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{{distinguish|late modernity}}
[[Image:La scienza della laziness (The Science of Laziness) by Frank Stella, 1984, oil, enamel and alkyd paint on canvas, etched magnesium, aluminum and fiberglass, National Gallery of Art (Washington, D. C.).jpg|thumb|[[Frank Stella]] ''La scienza della pigrizia (The Science of Laziness)'' 1984, [[oil]], [[enamel]] and [[alkyd]] [[paint]] on [[canvas]], etched [[magnesium]], [[aluminum]] and [[fiberglass]], [[National Gallery of Art]] [[Washington DC]]]]
'''Late Modernism''' encompasses the overall production of most recent art made between the aftermath of [[World War II]] and the early years of the 21st century. The terminology often points to similarities between late modernism and post-modernism although there are differences. The predominant term for art produced since the 1950s is [[Contemporary Art]]. Not all art labelled as contemporary art is modernist or post-modern, and the broader term encompasses both artists who continue to work in modern and late modernist traditions, as well as artists who reject modernism for post-modernism or other reasons. [[Arthur Danto]] argues explicitly in ''After the End of Art'' that contemporaneity was the broader term, and that postmodern objects represent a subsector of the contemporary movement which replaced modernity and modernism, while other notable critics: [[Hilton Kramer]],<ref>''The Citadel of Modernism Falls to Deconstructionists,'' - 1992 critical essay, The Triumph of Modernism, 2006, [[Hilton Kramer]], pp218-221.</ref> [[Robert C. Morgan]], [[Kirk Varnedoe]],<ref>''Man of his words: Pepe Karmel on Kirk Varnedoe - Passages'' - Critical Essay [[Artforum]], Nov, 2003 by Pepe Karmel</ref>, [[Jean-François Lyotard]] and others have argued that postmodern objects are at best relative to modernist works.


The jargon which encompasses the two terms ''Late Modernism'' and ''[[Postmodern art]]'' is used to denote what may be considered as the ultimate phase of [[modern art]], as [[art]] at the end of [[modernism]] or as certain tendencies of [[contemporary art]].
There are those who argue against a division into modern and [[postmodern]] periods. Not all critics agree that the stage called modernism is over or even near the end. There is no agreement that all art after modernism is post-modern. [[Contemporary Art]] is the more-widely used term to denote work since roughly 1960, though it has many other uses as well. Nor is post-modern art universally separated from modernism, with many critics seeing it as merely another phase in [[Modern art]] or as another form of late [[Modernism]].


==Speedy deletion of [[:Ethan Gertzman]]==
As with all uses of the term post-modern there are critics of its application, however, at this point, these critics are in the minority.<ref>''The Citadel of Modernism Falls to Deconstructionists,'' - 1992 critical essay, The Triumph of Modernism, 2006, [[Hilton Kramer]], pp218-221.</ref> This is not to say that the phase of art denoted by post-modernism is accepted, merely that the need for a term to describe movements in art after the peak of [[Abstract Expressionism]] is well established.<ref>[http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/postmodernism.html Clement Greenberg: Modernism and Postmodernism], seventh paragraph of the essay. URL accessed on June 15, 2006</ref> However although the concept of change has come to consensus, and whether it is a post-modernist change, or a late modernist period, is undetermined, the consensus is that a profound change in the perception of works of art has occurred and a new era has been emerging on the world stage since at least the 1960s.
[[Image:Ambox warning_pn.svg|48px|left]] Please refrain from introducing inappropriate pages such as [[:Ethan Gertzman]], to Wikipedia. Doing so is not in accordance with our [[Wikipedia:List of policies|policies]]. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]].


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== Differences between Late Modernism and Post Modernism==
Late modernism describes movements which both arise from, and react against, trends in [[modernism]] and reject some aspect of [[modernism]], while fully developing the conceptual potentiality of the modernist enterprise.<ref>The Originality of the Avant Garde and Other Modernist Myths [[Rosalind E. Krauss]], Publisher: The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 9, 1986), ''Part I, ''Modernist Myths,'' pp.8-171</ref> In some descriptions post-modernism as a period in art is completed, where as in others it is a continuing movement in [[Contemporary art]]. In art, the specific traits of modernism which are cited are generally formal purity, [[medium specificity]], [[art for art's sake]], the possibility of authenticity in art, the importance or even possibility of universal truth in art, and the importance of an avant-garde and originality. This last point is one of particular controversy in art, where many institutions argue that being visionary, forward looking, cutting edge and progressive are crucial to the mission of art in the present, and that postmodern therefore, represents a contradiction of the value of "art of our times".

One compact definition offered is that while post-modernism acts in rejection of modernism's grand narratives of artistic direction, and to eradicate the boundaries between high and low forms of art, to disrupt genre and its conventions with collision, collage and fragmentation. Post-modern art is seen as believing that all stances are unstable and insincere, and therefore irony, parody and humor are the only positions which cannot be overturned by critique or later events.

Many of these traits are present in modern movements in art, particularly the rejection of the separation between high and low forms of art. However, these traits are considered fundamental to post-modern art, as opposed to merely present in one degree or another. One of the most important points of difference, however, between post-modernism, and modernism, as movements in art, is modernism's ultimately progressive stance that new works be more "forward looking" and advanced, where as post-modern movements generally reject the notion that there can be advancement or progress in art per se, and thus one of the projects of art must be the overturning of the "myth of the [[avant-garde]]". This relates to the negation of what post-structuralist philosophers call "[[metanarratives]]".

[[Rosalind Krauss]] was one of the important annunciators of the view that avant-gardism was over, and that the new artistic era existed in a post-liberal and post-progress normalcy.<ref>The Originality of the Avant Garde and Other Modernist Myths [[Rosalind E. Krauss]], Publisher: The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 9, 1986), ''Part I, ''Modernist Myths,'' pp.8-171, Part II, ''Toward Post-Modernism,'' pp. 196-291.</ref>An example of this viewpoint is explained by [[Robert Hughes (critic)|Robert Hughes]] in ''The Shock of the New''<ref>''The Shock of the New'' [[Robert Hughes (critic)|Robert Hughes]], Publisher: Knopf; Revised edition (August 13, 1991),</ref> in his chapter "The Future That Was":

{{Quote|
Where did this new academy begin? At its origins the ''avant-garde'' myth had held the artist to be a precursor; the significant work is the one that prepares the future. The cult of the precursor ended by cluttering the landscape with absurd prophetic claims. The idea of a cultural ''avant-garde'' was unimaginable before 1800. It was fostered by the rise of [[liberalism]]. Where the taste of religious or secular courts determined patronage, "subversive" innovation was not esteemed as a sign of artistic quality. Nor was the artist's autonomy, that would come with the [[Romanticism|Romantics]].
|[[Robert Hughes (critic)|Robert Hughes]]|''The Shock of the New''<ref>{{citation
| last=Hughes | first=Robert | author-link=Robert Hughes (critic) | year=1991 | date=August 13, 1991 | chapter=The Future That Was | title=The Shock of the New | publisher=Knopf | edition=Revised}}</ref>}}
<Blockquote></Blockquote>
As with all uses of the term postmodern there are critics of its application. [[Kirk Varnedoe]], for instance, stated that there is no such thing as postmodernism, and that the possibilities of modernism have not yet been exhausted.<ref>William R. Everdell, ''The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth-century Thought'', University of Chicago Press, 1997, p4. ISBN 0226224805 </ref> These critics are currently in the minority.<ref>''The Citadel of Modernism Falls to Deconstructionists,'' - 1992 critical essay, The Triumph of Modernism, 2006, [[Hilton Kramer]], pp218-221.</ref>

[[Hilton Kramer]] describes postmodernism as "a creation of modernism at the end of its tether."<ref>Quoted in Oliver Bennett, ''Cultural Pessimism: Narratives of Decline in the Postmodern World'', Edinburgh University Press, 2001, p131. ISBN 0748609369 </ref> [[Jean-François Lyotard]], in [[Frederic Jameson]]'s analysis, does not hold that there is a postmodern stage radically different from the period of [[high modernism]]; instead, postmodern discontent with this or that high modernist style is part of the experimentation of high modernism, giving birth to new modernisms.<ref>Frederic Jameson, ''Foreword'' to Jean-François Lyotard, ''The Postmodern Condition'', Manchester University Press, 1997, pxvi. ISBN 0719014506</ref>

== Radical movements in Modern Art ==

Radical movements in Modernism, radical movements in Modern art, and radical trends regarded as influential and potentially as precursors to late modernism and postmodernism emerged around [[World War I]] and particularly in its aftermath. With the introduction of the use of industrial artifacts in art, movements such as [[Cubism]], [[Dada]] and [[Surrealism]] as well as techniques such as [[collage]] and artforms such as cinema and the rise of [[reproduction]] as a means of creating artworks. Both [[Pablo Picasso]] the [[Modernist]] and [[Marcel Duchamp]] the rebel created important and influential works from [[found objects]].
====Fauvism, Cubism, Dada, Surrealism as the precedent====
{{main|Fauvism|Cubism|Dada|Surrealism}}
[[Image:Matissedance.jpg|thumb|right|[[Henri Matisse]], ''[[The Dance (second version)]]'', 1909 [[Hermitage Museum]], [[St. Petersburg, Russia]]]]
In the early 20th century, following [[Henri Matisse]] and [[Andre Derain]]'s impact as Fauvist painters and [[Pablo Picasso]] and [[Georges Braque]]'s monumental innovations and the worldwide success of [[Cubism]] and the emboldening of the [[avant-garde]], [[Marcel Duchamp]] exhibited a urinal as a sculpture. His point was to have people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art, because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his work as "[[Readymades of Marcel Duchamp|Readymades]]." The ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'', was a urinal signed with the pseudonym R. Mutt, that shocked the art world in 1917. This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as [[Dada]].

Dadaism can be viewed as part of the modernist propensity to challenge established styles and forms, along with [[Surrealism]], [[Futurism]] and [[Abstract Expressionism]].<ref>Simon Malpas, ''The Postmodern'', Routledge, 2005. p17. ISBN 0415280648 </ref> From a chronological point of view Dada is located solidly within modernism, however a number of critics have held that it anticipates postmodernism, while others, such as [[Ihab Hassan]] and [[Steven Connor]], consider it a possible changeover point between modernism and postmodernism.<ref>Mark A. Pegrum, ''Challenging Modernity: Dada Between Modern and Postmodern'', Berghahn Books, 2000, pp2-3. ISBN 1571811303 </ref>

[[Fauvism]] and [[Henri Matisse]] in particular became an important influence on both [[Abstract Expressionism]] and [[Color Field painting]], important milestones of Late Modernism. ''[[The Dance (painting)|The Dance]]'' is commonly recognized as "a key point of Matisse's career and in the development of modern painting".<ref>Russell T. Clement. ''Four French Symbolists''. Greenwood Press, 1996. Page 114.</ref>With its large expanse of blue, simplicity of design and emphasis on pure feeling the painting was enormously influential to American artists who viewed it at [[MoMA]] in [[New York City]].

====High art and culture====
The ignition point for the definition of modernism as a movement was the austere rejection of popular culture as [[kitsch]] by important post-war artists and taste-makers, most notably [[Clement Greenberg]] with his essay ''[[Avant-Garde and Kitsch]]'', first published in ''[[Partisan Review]]'' in 1939.<ref>''[http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/kitsch.html Avant-Garde and Kitsch]''</ref>During the 1940s and 1950s Greenberg proved to be an articulate and powerful art critic. In particular his writing on American Abstract expressionism, and 20th century European modernism persuasively made the case for High art and culture. In 1961 ''Art and Culture'', Beacon Press, a highly influential collection of essays by [[Clement Greenberg]] was first published. Greenberg is primarily thought of as a [[Formalism (art)|formalist]] [[art critic]] and many of his most important essays are crucial to the understanding of [[Modern art]] history, and the history of [[Modernism]] and Late Modernism. <ref>[http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/postmodernism.html Clement Greenberg: Modernism and Postmodernism], URL accessed on June 15, 2006</ref>

====Jackson Pollock, Abstract expressionism====
{{main|Jackson Pollock|Abstract expressionism|Process art|Western painting}}
[[Image:No. 5, 1948.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Jackson Pollock]], ''[[No. 5, 1948]]'']]
During the late 1940s [[Jackson Pollock|Pollock]]'s radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all [[Contemporary art]] that followed him. To some extent Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like [[Pablo Picasso]]'s innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture near the turn of the century via [[Cubism]] and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined the way art gets made at the mid-century point. Pollock's move - away from easel painting and conventionality - was a liberating signal to his contemporaneous artists and to all that came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process - working on the floor, unstretched raw canvas, from all four sides, using artist materials, industrial materials, imagery, non-imagery, throwing linear skeins of paint, dripping, drawing, staining, brushing, essentially blasted artmaking beyond any prior boundary. [[Abstract expressionism]] in general expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities that artists had available for the creation of new works of art. In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock, [[Willem de Kooning]], [[Franz Kline]], [[Mark Rothko]], [[Philip Guston]], [[Hans Hofmann]], [[Clyfford Still]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Ad Reinhardt]] and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them.

====Neo-Dada, Collage, Assemblage====
{{main|Collage|Assemblage art|Installation art}}
[[Image:Robert Rauschenberg's untitled 'combine', 1963.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert Rauschenberg]] ''Untitled Combine,'' 1963]]
[[Image:Jasper Johns's 'Flag', Encaustic, oil and collage on fabric mounted on plywood,1954-55.jpg|thumb|left|[[Jasper Johns]] ''Flag'', Encaustic, oil and collage on fabric mounted on plywood, 1954-1955]]
Related to [[Abstract expressionism]] was the emergence of combined manufactured items - with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. This trend in art is exemplified by the work of [[Robert Rauschenberg]], whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and [[Installation art]], and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and [[commercial photography]].

[[Leo Steinberg]] uses the term postmodernism in 1969 to describe Rauschenberg's "flatbed" picture plane, containing a range of cultural images and artifacts that had not been compatible with the pictorial field of premodernist and modernist painting.<ref>Douglas Crimp in Hal Foster (ed), ''Postmodern Culture'', Pluto Press, 1985 (first published as ''The Anti-Aesthetic'', 1983). p44. ISBN 0745300030 </ref> [[Craig Owens]] goes further, identifying the significance of Rauschenberg's work not as a representation of, in Steinberg's view, "the shift from nature to culture", but as a demonstration of the impossibility of accepting their opposition. <ref>Craig Owens, ''Beyond Recognition: Representation, Power, and Culture'', London and Berkeley: University of California Press (1992), pp74-75.</ref>

[[Steven Best]] and [[Douglas Kellner]] identify Rauschenberg and [[Jasper Johns]] as part of the transitional phase, influenced by [[Marcel Duchamp]], between modernism and postmodernism. Both used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high modernism.<ref>Steven Best, Douglas Kellner, ''The Postmodern Turn'', Guilford Press, 1997, p174. ISBN 1572302216 </ref>

====Abstract painting and sculpture in the 1960s and 1970s====
[[Image:SMITH CUBI VI.JPG|thumb|left|[[David Smith (artist)|David Smith]], ''CUBI VI,'' 1963]]
In abstract painting and sculpture during the 1950s and 1960s [[Geometric abstraction]] emerged as an important direction in the works of many sculptors and painters. In painting [[Color field painting]], [[Minimalism]], [[Hard-edge painting]] and [[Lyrical Abstraction]]<ref>Ratcliff, Carter. The New Informalists, Art News, v. 68, n. 8, December 1969, p.72.</ref> constituted radical new directions.<ref>[[Barbara Rose]]. ''American Painting. Part Two: The Twentieth Century''. Published by Skira - Rizzoli, New York, 1969</ref><ref>[[Walter Darby Bannard]]. "Notes on American Painting of the Sixties." ''Artforum'', January 1970, vol. 8, no. 5, pp.40-45.</ref>

[[Helen Frankenthaler]], [[Morris Louis]], [[Frank Stella]], [[Ellsworth Kelly]], [[David Smith (sculptor)|David Smith]], [[Sir Anthony Caro]], [[Mark di Suvero]], [[Gene Davis]], [[Kenneth Noland]], [[Jules Olitski]], [[Isaac Witkin]], [[Anne Truitt]], [[Kenneth Snelson]], [[Al Held]], [[Ronald Davis]],<ref>
Michael Fried. "Ronald Davis: Surface and Illusion." Artforum, vol. 5, no. 8. April, 1967. pp. 37-41, Cover Illus.: Six-Ninths Blue, 1966</ref> [[Howard Hodgkin]], [[Larry Poons]], [[Brice Marden]], [[Robert Mangold]], [[Walter Darby Bannard]], [[Dan Christensen]], [[Larry Zox]], [[Ronnie Landfield]], [[Charles Hinman]], [[Sam Gilliam]], [[Peter Reginato]], were some of the artists whose works characterized abstract painting and sculpture in the 1960s.<ref>Aldrich, Larry. Young Lyrical Painters, Art in America, v.57, n6, November-December 1969, pp.104-113.</ref>
[[Image:Gardenofdelight.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ronnie Landfield]], ''Garden of Delight,'' 1971, [[Lyrical Abstraction]] from the early 1970s]]
[[Lyrical Abstraction]] shares similarities with [[Color Field]] [[Painting]] and [[Abstract Expressionism]] especially in the freewheeling usage of paint - texture and surface. Direct drawing, calligraphic use of line, the effects of brushed, splattered, stained, squeegeed, poured, and splashed paint superficially resemble the effects seen in [[Abstract Expressionism]] and [[Color Field]] [[Painting]]. However the styles are markedly different. Setting it apart from [[Abstract Expressionism]] and [[Action Painting]] of the 1940s and 1950s is the approach to composition and drama. As seen in [[Action Painting]] there is an emphasis on brushstrokes, high compositional drama, dynamic compositional tension. While in Lyrical Abstraction there is a sense of compositional randomness, all over composition, low key and relaxed compositional drama and an emphasis on process, repetition, and an all over sensibility.
During the 1960s and 1970s artists as powerful and influential as [[Robert Motherwell]], [[Adolph Gottlieb]], [[Phillip Guston]], [[Lee Krasner]], [[Cy Twombly]], [[Robert Rauschenberg]], [[Jasper Johns]], [[Richard Diebenkorn]], [[Josef Albers]], [[Elmer Bischoff]], [[Agnes Martin]], [[Al Held]], [[Sam Francis]], [[Ellsworth Kelly]], [[Morris Louis]], [[Helen Frankenthaler]], [[Gene Davis (painter)|Gene Davis]], [[Frank Stella]], [[Kenneth Noland]], [[Joan Mitchell]], [[Friedel Dzubas]], and younger artists like [[Brice Marden]], [[Robert Mangold]], [[Sam Gilliam]], [[Sean Scully]], [[Elizabeth Murray (born 1940)|Elizabeth Murray]], [[Larry Poons]], [[Walter Darby Bannard]], [[Larry Zox]], [[Ronnie Landfield]], [[Ronald Davis]], [[Dan Christensen]], Joan Snyder, [[Ross Bleckner]], [[Archie Rand]], [[Richard Saba]],[[Susan Crile]], and dozens of others continued to produce vital and influential paintings.

====Minimalism and post-minimalism====
{{main|Minimalism|Postminimalism}}
[[Image:'Red Canvas' by Richard Tuttle, 1967, Corcoran Gallery of Art.jpg|thumb|right|[[Richard Tuttle]], ''Red Canvas,'' 1967]]
By the early 1960s [[Minimalism]] emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in [[geometric abstraction]] via [[Malevich]], the [[Bauhaus]] and [[Mondrian]]). Important artists who emerged as pioneers of [[Minimalism]] include [[Frank Stella]], [[Larry Bell (artist)|Larry Bell]], [[Ad Reinhardt]], [[Agnes Martin]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Donald Judd]], [[Tony Smith (sculptor)|Tony Smith]], [[Carl Andre]], [[Robert Smithson]], [[Sol Lewitt]], [[Dan Flavin]], [[Robert Mangold]], [[Robert Morris (artist)|Robert Morris]], and [[Ronald Bladen]] among others. These artists also frequently employed [[shaped canvas]]es, as in the example by [[Richard Tuttle]] shown at right. [[Minimal art]] rejected the idea of relational, and subjective painting, the complexity of [[Abstract expressionist]] surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of [[Action painting]]. [[Minimalism]] argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in art. Associated with painters such as [[Frank Stella]], minimalism in painting and sculpture, as opposed to other areas, is a late modernist movement and depending on the context can be construed as a precursor to the post modern movement.

Hal Foster, in his essay ''The Crux of Minimalism'', examines the extent to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian modernism in their published definitions of minimalism.<ref>Hal Foster, ''The Return of the Real: The Avant-garde at the End of the Century'', MIT Press, 1996, pp44-53. ISBN 0262561077</ref> He argues that minimalism is not a "dead end" of modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today." <ref name=Foster36/>

In the late 1960s the term [[Post-minimalism]] was coined by [[Robert Pincus-Witten]] to describe minimalist derived art which had content and contextual overtones which minimalism rejected, and was applied to the work of [[Eva Hesse]], [[Keith Sonnier]], [[Richard Serra]] and new work by former minimalists [[Robert Smithson]], [[Robert Morris (artist)|Robert Morris]], [[Sol Lewitt]], and Barry Le Va, and others.<ref>''Movers and Shakers, New York'', "Leaving C&M", by Sarah Douglas, ''[[Art & Auction | Art+Auction]]'', March 2007, V.XXXNo7.</ref>

[[Rosalind Krauss]] argues that by 1968 artists such as Morris, LeWitt, Smithson and Serra had "entered a situation the logical conditions of which can no longer be described as modernist."<ref name=Krauss287>The Originality of the Avant Garde and Other Modernist Myths [[Rosalind E. Krauss]], Publisher: The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 9, 1986), ''Sculpture in the Expanded Field'' pp.287</ref> The expansion of the category of sculpture to include [[land art]] and [[architecture]], "brought about the shift into postmodernism."<ref>The Originality of the Avant Garde and Other Modernist Myths [[Rosalind E. Krauss]], Publisher: The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 9, 1986), ''Sculpture in the Expanded Field'' (1979). pp.290</ref>

Minimalists like [[Donald Judd]], [[Dan Flavin]], [[Carl Andre]], [[Agnes Martin]], [[John McCracken]] and others continued to produce their late [[modernist]] paintings and sculpture for the remainder of their careers.

====Process Art====
{{Main|Process Art}}
By the late 1960s however, [[Process Art]] emerged as a revolutionary concept and movement that encompassed painting and sculpture, via [[Lyrical Abstraction]] and the [[Postminimalist]] movement, and in early [[Conceptual Art]]. [[Eva Hesse]], [[Robert Smithson]], [[Walter De Maria]], [[Keith Sonnier]], [[Richard Serra]], [[Nancy Graves]], [[Jannis Kounellis]], [[Bruce Nauman]], [[Richard Tuttle]], [[Mel Bochner]], [[Hannah Wilke]], [[Lynda Benglis]], [[Robert Morris (artist)|Robert Morris]], [[Sol Lewitt]], [[Barry Le Va]], [[Michael Heizer]], [[Lawrence Weiner]], [[Joseph Kosuth]], and [[Alan Saret]], were some of the Process artists that emerged during the 1960s. Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, scale, size, and plastic and real space.<ref>Source: http://www.guggenheimcollection.org/site/glossary_Process_art.html (accessed: Thursday, March 15, 2007)</ref>

====Pop Art====
{{main|Pop Art|Western painting}}
[[Image:Roy Lichtenstein Whaam.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Roy Lichtenstein]], ''[[Whaam!]]'' (1963). On display at the [[Tate Modern]], [[London]].]]
The term "Pop Art" was used by [[Lawrence Alloway]] to describe paintings that celebrated [[consumerism]] of the post [[World War II]] era.<ref>Topics in American Art since 1945, ''[[Pop Art]] the words'', p.119-122, by [[Lawrence Alloway]], copyright 1975 by W.W.Norton and Company, NYC ISBN 0-393-04401-7</ref> This movement rejected [[Abstract expressionism]] and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works of [[David Hockney]] and the works of [[Richard Hamilton]],[[John McHale (artist)| John McHale]], and [[Eduardo Paolozzi]] were considered seminal examples in the movement. While later American examples include the bulk of the careers of [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Roy Lichtenstein]] and his use of [[Benday dots]], a technique used in commercial reproduction. There is a clear connection between the radical works of [[Duchamp]], the rebellious [[Dada]]ist - with a sense of humor; and [[Pop Art]]ists like [[Claes Oldenburg]], [[Andy Warhol]], [[Roy Lichtenstein]] and the others.

In general [[Pop Art]] and [[Minimalism]] began as modernist movements, a shift in the paradigm and a philosophical split between [[Formalism (art)|formalism]] and anti-formalism in the early 1970s caused those movements to be viewed by some as precursors, or transitioning to postmodern art. Other modern movements cited as influential to postmodern art are [[Conceptual art]], [[Dada]] and [[Surrealism]] and the use of techniques such as [[assemblage]], [[Photomontage|montage]], [[collage]], [[bricolage]] and art forms which used recording or reproduction as the basis for artworks.
There are differing opinions as to the whether [[Pop Art]] is a Late modernist movement or is [[Postmodern]]. Thomas McEvilly, agreeing with [[Dave Hickey]], says that postmodernism in the visual arts began with the first exhibitions of pop art in 1962, "though it took about twenty years before postmodernism became a dominant attitude in the visual arts." <ref name=McEvilly29>Thomas McEvilly in Richard Roth, Jean Dubuffet, Susan King, ''Beauty Is Nowhere: Ethical Issues in Art and Design'', Routledge, 1998. p29. ISBN 9057013118 </ref> [[Frederic Jameson]], too, considers pop art to be postmodern.<ref>Frederick Jameson in Hal Foster, ''Postmodern Culture'', Pluto Press, 1985 (first published as ''The Anti-Aesthetic'', 1983). p111. ISBN 0745300030 </ref>

One way that Pop art is postmodern is that it breaks down what [[Andreas Huyssen]] calls the "Great Divide" between high art and popular culture.<ref>Simon Malpas, ''The Postmodern'', Routledge, 2005. p20. ISBN 0415280648</ref> Postmodernism emerges out of a "generational refusal of the categorical certainties of high modernism."<ref>Stuart Sim, ''The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism'', Routledge, 2001. p148. ISBN 0415243076 </ref> Although to presuppose that [[Modernism]] stands for "high art" only, and is in any way certain as to what constitutes "high" art is to profoundly and basically misunderstand modernism.

====Performance art, and Happenings====
{{main|Performance art|Happenings}}
[[Image:Schneemann-Interior Scroll.gif|thumb|right |[[Carolee Schneemann]] performing her piece ''Interior Scroll'' |160px]]
During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries of [[Contemporary art]]. [[Yves Klein]] in [[France]], and [[Carolee Schneemann]], [[Yayoi Kusama]], [[Charlotte Moorman]], and [[Yoko Ono]] in [[New York City]] were pioneers of performance based works of art. Groups like The [[Living Theater]] with [[Julian Beck]] and [[Judith Malina]] collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments; radically changing the relationship between audience and performer especially in their piece ''Paradise Now''. The [[Judson Dance Theater]] located at the [[Judson Memorial Church]], [[New York]], and the Judson dancers, notably [[Yvonne Rainer]], [[Trisha Brown]], [[Elaine Summers]], Sally Gross, Simonne Forti, Deborah Hay, Lucinda Childs, [[Steve Paxton]] and others collaborated with artists [[Robert Morris (artist)|Robert Morris]], [[Robert Whitman]], [[John Cage]], [[Robert Rauschenberg]], and engineers like [[Billy Klüver]]. These performances were often designed to be the creation of a new art form, combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. The works were characterized by the reductive philosophies of [[minimalism]], and the spontaneous improvisation, and expressivity of [[Abstract expressionism]].

During the same period - the late 1950s through the mid 1960s various [[avant-garde]] artists created [[Happenings]]. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in varied specified locations. Often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physical exercise, costumes, spontaneous [[nudity]], and various random and seemingly disconnected acts. [[Allan Kaprow]], [[Claes Oldenburg]], [[Jim Dine]], [[Red Grooms]], and [[Robert Whitman]] among others were notable creators of Happenings.

====Fluxus====
{{main|Fluxus}}
Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by [[George Maciunas]] (1931-78), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to [[John Cage]]'s 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at the [[New School for Social Research]] in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members [[Jackson Mac Low]], [[Al Hansen]], [[George Brecht]] and [[Dick Higgins]].

Fluxus encouraged a do it yourself aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. Like [[Dada]] before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an [[anti-art]] sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues.

[[Andreas Huyssen]] criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for postmodernism as, "either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement – as it were, postmodernism's sublime." <ref>Andreas Huyssen, ''Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia'', Routledge, 1995. p192. ISBN 0415909341</ref>Instead he sees Fluxus as a major [[Neo-Dada]]ist phenomena within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against, "the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the [[Cold War]]."<ref>Andreas Huyssen, ''Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia'', Routledge, 1995. p196. ISBN 0415909341</ref>

====High and Low====
[[Image:OtternessSculpture.JPG|thumb|Tom Otterness sculpture in Nelson A. Rockefeller Park, [[Battery Park City]], [[New York City|New York]].]]
As a kind of response to [[Clement Greenberg]]'s ''[[Avant-Garde and Kitsch]]''<ref>[[Clement Greenberg]], ''Art and Culture,'' Beacon Press, 1961</ref> in 1990 [[Kirk Varnedoe]] and [[Adam Gopnik]] curated ''High and Low: Modern Art and Popular Culture'', at New York's [[Museum of Modern Art]]. The exhibition attempted to elucidate the extent that artists and high culture drew on and from popular culture. Although universally panned at the time as the only event that could bring Douglas Crimp and Hilton Kramer together in a chorus of scorn.<ref>''Kirk Varnedoe, 1946-2003'' - Front Page - Obituary - [[Art in America]], Oct, 2003 by Marcia E. Vetrocq</ref> The exhibition is remembered today as a benchmark of the conflict between late modernism and postmodernism.

==Movements associated with Postmodern art==
====Conceptual Art====
{{main|Conceptual Art}}
[[Conceptual art]] became an important development in Contemporary art in the late 1960s, It delivered an influential critique on the status quo. Late modernism expanded and contracted during the late 1960s and for some, Conceptual art made a complete break with modernism. Sometimes it is labelled as postmodern because it is expressly involved in [[deconstruction]] of what makes a work of art, "art". Conceptual art, because it is often designed to confront, offend or attack notions held by many of the people who view it, is regarded with particular controversy. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to [[conceptual art]]. Thus, because ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'' was exhibited, it was a sculpture. [[Marcel Duchamp]] famously gave up "art" in favor of [[chess]].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp] Avant-garde composer [[David Tudor]] created a piece, ''Reunion'' (1968), written jointly with Lowell Cross that features a chess game, where each move triggers a lighting effect or projection. At the premiere, the game was played between [[John Cage]] and [[Marcel Duchamp]].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Tudor]Some other famous examples being [[John Cage]]'s 4' 33" which is four minutes and thirty three seconds of silence and Rauschenberg's ''Erased [[De Kooning]] Drawing''. Many conceptual works take the position that art is created by the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not from the intrinsic qualities of the work itself.

==== Installation art ====
{{main|Installation art}}
An important series of movements in art which have consistently been described as postmodern involved [[installation art]] and creation of artifacts that are conceptual in nature. One example being the signs of [[Jenny Holtzer]] which use the devices of art to convey specific messages, such as "Protect Me From What I Want". Installation Art has been important in determining the spaces selected for museums of contemporary art in order to be able to hold the large works which are composed of vast collages of manufactured and found objects. These installations and collages are often electrified, with moving parts and lights.

They are often designed to create environmental effects, as [[Christo and Jeanne-Claude]]'s ''Iron Curtain'' which was a row of barrels intended to create a [[traffic jam]].

==== Performance art ====
{{main|Performance art|List of performance artists}}

==== Intermedia, Multi-media ====
{{main|Intermedia}}

Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together. [[Intermedia]], a term coined by [[Dick Higgins]] and meant to convey new artforms along the lines of [[Fluxus]], [[Concrete Poetry]], [[Found objects]], [[Performance art]], and [[Computer art]]. Higgins was the publisher of the [[Something Else Press]], a [[Concrete poet]], married to artist [[Alison Knowles]] and an admirer of [[Marcel Duchamp]]. [[Ihab Hassan]] includes, "Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms," in his list of the characteristics of postmodern art.<ref>Ihab Hassan in Lawrence E. Cahoone, ''From Modernism to Postmodernism: An Anthology'', Blackwell Publishing, 2003. p13. ISBN 0631232133 </ref> One of the most common forms of "multi-media art" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed [[Video art]]. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination with [[performance art]], where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action.

==== Appropriation art and Neo-conceptual art ====
{{main|Appropriation art|Neo-conceptual art}}
In his 1980 essay ''The Allegorical Impulse: Toward a Theory of Postmodernism,'' [[Craig Owens]] identifies the re-emergence of an [[allegorical]] impulse as characteristic of postmodern art. This impulse can be seen in the [[appropriation art]] of artists such as [[Sherrie Levine]] and [[Robert Longo]] because, "Allegorical imagery is appropriated imagery." <ref>Craig Owens, ''Beyond Recognition: Representation, Power, and Culture'', London and Berkeley: University of California Press (1992), p54</ref> Appropriation art debunks modernist notions of artistic genius and originality and is more ambivalent and contradictory than modern art, simultaneously installing and subverting ideologies, "being both critical and complicit."<ref>Steven Best and Douglas Kellner, ''The Postmodern Turn'', Guilford Press, 1997. p186. ISBN 1572302216 </ref>

==== Neo-expressionism ====
{{main|Neo-expressionism}}
The return to the traditional art forms of sculpture and painting in the late 1970s and early 1980s seen in the work of [[Neo-expressionism|Neo-expressionist]] artists such as [[Georg Baselitz]] and [[Julian Schnabel]] has been described as a postmodern tendency,<ref>Tim Woods, ''Beginning Postmodernism'', Manchester University Press, 1999. p125. ISBN 0719052114 </ref> and one of the first coherent movements to emerge in the postmodern era.<ref>Fred S. Kleiner, Christin J. Mamiya, ''Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective'', Thomson Wadsworth, 2006, p842. ISBN 0495004804 </ref> Its strong links with the commercial art market has raised questions, however, both about its status as a postmodern movement and the definition of postmodernism itself. Hal Foster states that neo-expressionism was complicit with the conservative cultural politics of the Reagan-Bush era in the U.S.<ref name=Foster36>Hal Foster, ''The Return of the Real: The Avant-garde at the End of the Century'', MIT Press, 1996, p36. ISBN 0262561077</ref> [[Felix Guattari]] disregards the "large promotional operations dubbed 'neo-expressionism' in Germany," (an example of a "fad that maintains itself by means of publicity") as a too easy way for him "to demonstrate that postmodernism is nothing but the last gasp of modernism." These critiques of neo-expressionism reveal that money and public relations really sustained contemporary art world credibility in America during the same period that conceptual and feminist art practices were systematically reevaluating modern art.<ref>Erika Doss, ''Twentieth-Century American Art'', Oxford University Press, 2002, p210. ISBN 0192842390 </ref>

==== Institutional Critique ====
{{main|Institutional Critique}}
Critiques on the institutions of art (principally museums and galleries) are made in the work of [[Marcel Broodthaers]], [[Daniel Buren]] and [[Hans Haacke]].

==== Abstract Painting and Sculpture in the 21st century ====
{{main|Contemporary art|History of painting|Sculpture}}

At the beginning of the 21st century contemporary painting, contemporary sculpture and contemporary art in general continues in several contiguous modes, characterized by the idea of [[Cultural pluralism|pluralism]]. The "crisis" in painting, sculpture and current art and current [[art criticism]] today is brought about by [[Cultural pluralism|pluralism]]. There is no consensus, nor need there be, as to a representative style of the age. There is an ''anything goes'' attitude that prevails; an "everything going on", and consequently "nothing going on" syndrome; this creates an aesthetic traffic jam with no firm and clear direction and with every lane on the artistic [[superhighway]] filled to capacity. Consequently magnificent and important works of art continue to be made albeit in a wide variety of styles and aesthetic temperaments, the marketplace being left to judge merit.

[[Hard-edge painting]], [[Geometric abstraction]], [[Appropriation (art)|Appropriation]], [[Hyperrealism]], [[Photorealism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Minimalism]], [[Lyrical Abstraction]], [[Pop Art]], [[Op Art]], [[Abstract Expressionism]], [[Color Field painting]], [[Monochrome painting]], [[Neo-expressionism]], [[Collage]], [[Intermedia]] painting, [[Assemblage]] painting, [[Digital painting]], [[Postmodern]] painting, [[Neo-Dada]] painting, [[Shaped canvas]] painting, environmental [[mural painting]], traditional [[figure]] painting, [[Landscape painting]], [[Portrait painting]], are a few continuing and current directions in painting at the beginning of the 21st century.

== See also ==
* [[History of painting]]
* [[Western painting]]
* [[Modernism]]
* [[Late modernity]]
* [[Modernist project]]
* [[Remodernism]]
* [[Postmodern art]]
* [[Classificatory disputes about art]]

== Notes and references ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* ''The Triumph of Modernism'': The Art World, 1985-2005, [[Hilton Kramer]], 2006, ISBN 0 1-56663-708
* ''Pictures of Nothing: Abstract Art since Pollock'' (A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts), [[Kirk Varnedoe]], 2003
* ''Art of the Postmodern Era'': From the Late 1960s to the Early 1990s, Irving Sandler
* ''Postmodernism (Movements in Modern Art)'' Eleanor Heartney
* ''Sculpture in the Age of Doubt'' Thomas McEvilley 1999
* ''The Originality of the [[Avant-Garde]] and Other [[Modernist]] Myths,'' 1988, [[Rosalind Krauss]]
* ''Art and Culture'', Beacon Press, 1961, [[Clement Greenberg]] ISBN 0-8070-6681-8

== External links ==
* [http://www.beyondbooks.com/art11/index.asp History of Painting]
* [http://www.all-art.org History of Art: From Paleolithic Age to Contemporary Art]
* [http://www.artchive.com/artchive/V/van_eyck.html Robert Hughes from Artchive]
* [http://www.mnstate.edu/gracyk/courses/phil%20of%20art/kandinskytext.htm] [[Kandinsky]] Concerning the Spiritual in Art, accessed online [[May 28]] [[2007]]

{{Westernart}}
{{Modernism}}

[[Category:Modern art|*Art]]
[[Category:Art movements]]
[[Category:Contemporary art]]
[[Category:Modernism]]

[[es:Arte postmoderno]]

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