Matter and Peter C. Whybrow: Difference between pages
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'''Peter C. Whybrow''' is an American psychiatrist and researcher in bio-behavioral sciences. He is chairman of psychiatry at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. He is a Fellow of the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] and Vice Chair of the [[Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance|Scientific Advisory Board of the National Depressive and Manic Depressive Association]]. In 1996, he was awarded the Gerald L. Klerman Lifetime Research Award by the NDMDA. In 2005 he published the best-selling book [[American_Mania_(book)|American Mania: When More Is Not Enough]] |
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'''Matter''' is commonly defined as being ''anything that has mass and that takes up space''. However this definition is ambiguous, and leads to some problems, leading some physicists to define matter in terms of certain types of elementary particles. |
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"Normal matter" matter constitutes about 5% of the mass of the [[observable universe]], the remaining mass being composed of exotic and poorly understood forms of mass, currently known as [[dark matter]] and [[dark energy]]. There are four [[phases of matter|phases of macroscopic matter]] (''liquid'', ''gas'', ''solid'', and ''plasma'') although some exotic phases exists (like [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]s) as well. |
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{{lifetime|||Whybrow, Peter C.}} |
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== Definitions == |
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{{US-med-bio-stub}} |
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=== Common definition === |
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[[Image:P4S3.png|right|thumb|250px|[[Phosphorus sesquisulfide]] is a molecule made of four atoms of [[phosphorus]], and three atoms of [[sulfur]] arranged in a [[molecular symmetry|C<sub>3v</sub> symmetry]].]] |
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The common definition of matter is ''anything which both occupies [[space]] and has [[mass]]''. For example, a car would be said to be made of matter, as it occupies space, and has mass. In chemistry, this is often taken to mean ''what [[atom]]s and [[molecule]]s are made of'', meaning anything made of [[proton]]s, [[neutron]]s, and [[electron]]s. For example, [[phosphorus sesquisulfide]] is a molecule made of four atoms of [[phosphorus]], and three of [[sulfur]] (see image on right), and is thus considered to be matter. |
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However in [[physics]], there is no broad consensus as to an exact definition of matter, partly because the notion of "taking up space" is ambiguous in [[quantum mechanics]], and partly because mass doesn't lead to a "[[nested hierarchy|natural classification]]" of particles. Therefore physicists generally do not use the term ''matter'' when precision is needed, preferring instead to speak of the more clearly defined concepts of [[mass]], [[energy]], and [[particles]]. In discussions of matter and [[antimatter]], normal matter is also sometimes referred to as koinomatter{{fact}}. |
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SHIZBNET |
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=== Quarks and leptons definition === |
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[[Image:Standard Model of Elementary Particles.svg|thumb|250px|The elementary and composite particles made of the quarks (in purple) and leptons (in green) would be "matter" while the gauge bosons (in blue) would not be matter, under the "quarks and leptons" definition.]] |
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A possible definition of matter, which at least some physicists use, is that matter is ''everything that is composed of elementary [[fermions]]'', namely [[quark]]s and [[lepton]]s.<ref name="povh">Povh, Rith, Scholz, Zetche, Reigthinger ''Particles and Nuclei'', 1999, ISBN 3540438238</ref> Leptons (the most famous being the [[electron]]), and quarks (of which [[baryons]], such as [[protons]] and [[neutrons]], are made) combine to form [[atoms]], which in turn forms [[molecules]]. Since atoms and molecules are said to be matter, it is natural to generalize what matter is as being ''anything that is made of the same things that atoms and molecules are made of''. Since electrons are leptons, and protons and neutrons are made of quarks, this leads to the definition of matter as being "quarks and leptons", which are the two elementary types of fermions. |
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This definition of matter means that [[mass]] is not something that is exclusive to matter. For example, some massive particles such as the [[W and Z bosons]] are not made of quarks and leptons. This definition of matter leads to "two groups" of particles, matter (quarks and leptons) and [[force carrier]]s (gauge bosons). |
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This definition is also problematic inasmuch as most of the mass which is present in ordinary matter is not the intrinsic mass of the fermions which make it up. The up and down [[quark]]s which make up ordinary matter have only about 2% of the mass of the baryons which they compose. This means that about 98% of the mass of ordinary matter is due to the kinetic energy of confined quarks, in a system in which [[kinetic energy]] of particles on a confined system contributes [[invariant mass]] to the system (see [[mass in special relativity]]). Thus, most of the mass of ordinary matter is pure energy of motion of its constituent particles. <ref> http://www.npl.washington.edu/AV/altvw80.html. Accessed Oct. 6, 2008 </ref> |
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== Properties of matter == |
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{{Seealso|Physical property|Materials science}} |
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=== Bulk properties of matter === |
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[[Image:Liquid_nitrogen_dsc04496.jpg|thumb|right|250px| A solid metal cup containing [[liquid nitrogen]] slowly evaporating into [[nitrogen|gaseous nitrogen]]. [[Evaporation]] is the [[phase transition]] from a liquid state to a gas state.]] |
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In [[bulk]], matter can exist in several different forms known as ''[[phase (matter)|phases]]'', depending on ambient [[pressure]] and [[temperature]]. A phase is a form of matter that has a relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (such as [[density]], [[specific heat]], [[refractive index]], and so forth). These phases include the three familiar ones ([[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s, and [[gas]]es), as well as more exotic states of matter ( such as [[plasma (physics)|plasma]]s, [[superfluid]]s, [[supersolid]]s, [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]s, ...). There are also [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] and [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] phases of [[magnetic material]]s. As conditions change, matter may change from one phase into another. These phenomena are called [[phase transition]]s, and are studied in the field of [[thermodynamics]]. In small quantities, matter can exhibit properties that are entirely different from those of bulk material and may not be well described by any phase (see [[nanomaterials]] for more details). |
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Phases are sometimes called ''states of matter'', but this term can lead to confusion with [[thermodynamics|thermodynamic states]]. For example, two gases maintained at different pressures are in different ''thermodynamic states'' (different pressures), but in the same ''phase'' (both are solids). |
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==== Solid ==== |
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{{Main|Solid}} |
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Solids are characterized by a tendency to retain their structural integrity; if left on their own, they will not spread in the same way gas or liquids would. Many solids, like rocks and concrete, have very high [[hardness]] and [[rigidity]] and will tend to break or shatter when subject to various forms of [[stress]], but others like [[steel]] and [[paper]] are more [[flexible]] and will bend. |
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==== Liquid ==== |
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{{Main|Liquid}} |
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==== Gas ==== |
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{{Main|Gas}} |
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==== Plasma ==== |
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{{Main|Plasma}} |
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=== Fundamental properties of matter === |
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==== Quarks ==== |
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{{Main|Quark}} |
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Quarks are a particles of [[fermion|spin-{{frac|1|2}}]], meaning that they are [[fermion]]s. They carry an [[electric charge]] of −{{frac|1|3}} [[elementary charge|e]] (down-type quarks) or +{{frac|2|3}} e (up-type quarks). For comparison, an electron has a charge of −1 e. They also carry [[colour charge]], which is the equivalent of the electric charge for the [[strong interaction]]. Quarks also undergo [[radioactive decay]], meaning that they are subject to the [[weak interaction]]. Quarks are massive particles, and therefore are also subject to [[gravity]]. |
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{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto; text-align:center" |
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|+Quark properties<ref>C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group), PL '''B667''', 1 (2008) (URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/tables/rpp2008-sum-quarks.pdf)</ref> |
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! Name !! Symbol !! Spin !! Electric charge<br>([[elementary charge|e]]) !! Mass<br>([[electronvolt|MeV]]/[[speed of light|c]]<sup>2</sup>) !! Mass comparable to !! Antiparticle !! Antiparticle<br>symbol |
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|- |
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|colspan="7"| Up-type quarks |
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|- |
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| Up |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| +{{frac|2|3}} |
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| 1.5 to 3.3 |
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| ~ 5 electrons |
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| Antiup |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Up antiquark}} |
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|- |
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| Charm |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| +{{frac|2|3}} |
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| 1160 to 1340 |
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| ~ 1 proton |
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| Anticharm |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Charm antiquark}} |
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|- |
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| Top |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| +{{frac|2|3}} |
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| 169,100 to 173,300 |
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| ~ 180 protons or<br>~ 1 tungsten atom |
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| Antitop |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Top antiquark}} |
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|- |
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|colspan="7"| Down-type quarks |
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|- |
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| Down |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| −{{frac|1|3}} |
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| 3.5 to 6.0 |
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| ~ 10 electrons |
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| Antidown |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Down antiquark}} |
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|- |
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| Strange |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| −{{frac|1|3}} |
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| 70 to 130 |
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| ~ 200 electrons |
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| Antistrange |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Strange antiquark}} |
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|- |
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| Bottom |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| −{{frac|1|3}} |
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| 4130 to 4370 |
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| ~ 5 protons |
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| Antibottom |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Bottom antiquark}} |
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|} |
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==== Leptons ==== |
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{{Main|Lepton}} |
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Leptons are a particles of [[fermion|spin-{{frac|1|2}}]], meaning that they are [[fermion]]s. They carry an [[electric charge]] of −1 [[elementary charge|e]] (electron-like leptons) or 0 e (neutrinos). Unlike quarks, leptons do not carry [[colour charge]], meaning that they do not experience the [[strong interaction]]. Leptons also undergo radioactive decay, meaning that they are subject to the [[weak interaction]]. Leptons are massive particles, therefore are subject to gravity. |
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{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto; text-align:center" |
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|+Lepton properties |
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! Name !! Symbol !! Spin !! Electric charge<br>([[elementary charge|e]]) !! Mass<br>([[electronvolt|MeV]]/[[speed of light|c]]<sup>2</sup>) !! Mass comparable to !!Antiparticle !! Antiparticle<br>symbol |
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|- |
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|colspan="7"| Electron-like leptons<ref>C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group), PL '''B667''', 1 (2008) (URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/tables/rpp2008-sum-leptons.pdf)</ref> |
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|- |
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| Electron |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|electron}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| −1 |
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| 0.5110 |
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| 1 electron |
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| Antielectron<br>(positron) |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|antielectron}} |
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|- |
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| Muon |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|muon}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| −1 |
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| 105.7 |
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| ~ 200 electrons |
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| Antimuon |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|antimuon}} |
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|- |
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| Tauon |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|tauon}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| −1 |
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| 1,777 |
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| ~ 2 protons |
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| Antitauon |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|antitauon}} |
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|- |
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|colspan="7"| Neutrinos<ref>C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group), PL '''B667''', 1 (2008) (URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s066.pdf)</ref> |
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|- |
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| Electron neutrino |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Electron neutrino}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| 0 |
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| < 0.000460 |
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| Less than a thousandth of an electron |
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| Electron antineutrino |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Electron antineutrino}} |
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|- |
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| Muon neutrino |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Muon neutrino}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| 0 |
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| < 0.19 |
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| Less than half of an electron |
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| Muon antineutrino |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Muon antineutrino}} |
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|- |
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| Tauon neutrino<br>(or tau neutrino) |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Tau neutrino}} |
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| {{frac|1|2}} |
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| 0 |
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| < 18.2 |
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| Less than ~ 40 electrons |
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| Tauon antineutrino<br>(or tau antineutrino) |
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| {{SubatomicParticle|Tau antineutrino}} |
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|} |
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==Baryonic matter== |
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Baryonic matter is the part of the universe which is made of baryons (including all atoms). This part of the universe does not include [[dark energy]], [[dark matter]], [[black holes]] or various forms of degenerate matter, such as compose [[white dwarf]] stars and [[neutron star]]s. Recent data from the [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]] (WMAP), suggests that only about 4% of the total mass of the part of the universe which is within range of the best theoretical telescopes (i.e., which may be visible, because light has reached us from it), is made of baryionic matter. About 22% is dark matter, and about 74% is dark energy.<ref name="NASA-WMAP">{{Cite web|url=http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_mm.html|title=Five Year Results on the Oldest Light in the Universe|accessyear=2008|accessmonthday=May 2|publisher=NASA|year=2008}}</ref> |
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== Antimatter == |
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{{main|Antimatter}} |
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In [[particle physics]] and [[quantum chemistry]], '''antimatter''' is matter that is composed of the [[antiparticle]]s of those that constitute normal matter. If a particle and its antiparticle come into contact with each other, the two [[annihilation| annihilate]]; that is, they may both be converted into other particles with equal [[energy]] in accordance with [[Einstein]]'s equation ''[[E=MC2| E = mc<sup>2</sup>]]''. These new particles may be high-energy [[photon]]s ([[gamma ray]]s) or other particle–antiparticle pairs. The resulting particles are endowed with an amount of kinetic energy equal to the difference between the [[rest mass]] of the products of the annihilation and the rest mass of the original particle-antiparticle pair, which is often quite large. |
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Antimatter is not found naturally on Earth, except very briefly and in vanishingly small quantities (as the result of [[radioactive decay]] or [[cosmic ray]]s). This is because antimatter which came to exist on Earth outside the confines of a suitable physics laboratory would almost instantly meet the ordinary matter that Earth is made of, and be annihilated. Antiparticles and some stable antimatter (such as [[antihydrogen]]) can be made in tiny amounts, but not in enough quantity to do more than test a few of its theoretical properties. |
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There is considerable speculation both in [[science]] and [[science fiction]] as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter, whether other places are almost entirely antimatter instead, and what might be possible if antimatter could be harnessed, but at this time the apparent [[asymmetry]] of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great [[unsolved problems in physics]]. Possible processes by which it came about are explored in more detail under [[baryogenesis]]. |
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== Dark matter == |
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{{ main|Dark matter}} |
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In [[cosmology]], effects at the largest scales seem to indicate the presence of incredible amounts of '''dark matter''' which is not associated with electromagnetic radiation. Observational evidence of the early universe and the [[big bang]] theory require that this matter have energy and mass, but is not composed of either elementary fermions (as above) OR gauge bosons. As such, it is composed of particles as yet unobserved in the laboratory (perhaps [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric particles]]). |
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== Exotic matter == |
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{{main|Exotic matter}} |
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Exotic matter is a hypothetical concept of [[particle physics]]. It covers any material which violates one or more classical conditions or is not made of known [[baryonic particles]]... |
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== References == |
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{{reflist}} |
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== External links == |
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{{commonscat}} |
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*[http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=49&l=&c3= Visionlearning Module on Matter] |
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{{Nature nav}} |
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[[Category:Matter| ]] |
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Revision as of 09:25, 11 October 2008
Peter C. Whybrow is an American psychiatrist and researcher in bio-behavioral sciences. He is chairman of psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania. He is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and Vice Chair of the Scientific Advisory Board of the National Depressive and Manic Depressive Association. In 1996, he was awarded the Gerald L. Klerman Lifetime Research Award by the NDMDA. In 2005 he published the best-selling book American Mania: When More Is Not Enough
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