|- |
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| B21-4 |
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| |
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| 21 mm 4 Pin |
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|- |
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| Ba22d |
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| BC |
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| 22 mm Bayonet Cap |
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|- |
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| BC-3 |
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| BC3 |
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| 22 mm Bayonet Cap 3 Pin |
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|- |
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| B22d-3 |
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| |
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| 22 mm Double Ended (Railway) |
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|- |
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| Bx22d |
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| |
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| 22 mm |
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|} |
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Of these, only the BC (Ba22d) is commonly sold in supermarkets. |
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====Pin base==== |
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{{main|bipin}} |
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A pin base has two contact pins on the underside of the bulb. These are given a G or GY designation, with the number being the center-to-center distance in millimeters. For example, a 4 mm pin base would be indicated as G4 (or GY4). Some common sizes include G4 (4 mm), G6.35 (6.35 mm), G8 (8 mm), GY8.6 (8.6 mm), G9 (9 mm), and GY9.5 (9.5 mm). The second letter (or lack thereof) indicates pin diameter. Some [[Stage lighting instrument#Spotlights|spotlights]] or [[Stage lighting instrument#Floodlights|floodlights]] have pins that are broader at the tips, in order to lock into a socket with a twist. Other lamps come in a tube, with blades or dimples at either end. |
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====Special lamp bases==== |
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Miniature lamps used for some automotive lamps or decorative lamps have [[wedge]]-bases which have a partial plastic or even completely glass base. In this case, the wires wrap around to the outside of the bulb, where they press against the contacts in the socket. Miniature Christmas bulbs use a plastic wedge base as well. |
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There are also special bases for [[projector]]s and [[stage lighting instrument]]s. Projector lamps<ref name="PartStore">[http://www.partstore.com/MiniSites/ProjectorLamps/DefaultInfo.aspx The Basics About Projector Lamps]. Published by [[PartStore]], accessed on June 29, 2007.</ref>, in particular, may run on unusual voltages (such as 82), perhaps intended as a [[vendor lock-in]] or to optimize light output for a particular optical system{{Fact|date=August 2008}}. |
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Lamps intended for use in optical systems (such as film projectors, microscope illuminators, or theatrical lighting instruments) have bases with alignment features so that the filament is positioned accurately within the optical system. A screw-base lamp may have a random orientation of the filament when the lamp is installed in the socket. |
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Tubular lamps such as R7S-75 for halogen lamp tubes, in this case a 7 mm diameter socket with 75 mm tube length.<ref>{{cite web|title=butiken.su.se Stockholms universitet|url=http://www.butiken.su.se/katalog.php?kat=6}}"MT0414 Lampa, halogen, 300W, R7s-15 Haloline" / see picture</ref> |
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==Voltage, light output, and lifetime== |
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{{Seealso|Lamp rerating}} |
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Incandescent lamps are very sensitive to changes in the supply voltage. These characteristics are of great practical and economic importance. |
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For a supply voltage ''V'', |
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*''Light'' output is approximately proportional to ''V''<sup> 3.4</sup> |
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*''Power'' consumption is approximately proportional to ''V''<sup> 1.6</sup> |
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*''Lifetime'' is approximately proportional to ''V''<sup> −16</sup> |
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*''Color temperature'' is approximately proportional to ''V''<sup> 0.42</sup> <ref> Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne Beaty, ''Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition'',McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978, ISBN 0-07020974-X, pg 22-8 </ref> |
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This means that a 5% reduction in operating voltage will more than double the life of the bulb, at the expense of reducing its light output by about 20%. This may be a very acceptable trade off for a light bulb that is in a difficult-to-access location (for example, traffic lights or fixtures hung from high ceilings). So-called "long-life" bulbs are simply bulbs that take advantage of this tradeoff. Since the value of the electric power they consume is much more than the value of the lamp, general service lamps for illumination usually emphasize efficiency over long operating life; the objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps. <ref> General Electric TP-110, page 20 </ref> |
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The relationships above are valid for only a few percent change of voltage around rated conditions, but they do indicate that a lamp operated at much lower than rated voltage could last for hundreds of times longer than at rated conditions, albeit with greatly reduced light output. The ''[[Centennial Light]]'' is a light bulb which is accepted by the ''[[Guinness Book of World Records]]'' as having been burning almost continuously at a [[fire station]] in [[Livermore, California]], since 1901. However, the bulb is powered by only 4 watts. A similar story can be told of a 40-watt bulb in [[Texas]] which has been illuminated since [[September 21]], [[1908]]. It once resided in an [[opera house]] where notable celebrities stopped to take in its glow, but is now in an area [[museum]].<ref>[http://www.homelighting.com/article.cfm?intarticleID=880 Magazine Online<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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In flood lamps used for [[photography|photographic]] lighting, the tradeoff is made in the other direction. Compared to general-service bulbs, for the same power, these bulbs produce far more light, and (more importantly) light at a higher color temperature, at the expense of greatly reduced life (which may be as short as 2 hours for a type P1 lamp). The upper limit to the temperature at which metal incandescent bulbs can operate is the [[melting point]] of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, 3695 K (6192° F). A 50-hour-life projection bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only 50 [[Celsius|°C]] (90 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]) below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens/watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750-hour general service lamp. <ref> General Electric TP-110, page 19 </ref> |
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Lamps designed for different voltages have different luminous efficacy. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp will produce about 17.1 lumens per watt. A lamp with the same rated lifetime but designed for 230 V would produce only around 12.8 lumens/watt, and a similar lamp designed for 30 volts (train lighting) would produce as much as 19.8 lumens/watt. <ref> General Elecric TP 110 pg. 19 </ref> This comes about because the lower voltage lamps have a correspondingly thicker filament which has a smaller surface area than its thinner higher-voltage counterpart. The smaller surface area reduces the rate at which the filament evaporates which allows the filament to be run hotter for the same life.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} |
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Lamps also vary in the number of support wires used for the tungsten filament. Each additional support wire makes the filament mechanically stronger, but removes heat from the filament, creating another tradeoff between efficiency and long life. Many modern general-service 120-volt lamps use no additional support wires, but lamps designed for "rough service" often have several support wires and lamps designed for "vibration service" may have as many as five. Lamps designed for low voltages (for example, 12 volts) generally have filaments made of much heavier wire and do not require any additional support wires. |
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Very low voltages are inefficient since the lead wires would conduct too much heat away from the filament, so the practical lower limit for incandescent lamps is 1.5 volts. Very long filaments for high voltages are fragile, and lamp bases become more difficult to insulate, so lamps for illumination are not made with rated voltages over 300 V. <ref> General Electric TP 110 </ref> Some infrared heating elements are made for higher voltages, but these use tubular bulbs with widely-separated terminals. |
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== Luminous efficacy and efficiency == |
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Approximately 90% of the power consumed by an incandescent light bulb is emitted as [[heat]], rather than as visible [[light]].<ref> General Electric TP-110, page 23, table. </ref> |
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[[Luminous efficacy]] is a ratio of the visible light energy emitted ( the ''luminous flux'') to the total power input to the lamp. It is measured in [[lumen (unit)|lumen]]s per [[watt]] (lm/W). The maximum efficacy possible is 683 lm/W for monochromatic green light at 555 nanometres wavelength, the peak sensitivity of the human eye. For white light, the maximum luminous efficacy is around 240 lumens/watt. Luminous ''efficiency'' is the ratio of the luminous ''efficacy'' to this maximum possible value. It is expressed as a number between 0 and 1, or as a percentage.<ref>http://www.iupac.org/publications/analytical_compendium/Cha10sec21.pdf</ref> However, the term ''luminous efficiency'' is often used for both quantities. Two related measures are the ''overall luminous efficacy'' and ''overall luminous efficiency'', which divide by the total power input rather than the total radiant flux. This takes into account more ways that energy might be wasted and so they are never greater than the standard luminous efficacy and efficiency. The term "luminous efficiency" is often misused, and in practice can refer to any of these four measures. |
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The chart below lists values of overall luminous efficacy and efficiency for several types of general service, 120 volt, 1000-hour lifespan incandescent bulb, and several idealized light sources. A similar chart in the article on [[Luminous efficacy#Overall luminous efficacy|luminous efficacy]] compares a broader array of light sources to one another. |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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!Type||Overall luminous efficiency||Overall luminous efficacy (lm/W) |
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|- |
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|40 W tungsten incandescent |
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|1.9% |
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|12.6<ref name="incandescent">{{cite web | title=The Nature of Light| last=Keefe| first=T.J.| year=2007| url=http://www.ccri.edu/physics/keefe/light.htm | accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> |
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|- |
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|60 W tungsten incandescent |
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|2.1% |
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|14.5<ref name="incandescent"/> |
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|- |
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|100 W tungsten incandescent |
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|2.6% |
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|17.5<ref name="incandescent"/> |
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|- |
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|glass halogen |
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|2.3% |
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|16 |
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|- |
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|quartz halogen |
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|3.5% |
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|24 |
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|- |
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|high-temperature incandescent |
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|5.1% |
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|35<ref name="bulbguide">{{cite web | author=Klipstein, Donald L.| year=1996 | title=The Great Internet Light Bulb Book, Part I | url=http://freespace.virgin.net/tom.baldwin/bulbguide.html | accessdate=2006-04-16}}</ref> |
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|- |
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|ideal [[black-body]] radiator at 4000 K |
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|7.0% |
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|47.5<ref name="blackbody">[[:De:Bild:Blackbodyvisiblerp.png|Black body visible spectrum]]</ref> |
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|- |
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|ideal black-body radiator at 7000 K |
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|14% |
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|95<ref name="blackbody"/> |
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|- |
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|ideal white light source |
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|35.5% |
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|242.5<ref name="bulbguide"/> |
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|- |
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|ideal monochromatic 555 nm (green) source |
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|100% |
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|683<ref name="luminosity">See [[luminosity function]].</ref> |
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|} |
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A 100-watt, 120-volt bulb produces 17.5 lm/W, compared to a theoretical "ideal" of 242.5 lm/W for white light. Unfortunately, tungsten filaments radiate mostly infrared radiation at temperatures where they remain [[solid]] (below 3683 [[kelvin]]s). Donald L. Klipstein explains it this way: "An ideal thermal radiator produces visible light most efficiently at temperatures around 6300 °C (6600 K or 11 500 °F). Even at this high temperature, a lot of the radiation is either infrared or ultraviolet, and the theoretical luminous efficiency is 95 lumens per watt."<ref name="bulbguide"/> No known material can be used as a filament at this ideal temperature, which is hotter than the sun's surface. The spectrum emitted by a [[blackbody]] radiator does not match the sensitivity characteristics of the human eye. An upper limit for incandescent lamp luminous efficacy is around 52 lumens per watt, the theoretical value emitted by tungsten at its melting point. <ref> General Electric TP-110 page 19 </ref> |
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For a given quantity of light, an incandescent light bulb produces more heat (and consumes more power) than a [[fluorescent lamp]]. Incandescent lamps' heat output increases load on [[air conditioning]] in the summer, but the heat from lighting can contribute to building heating in cold weather. <ref>Prof. Peter Lund, Helsinki University of Technology,[http://www.tkk.fi/Units/AES/staff/lund.htm] on p. C5 in [[Helsingin Sanomat]] Oct. 23, 2007.</ref> |
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Quality [[halogen lamp|halogen incandescent lamps]] have higher efficacy, which will allow a 60 W bulb to provide nearly as much light as a non-halogen 100 W. Also, a lower-wattage halogen lamp can be designed to produce the same amount of light as a 60 W non-halogen lamp, but with much longer life. |
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Alternatives to standard incandescent lamps for general lighting purposes include: |
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*[[Fluorescent lamp]]s, and [[Compact fluorescent lamp]]s |
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*[[High-intensity discharge lamp]]s |
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*[[LED lamps]] |
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None of these devices rely on incandescence to produce light. Instead, all these devices produce light by the transition of electrons from one energy level to another. These mechanisms produce discrete [[spectral line]]s and so are not associated with the broad "tail" of invisible infrared emissions produced by incandescent emitters, which is energy not usable for illumination. By careful selection of which electron energy level transitions are used, the spectrum emitted can be tuned to either mimic the appearance of incandescent sources or else produce different [[color temperature]]s of white for visible light. |
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== Laws and regulations to discontinue use == |
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{{main|Banning of incandescent lightbulbs}} |
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Due to the higher energy usage of incandescent light bulbs in comparison to more energy efficient alternatives, such as [[compact fluorescent lamp]]s and [[LED lamp]]s, some governments have passed laws and regulations that have started to phase out their usage. [[Brazil]] and [[Venezuela]] started to phase them out in 2005, and other nations are planning scheduled phase-outs: [[Ireland]] in 2009, [[Australia]] in 2010, [[Italy]] in 2011, [[Canada]] in 2012, and the [[U.S.]] between 2012 and 2014. Most of these laws and regulations do not ban the usage of incandescents, but rather ban their sale (with minor exceptions). |
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===Efforts to improve efficiency=== |
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Various efforts to improve the efficiency of incandescent lamps have been made recently, due to legislation and other movements to [[Banning of incandescent lightbulbs|ban incandescent lamps]]. The consumer lighting division of [[General Electric]] has announced that they are working on what they have dubbed "high efficiency incandescent" (HEI) lamps, which are ultimately expected to be four times as efficient as current incandescent lamps, although their initial production goal is to be 30 lumens per watt, or twice as efficient. <ref>{{Citation | last = Daley | first = Dan | title = Incandescent's Not-So-Dim Future | newspaper = Projection Lights and Staging News (PLSN) | volume = 09 | issue = 1 | pages = 46 | publisher = Timeless Communications Corp. | year = 2008 |date=February 2008}}</ref><ref>[http://www.businesswire.com/portal/site/ge/index.jsp?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20070223005120 GE Announces Advancement in Incandescent Technology; New High-Efficiency Lamps Targeted for Market by 2010]</ref> |
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In 2006, David Cunningham, who has produced many innovations in [[Stage lighting|entertainment lighting]], filed for a US Patent for a lamp using an infrared reflector. <ref>{{Citation | last = Cunningham | first = David | title = Incandescent lamp incorporating extended high-reflectivity IR coating and lighting fixture incorporating such an incandescent lamp (United States Patent 20060226777) | year = 2006}}</ref> |
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The US Department of Energy is also currently developing a filament lamp at [[Sandia National Laboratories]] with improved efficiency from 5% to 60%.<ref>{{Citation | title = Proposed Bulb Ban Causes Chain Reaction | newspaper = Projection Lights and Staging News (PLSN) Online | year = 2008 | date = January 2008 | url = http://www.plsn.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1606&Itemid=41}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Daley | first = Dan | title = Incandescent's Not-So-Dim Future | newspaper = Projection Lights and Staging News (PLSN) | volume = 09 | issue = 1 | pages = 46 | publisher = Timeless Communications Corp. | year = 2008 |date=February 2008}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{portal|Energy}} |
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<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> |
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* [[ |
* [[Diaspora]] |
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* [[Guild]] |
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* [[Flash (photography)]] and discussion of flashbulbs |
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* [[ |
* [[Journeyman]] |
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* [[ |
* [[Masterpiece]] |
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* [[ |
* [[Trade union]] |
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* [[Light-emitting diode]] (LED) |
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* [[Light fixture]] |
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* [[LED lamp]] |
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* [[List of light sources]] |
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* [[Luminous efficacy]] |
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* [[MR16]] (a popular style of halogen lamp) |
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* [[Over-illumination]] |
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* [[Photometry (optics)]] Main Photometry/Radiometry article - explains technical terms |
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* [[Spectrometer]] |
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* [[Thomas Edison]] |
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</div> |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{ |
{{reflist}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Commonscat|Incandescent light bulbs}} |
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* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/light-bulb2.htm Howstuffworks - "How Light Bulbs Work"] |
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* [http://www.graphics.cornell.edu/online/measurements/source-spectra/index.html Light Source Spectra] 60W-100W Incandescent light bulb spectra |
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* [http://bulbster.com/lightbulbs/singleended-halogen-c-783_43230.html Light Bulb Base Identification] |
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* [http://www.thelightbulb.co.uk/faq_bases.php Light Bulbs - Lamps and Tubes - Lamp Bases Explained] |
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* [http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/bulbexperiment.html The Perfection of the Electric Light Bulb] - background and experiment |
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* [http://www.servicelighting.com/home_color_temperature_selector.cfm Light Bulb Color Temperature Selector] |
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* [http://www.servicelighting.com/catalog_bulb_finder_bbt_incandescent.cfm Incandescent Light Bulb's Bulb and Base Types Explained] |
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==Further reading== |
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{{ArtificialLightSources}} |
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* Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, pp. 336-55. |
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* Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, pp. 169-88. |
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* Trivellato, Francesca. 2002. “Jews of Leghorn, Italians of Lisbon, and Hindus of Goa. Merchant Networks and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period.” In Commercial Networks in the Early Modern World. Eds. Diogo R. Curto and Anthony Molho. Badia Fiesolana: European University Institute, pp. 74-89. |
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* Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, pp. 202- 14; pp. 418- 23. |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:History of Turkey]] |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:Turkish words and phrases]] |
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[[Category:Thomas Edison]] |
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[[Category:Discovery and invention controversies]] |
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[[Category:Recyclable materials]] |
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[[sq:Esnafi]] |
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<!-- interwiki --> |
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[[ur:برقی قمقمہ]] |
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[[bs:Sijalica]] |
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[[bg:Лампа с нажежаема жичка]] |
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[[ca:Bombeta elèctrica]] |
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[[cs:Žárovka]] |
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[[da:Glødelampe]] |
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[[de:Glühlampe]] |
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[[et:Hõõglamp]] |
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[[el:Λαμπτήρας]] |
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[[es:Lámpara incandescente]] |
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[[eo:Ampolo]] |
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[[eu:Bonbilla]] |
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[[fr:Lampe à incandescence classique]] |
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[[fy:Gloeilampe]] |
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[[gd:Bolgan (innleachd)]] |
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[[ko:백열등]] |
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[[id:Lampu pijar]] |
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[[is:Ljósapera]] |
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[[it:Lampadina]] |
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[[he:נורה חשמלית]] |
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[[ka:ნათურა]] |
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[[lv:Kvēlspuldze]] |
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[[lt:Kaitrinė lemputė]] |
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[[hu:Izzólámpa]] |
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[[ms:Mentol lampu]] |
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[[nl:Gloeilamp]] |
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[[ja:電球]] |
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[[no:Glødelampe]] |
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[[nn:Glødelampe]] |
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[[pl:Żarówka]] |
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[[pt:Lâmpada incandescente]] |
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[[ksh:Bier (en de Lamp)]] |
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[[ru:Лампа накаливания]] |
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[[simple:Lightbulb]] |
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[[sk:Žiarovka]] |
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[[fi:Hehkulamppu]] |
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[[szl:Byrna]] |
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[[sv:Glödlampa]] |
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[[ta:வெள்ளொளிர்வு விளக்கு]] |
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[[tr:Ampul]] |
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[[zh:電燈泡]] |
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Revision as of 19:07, 11 October 2008
 | This article has an unclear citation style. |
Esnaf is a Turkish word which means “guild” or “corporation”. During the Early Modern Period belonging to a guild gave people a voice and was an important part of ones identity. Handicraft producers were linked to one another by a range of social, political, and economic ties.[1] Guilds varied among societies, social class, and genders. There were many misconceptions, differences, as well as similarities between Europe and the Ottoman Empire. There were hierarchies within guilds; sometimes they shared tools, worked together, or worked alone.
History
In the Early Modern Period, collective identity was mainly established by normative framework, but was also a result of the process of interaction itself, and could be manipulated according to the circumstances.[2] During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Islamic state created a system, based upon an open- minded interpretation of Islam’s attitude toward rival monotheists that allowed inclusion for the Christians and Jews who populated the conquered lands of Anatolia and the Balkans.[3] The uprising of Istanbul in 1651 was a successful protest against dominant authority. The people marched on the palace and got a powerful religious leader on their side in order to get the vizier to step down. They made their voices heard as a group within their guild, and gave people a sense of pride to belong to a guild. Economic activity within guilds was controlled by political powers.[4]
Misconceptions
Contrary to general assumption, even in the highly segmented world of the Early Modern Period, trading Diasporas did not simply act as middlemen within dominant societies, but also developed durable commercial ties with other merchant groups outside any institutional structure.[5] Not all workers were equal among guilds; many of them had hierarchies which varied among different regions. “There might be four or five different shoemakers”.[6] Being apart of a guild was a great way for people to create compositions; it became a major part of ones identity. It was assumed that guilds declined due to repressed innovations but in all truth guilds declined mainly due to political issues. Political authorities were very much apart of production within guilds and controlled all economic factors involved. The prosperity and commercial success of merchants were both a cause and consequence of their domination of urban politics.[7] Guilds are often associated with the medieval times in nature but guilds have been along for a long time; even prior the medieval era. Guilds are often associated with Europe only as well, but in fact guilds were a massive part of the Ottoman Empire too. Guilds within the Ottoman Empire and Europe had both there similarities and differences
Europe
Metal products created a significant share of the goods handled by European merchants; but there most important commodities were raw and finished cloth.[8] Guilds were mainly male dominated but wives and servants still played an important role in production. In some cases woman could even hold formal positions and widows could inherit. Stocking knitting became a common livelihood for the poor in numerous parts of Europe, because it required more or less no capital investment; knitters would use yearn from their own sheep or yarn given by merchants.[9] All social classes were allowed, but there still was an evident hierarchy within the guilds. Although, religion was more exclusive; therefore Jews were marginalized. Europe was a very spiritual economy meaning people took care of each other and would help when one another when they could. For example, there were charitable services. Around 1560, Antwerp reached its peak of its success just before the revolt of the Netherlands.[10]
The Ottoman Empire
In the Ottoman Empire many young woman were hired to unwind cocoon, spin silk threads, and weave.[11] Also, there were many woman groups outside of guilds such as cloth makers. Woman would exchange good among each other within female markets. In the late sixteenth century estates of peasant woman living near Konya and owning some jewellery have been stumbled upon, which indicates market links.[12]
Guilds were a major part of an economy that was very state dominated like the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman dynasty, especially along its seaboards and borderlands opportunities of commerce tended to diversify economies and put together sundry people and ideas.[13] The Ottoman society was extremely mixed main due to conquest and immigration; therefore there was a vast number of religion and Jews were very much included. The Ottoman society was a spiritual economy but not as much as Europe. This was mainly because the Ottoman Empire was mixed religiously meaning there were many different religions mixed within guilds.
Guilds were an urban phenomenon. The Ottomans had politics as much as commerce in mind when they negotiated and dispersed capitulations.[14] The Ottoman- Venetian conflicts led to international commerce booms in Dubrovnik, Florence, Ancona, and Genoa. In the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries Florence, Genoa, and Venice vied for control of Ottoman markets and merchandises.[15] Primarily in the north and east, Muslim traders dominated several Ottoman exchanges and some international routes.[16] There were links between cities and the countryside; although, direct commercial exchanges were probably the exception rather than the rule.[17] The Empire was separated into zones so that civilians were limited to buying only from the source that they had been assigned to.[18]
Division of labor
In small towns, craft structures might be reasonably simple, for example, with one type or a few types at the most of tailors who made up fabrics into ready to wear clothing; but large cities producers were highly specialized.[19] Different guilds often produced similar goods. “Collective workshops were considered more desirable by more substantial craftsmen themselves”.[20] This would make collective workshops a suitable means of social control. Every member was monitored very closely; there were influential members but no one completely controlled the productivity of other fellow members.[21] Partnerships existed, although it’s unknown how common partnerships occurred. A more modern type of labor division also existed during the Early Modern Period.[22] During this time bleachers, twisters, and dyers craftsmen not only owned their own equipment but heir own shops as well. A compound product such as silk may go through the hands of many different craftsmen prior to reaching the consumer.[23]
See also
References
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 336.
- ^ Trivellato, Francesca. 2002. “Jews of Leghorn, Italians of Lisbon, and Hindus of Goa. Merchant Networks and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period.” In Commercial Networks in the Early Modern World. Eds. Diogo R. Curto and Anthony Molho. Badia Fiesolana: European University Institute, 88.
- ^ Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, 169.
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 336.
- ^ Trivellato, Francesca. 2002. “Jews of Leghorn, Italians of Lisbon, and Hindus of Goa. Merchant Networks and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period.” In Commercial Networks in the Early Modern World. Eds. Diogo R. Curto and Anthony Molho. Badia Fiesolana: European University Institute, 89.
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 340.
- ^ Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, 207.
- ^ Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, 202.
- ^ Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, 202.
- ^ Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, 207.
- ^ Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, 203.
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 338.
- ^ Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, 171.
- ^ Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, 176.
- ^ Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, 187.
- ^ Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, 182.
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 338.
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 339.
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 339.
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 340.
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 341.
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 341.
- ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, 341.
Further reading
- Faroqhi, Suraiya N. 2006. “Guildsmen and Handicraft Producers.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. New York: Cambridge UP, pp. 336-55.
- Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge university press, 1999, pp. 169-88.
- Trivellato, Francesca. 2002. “Jews of Leghorn, Italians of Lisbon, and Hindus of Goa. Merchant Networks and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period.” In Commercial Networks in the Early Modern World. Eds. Diogo R. Curto and Anthony Molho. Badia Fiesolana: European University Institute, pp. 74-89.
- Wiesner- Hanks, Merry. Early Modern Europe, 1450- 1789. Cambridge university press, 2006, pp. 202- 14; pp. 418- 23.