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'''Welcome!'''
The name '''Wars of Religion''' has been given to a series of European wars of the [[Sixteenth Century|Sixteenth]] and [[Seventeenth Century|Seventeenth Centuries]], following the onset of the [[Protestant Reformation]]. Although sometimes unconnected, all of these wars were strongly influenced by religious change, conflict and rivalry. This article deals with [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] involvement in these conflicts.


Hello, {{BASEPAGENAME}}, and [[Wikipedia:Welcome, newcomers|welcome]] to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are some pages that you might find helpful:
Wars that can be placed in this category took place in [[Switzerland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Bohemia]], the [[Netherlands]], [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]] and [[Denmark]].
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I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians|Wikipedian]]! Please [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|sign your name]] on talk pages using four tildes (<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out [[Wikipedia:Questions]], ask me on my talk page, or place <code><nowiki>{{helpme}}</nowiki></code> on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!&nbsp; -- [[User:Longhair|Longhair]]\<sup>[[User_talk:Longhair|talk]]</sup> 23:02, 7 November 2006 (UTC)


== Germany and Bohemia ==
== Paramagnetism ==
[[Image:Holyromanempire.png|thumb|250px|right|The Holy Roman Empire with present day national boundaries]]
The [[Holy Roman Empire]], encompassing present-day Germany and portions of neighbouring lands, was the single area most devastated by the so-called "Wars of Religion." The Empire was a fragmented collection of semi-independent states with the Habsburg [[Holy Roman Emperor]] as its head. The Austrian [[House of Habsburg]] was a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects in present day Germany, Austria, Bohemia and Hungary. The Empire also contained regional powers, such as [[Bavaria]], [[Electoral Saxony]], the [[Margraviate of Brandenburg]], the [[Electoral Palatinate|Palatinate]], [[Landgraviate of Hesse|Hesse]], the [[Archbishopric of Trier]] and [[Württemberg]]. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free cities, abbeys, bishoprics, and petty lords rounded out the Empire.


Jcwf,
[[Lutheranism]] from its inception at Wittenberg in 1519, found a ready reception in Germany, as well as in formerly [[Hussite]] Bohemia. The aggressive anti-catholic preaching of Luther and his many followers sowed the seeds of future conflict.
Thanks for the great writing and editing and for the time you have donated to this project. I will review the page again when I have more time but I wanted to let you know that I got your note and that your edits seem sound and certainly well intentioned. I think your level of expertise is above mine on this subject. A general comment that is true of most pages in Wiki is that we should quote more sources and use footnotes. External links can be added too.
Thanks for all you do.
[[User:Electricmic|Electricmic]] ([[User talk:Electricmic|talk]]) 22:32, 1 January 2008 (UTC)


==Spectroscopy==
In Northern Germany, [[Martin Luther]] adopted the stratagem of gaining the support of the local princes in his struggle to take over and re-establish the church along Lutheran lines. The [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony|Elector of Saxony]], the [[Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse|Landgrave of Hesse]] and other North German princes not only protected Luther from retaliation from the edict of outlawry issued by the [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V]], but also used state power to enforce the establishment of Lutheran worship in their lands. Church property was seized and Catholic worship was forbidden in most lands which adopted the Lutheran reformation. The political conflicts thus engendered within the Empire led almost inevitably to war.
Hello. It appears that I excised that information, but I could not tell you why. I am well aware that the information is legitimate and I suspect I removed it because it was redundant or did not fit in the article's structure as it was in April and I was more concerned about resurrecting a badly-formatted article. I have tried to clear up the classification issues surroundings spectroscopy before, but it appears that whatever existed of my attempts has long since been removed. [[User:Srnec|Srnec]] ([[User talk:Srnec|talk]]) 05:03, 14 January 2008 (UTC)


=== The Radicals ===
== Materials techniques ==
The first large-scale violence was engendered by the more radical of Luther's followers, who wished to extend wholesale reform of the Church to a similar wholesale reform of society in general. This was a step which the princes who supported Luther were in no way willing to countenance. The '''[[Peasants' War]]''' of 1524/1525, was a [[popular revolt in late medieval Europe|popular revolt]] inspired by the teachings of the radical reformers. It consisted of a series of economic as well as religious revolts by [[peasant]]s, townsfolk and [[nobility|nobles]]. The conflict took place mostly in southern, western and central areas of modern [[Germany]] but also affected areas in neighboring modern [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]. At its height, in the spring and summer of 1525, it involved an estimated 300,000 peasant insurgents. Contemporary estimates put the dead at 100,000. It was Europe's largest and most widespread popular uprising before the 1789 [[French Revolution]].


Yes, I agree with you that this serves a very useful purpose. Where's the proposals page? Can you post me a link? I'm in biomaterials/bioengineering, studying characterization techniques and getting blown away with how many there are and how many acronyms I have to know. I won't be able to do much editing due to school right now, but will add when and what I can. I think you're doing a good job putting these all in one place and editing articles here and there. --[[User:Amaltheus|Amaltheus]] ([[User talk:Amaltheus|talk]]) 07:04, 16 January 2008 (UTC)
Because of their revolutionary political ideas, radical reformers like [[Thomas Muentzer|Thomas Müntzer]] were compelled to leave the Lutheran cities of North Germany in the early 1520s. They proceeded to spread their revolutionary religious and political doctrines into the countryside of Bohemia, Southern Germany and Switzerland. Starting as a revolt against feudal oppression, the Peasants' uprising became a war against all constituted authorities, and an attempt to establish by force an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality and the community of goods. The total defeat of the insurgents at [[Battle of Frankenhausen|Frankenhausen]] ([[May 15]], [[1525]]), was followed by the execution of Müntzer and thousands of peasant followers. [[Martin Luther]] rejected the demands of the insurgents and upheld the right of Germany's rulers to suppress the uprisings. This played a major part in the rejection of his teachings by many German peasants, particularly in the south.
:I'm not sure what a portal is, though. I would like to call it "characterization techniques," which is what I do, characterize materials and matter. I'll keep adding as I can. The microscope articles are in sad shape, but many have editors dedicated to the article as it is, no matter what is wrong or missing, or, some are devoted to the biological sciences, even for techniques with extensive use and histories in the materials sciences. I do both, but most of my background is in materials science. --[[User:Amaltheus|Amaltheus]] ([[User talk:Amaltheus|talk]]) 02:08, 17 January 2008 (UTC)


== Surface methods list ==
After the [[Peasants' War]] (1524/25), a second and more determined attempt to establish a [[theocracy]] was made at Münster, in [[Westphalia]] (1532–1535). Here a group of several prominent citizens; including [[Bernhard Rothmann]], the [[Lutheran]] pastor, [[Jan Matthys]], and [[John of Leiden|Jan Bockelson]] had little difficulty in obtaining possession of the town on [[January 5]] [[1534]]. Matthys identified Münster as the "[[New Jerusalem]]", and preparations were made, not only to hold what had been gained, but to proceed from Münster toward the conquest of the world.


Hi there,
Claiming to be the successor of [[David]], John of Leiden was installed as [[Monarch|king]], legalized [[polygamy]], and himself took sixteen wives, one of whom he beheaded himself in the marketplace. [[Community of goods]] was also established. After obstinate resistance the town was taken by the besiegers on [[June 24]] [[1535]], and in Leiden and some of his more prominent followers were executed in the marketplace.
Go ahead if you want. I initially created this page for people searching via search engines who need a navigator through the jungle of acronyms (as it is sometimes not bothered on scientific pages to elucidate them). It can be supposed that one knows his own metier.
The list that is supposed to be merged is ordered and very comprehensive but please make sure that a relink remains in place if you intend to carry out the merger.[[User:Slicky|Slicky]] ([[User talk:Slicky|talk]]) 14:08, 19 January 2008 (UTC)


=== The Schmalkaldic Wars ===
== Re: Scientific techniques ==
Following the [[Diet of Augsburg]] in 1530, the Emperor demanded that all religious innovations not authorised by the Diet be abandoned by 15th April 1531. Failure to comply would result in prosecution by the Imperial Court. In response, the Lutheran princes who had set up Protestant churches in their own realms, met in the town of [[Schmalkalden]] in December 1530. Here they banded together to form the [[Schmalkaldic League]] ({{lang-de|Schmalkaldischer Bund}}) a [[Military alliance|alliance]] designed to protect themselves from Imperial action. Its members eventually intended the League to replace the [[Holy Roman Empire]] itself, and each state was to provide 10,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry for mutual defence. In 1532 the Emperor, pressed by external troubles, stepped back from confrontation, offering the "Peace of Nuremberg," which suspended all action against the Protestant states pending a General Council of the Church.
The moratorium kept peace in the German lands for over a decade. However this was a decade in which Protestantism was able to entrench its position in the lands that it already occupied. And it was also able to spread. The peace finally ended in the [[Schmalkaldic War]] ({{lang-de|Schmalkaldischer Krieg}}), a brief conflict between [[1546]] and [[1547]] between the forces of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] and the princes of the Schmalkaldic League. The conflict was to the advantage of the Catholics, and the Emperor was able to impose the [[Augsburg Interim]], a compromise allowing slightly modified worship, and supposed to remain in force until the conclusion of a General Council of the Church. However various Protestant elements rejected the Interim, and the Second Schmalkaldic war broke out in 1552
The [[Peace of Augsburg]] ([[1555]]), signed by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]], confirmed the result of the [[1526]] [[First Diet of Speyer|Diet of Speyer]] and ended the violence between the [[Lutherans]] and the Catholics in Germany.
It stated that:
* German princes (numbering 225) could choose the religion (Lutheranism or Catholicism) of their realms according to their conscience (the principle of ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]''). The citizens of each state were forced to adopt the religion of their rulers.
* Lutherans living in an ''ecclesiastical state'' (under the control of a bishop) could continue to practice their faith.
* Lutherans could keep the territory that they had captured from the Catholic Church since the [[Peace of Passau]] in [[1552]].
*The [[Ecclesiastical province|ecclesiastical leaders]] of the Catholic Church (bishops) that had converted to Lutheranism were required to give up their territories.


I'm not discouraging the potential project/portal (or whatever). I'm just saying that you raised it on a wrong page (heck, the title on that page says it's portal, yet that page is for '''WikiProject'''). If you want a discussion, head towards [[Wikipedia:Village pump|village pump]] [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><font color="#0000FF">OhanaUnited</font></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><font color="green"><sup>Talk page</sup></font></b>]] 20:39, 19 January 2008 (UTC)
Religious tensions remained strong throughout the second half of the 16th century. The Peace of Augsburg began to unravel as some bishops converting to Protestantism refused to give up their [[bishoprics]]. This was evident from the [[Cologne War]] (1582–83), a conflict initiated when the prince-archbishop of the city converted to Calvinism. Religious tensions also broke into violence in the German [[Free Imperial City|free city]] of [[Donauwörth]] in [[1606]] when the Lutheran majority barred the Catholic residents from holding a procession, provoking a riot. This prompted intervention by Duke [[Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria|Maximilian of Bavaria]] on behalf of the Catholics.


==Mass spectrometry article categorization==
By the end of the 16th century the [[Rhine River|Rhine]] lands and those of southern Germany remained largely Catholic, while Lutherans predominated in the north, and Calvinists dominated in west-central Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands. The latter formed the [[League of Evangelical Union]] in [[1608]].
Since the category [[:Category:Mass spectrometry|Mass spectrometry]] is a subcategory of [[:Category:Scientific technique|Scientific technique]], any article in the Mass spectrometry category does not need to be in the Scientific techniques category. See [[WP:CAT]] and [[WP:SUBCAT]]. So [[Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry‎]] doesn't need to be in Scientific techniques since it is in Mass spectrometry. I also noticed that you put [[Field emission microscope]] into Scientific techniques when a better move might have been to put [[:Category:Microscopes]] into Scientific techniques. I don't want to throw cold water on your scientific techniques effort, but be careful not to over categorize. --[[User:Kkmurray|Kkmurray]] ([[User talk:Kkmurray|talk]]) 22:54, 19 January 2008 (UTC)
:If you don't want to throw water it would be nicer to state things without warnings such as "be careful not to ovecategorize." The warning to be careful did not enhance the message. It seems to me the urge to scold is often so great in Wikipedia interactions that the message gets lost. Are you saying categorize only in the lowest subcategory on Wikipedia in general? --[[User:Amaltheus|Amaltheus]] ([[User talk:Amaltheus|talk]]) 01:20, 20 January 2008 (UTC)


::As I stated in the the village pump my categorization was very rough: I simple wanted to make sure I got all techniques covered somehow, so that we could later find them back more easily for proper organization. Some had no such category at all, others have tags that lead to categories that contain techniques but also other things. Sometimes it is the physical phenomenon, sometimes the instrument (the micro'''''scope''''' rather than the '''''-scopy''''') that gets categorized and that does not make things any easier to find. One of the things I would like to achieve is to come at a more sensible and less chaotic system of entry. I have been searching in wiki for a week or two now and I still discover useful bits and pieces here and there. It's a mess. Kkmurray.
=== The Thirty Years War ===
[[User:Jcwf|Jcwf]] ([[User talk:Jcwf#top|talk]]) 04:16, 20 January 2008 (UTC)


:::I did look at various categorizing schemes on Wikipedia. My thought is developing a series of sub-categories might also get you a better assortment of the techniques, and maybe others will want to edit within a subcategory. The techniques subcategories might be by the various things you suggest for the template. I might do Characterization techniques using ionizing radiation, Characterization techniques using optical light. --[[User:Amaltheus|Amaltheus]] ([[User talk:Amaltheus|talk]]) 07:35, 20 January 2008 (UTC)
[[Image:Joseph_Heintz_d._Ä._003.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]] and [[King of Bohemia]]. One of the leaders of the Catholic cause.]]
By 1617 Germany was bitterly divided, and it was clear that [[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor|Matthias]], Holy Roman Emperor and King of [[Bohemia]], would die without an heir. His lands would therefore fall to his nearest male relative, his cousin Ferdinand of [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]]. Ferdinand, having been educated by the [[Jesuits]], was a staunch Catholic. The rejection of Ferdinand as Crown Prince by primarily [[Hussite]] Bohemia, triggered the Thirty Years' War in 1618 when his representatives were defenestrated in Prague.


::I don't mean to scold. Sorry if it came off that way to anyone. It was meant to be advice and encouragement. I think that organizing scientific techniques is a great idea. If you are not already aware, there are of a couple of related Wikiprojects: [[:Wikipedia:WikiProject Mass spectrometry|WikiProject Mass spectrometry]], [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Spectroscopy|WikiProject Spectroscopy]], and [[:Wikipedia:WikiProject Chemistry|WikiProject Chemistry]]. If you need any help, peer review, etc., those are good places to go. Good luck. --[[User:Kkmurray|Kkmurray]] ([[User talk:Kkmurray|talk]]) 19:00, 22 January 2008 (UTC)
The [[Thirty Years' War]] was fought between [[1618]] and [[1648]], principally on the territory of today's [[Germany]], and involved most of the major [[power (international)|European powers]]. Beginning as a religious conflict between [[Protestantism|Protestants]] and [[Catholicism|Catholics]] in the [[Holy Roman Empire]], it gradually developed into a general war involving much of Europe, for reasons not necessarily related to religion. The war marked a continuation of the [[France-Habsburg rivalry]] for pre-eminence in Europe, which led later to direct [[war]] between [[Early Modern France#France in the 17th and 18th centuries|France]] and [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]]. Military intervention by external powers such as Denmark and [[Sweden]] on the Protestant side increased the duration of the war and the extent of its devastation. In the latter stages of the war, Catholic [[France]], fearful of an increase in Habsburg power, also intervened on the Protestant side.
==Sunbittern==
No worries. I was going to format all the names, but with a study that big ''et al''- -ing is sufficient. Feel free to copy paste the ref elsewhere if you cite it again (I tend to copy paste cites all the time). [[User:Sabine's Sunbird|Sabine's Sunbird]] [[User talk:Sabine's Sunbird|<span style="color:#008000;">talk</span>]] 03:11, 7 July 2008 (UTC)
:Sure is. I like the Kagu and Sunbittern being off on their lonesome together. [[User:Sabine's Sunbird|Sabine's Sunbird]] [[User talk:Sabine's Sunbird|<span style="color:#008000;">talk</span>]] 03:27, 7 July 2008 (UTC)


== Re:Hindi Spelling ==
The major impact of the Thirty Years' War, in which mercenary armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Episodes of widespread [[famine]] and [[Infectious disease#Mortality from infectious diseases|disease]] devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the [[Low Countries]] and [[Italy]], while bankrupting many of the [[regional power|powers]] involved. The war ended with the [[Treaty of Münster]], a part of the wider [[Peace of Westphalia]].


Hello Jcwf. Thanks for your comments on my talk page. February is written like this: फ़रवरी and pronounced ''farvarī''. I hope this helps. With regards, [[User:Anupam|Anupam]]<sup>[[User talk:Anupam|Talk]]</sup> 02:05, 18 July 2008 (UTC)
During the war, [[Germany]]'s population was reduced by 30% on average. In the territory of [[Brandenburg]], the losses had amounted to half, while in some areas an estimated two thirds of the population died. The population of the [[Czech lands]] declined by a third. The [[Swedish Empire|Swedish]] armies alone destroyed 2,000 castles, 18,000 villages and 1,500 towns in Germany, one-third of all German towns. Huge damage was done to monasteries, churches and other religious institutions. The war had proved disastrous for the German "Holy Roman Empire." Germany lost population and territory, and was henceforth divided into hundreds of largely impotent semi-independent states. The Imperial power retreated to Austria and the Habsburg lands. The Netherlands and Switzerland were confirmed in independence. The peace institutionalised the Catholic, Lutheran, Calvinist religious divide in Germany, with populations either converting, or moving to areas controlled by rulers of their own faith.


== France ==
==Evidence n stuff==
No, cladistic analyses are always [[inductive logic]]-based [[inference]]. The ''evidence'' in this case is simply the linear DNA sequences, aligned or not. These tell us that most "higher waterbirds" are very closely related, to the point of apparently forming a clade, and that this emerged close to the K-Pg boundary. But ''how'' close? The evidence doesn't tell us that, though it is more compatible with some possibilities than with others, and of course it roundly refutes some.
The [[French Wars of Religion]], ([[1562]] to [[1598]]) were a long and damaging series of conflicts in [[France]] between [[Catholic]]s and Protestant [[Huguenot]]s, which lasted from the middle of the [[sixteenth century]] until the [[Edict of Nantes]] in 1598. The conflicts also involved a struggle for political control between the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] led by the powerful [[House of Guise]] ([[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]]), and the newly-Protestant [[House of Bourbon]] and its allies. Protestant forces from Germany and the Netherlands were sometimes involved. King [[Philip II of Spain]], (Catholic), and Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]], (Protestant), also intervened financially and militarily.


So we need inferred hypotheses. They may or may not be correct however, being very sophisticated best-guesses resting on certain assumptions. If any of these fails (and at least one of the two key assumptions that differ in the study you cite from most others is ''known'' to fail more often than not), the entire inferred hypothesis gets knocked from its foundation - it may ''still'' be right, but there is no way to ''tell'' whether the results are right if the analysis made a key assumption in error.
As early as 1532, King Francois I, and (in 1551), King Henri II, had intervened politically and militarily in support of the Protestant German princes against the Habsburgs. However both kings firmly repressed attempts to spread Lutheran ideas within France. An organised influx of Calvinist preachers from [[Geneva]] and elsewhere during the 1550s, succeeded in setting up hundreds of underground Calvinist congregations in France.


You'll probably want to check out [http://www.tc.umn.edu/~barke042/pdfs/Cracraft.et.al04.pdf this], [http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU04039.pdf this], [http://www.specifysoftware.org/Informatics/bios/biostownpeterson/P_JAB_2006.pdf this] and [http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v101/n2/pdf/hdy200852a.pdf this]. [[User:Dysmorodrepanis|Dysmorodrepanis]] ([[User talk:Dysmorodrepanis|talk]]) 00:31, 29 July 2008 (UTC)
==== The 1560s ====
In a pattern soon to become familiar in the Netherlands and Scotland, underground [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] preaching, and the formation of covert alliances with members of the nobility quickly led to more direct action to gain political and religious control. The prospect of taking over rich church properties and monastic lands had led nobles in many parts of Europe to support a "princely" Reformation. Added to this was the newer, Calvinist, teaching that the leading citizens had the duty to overthrow an "ungodly" ruler (ie one who was not supportive of Calvinism.)
In March 1560, the "[[Amboise conspiracy]]", or "Tumult of Amboise", was an attempt on the part of a group of disaffected nobles to abduct the young king [[Francis II of France|Francis II]] and eliminate the Catholic [[House of Guise]]. It was foiled when their plans were discovered. The first major instances of systematic Protestant [[iconoclasm|destruction of images and statues]] in Catholic churches occurred in [[Rouen]] and [[La Rochelle]] in 1560. The following year, the attacks extended to over 20 cities and towns, and would, in turn, incite Catholic urban groups to massacres and riots in [[Sens]], [[Cahors]], [[Carcassonne]], [[Tours]] and other cities.<ref>Salmon, pp.136-7.</ref>


==Properties and uses of metals‎==
In December [[1560]], Francis II died and [[Catherine de' Medici]] became regent for her young son [[Charles IX of France|Charles IX]]. Although a [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]], she was prepared to deal favourably with the [[Huguenot]] [[House of Bourbon]]. She therefore supported religious toleration in the shape of the [[Edict of Saint-Germain]] (January 1562), which allowed the Huguenots to worship publicly outside of towns and privately inside of them. On [[March 1]], however, a faction of the Guise family's retainers attacked an illegal Calvinist service in [[Wassy-sur-Blaise]] in [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]]. As hostilities broke out, the Edict was revoked.
Hi. When content is merged to another article we need to keep the history for attribution purposes, so we just redirect. See [[WP:MERGE]] for more info. -- [[user:zzuuzz|zzuuzz]] <sup>[[user_talk:zzuuzz|(talk)]]</sup> 03:31, 3 August 2008 (UTC)


==[[Metallic bond]]==
This provoked the '''First War'''. The Bourbons, with English support, and led by [[Louis I de Bourbon, Prince de Condé]], and [[Admiral Coligny]] began to seize and garrison strategic towns along the [[Loire]]. The [[Battle of Dreux]] and the battle of [[Orléans]], were the first major engagements of the conflict. In February 1563, at Orléans, [[Francis, Duke of Guise]] was assassinated, and Catherine's fears that the war might drag on led her to mediate a truce and the [[Edict of Amboise]] (1563), which again provided for a controlled religious toleration of Protestant worship.
Great work with the article. I have submitted some suggestions at [[Wikipedia:Peer review/Metallic bond/archive1]]. COntact me if you ahve any questions. [[User:Nergaal|Nergaal]] ([[User talk:Nergaal|talk]]) 10:53, 3 August 2008 (UTC)
===History section===
I think you are misreprenting Hume Rotherys views and Hume Rothery himself. He was a very good communicator and very enthusiastic that is true, but you make him sound like some sort of opportunist who was later debunked following the (sic) "debacle" of the free electron theory- bit hard don't you think? Aren't scientific models supposed to be used and then "pushed" so that they fall over - I thought that was part of the scientific process. --[[User:Axiosaurus|Axiosaurus]] ([[User talk:Axiosaurus|talk]]) 10:43, 4 August 2008 (UTC)
Well thank you for your response.--[[User:Axiosaurus|Axiosaurus]] ([[User talk:Axiosaurus|talk]]) 13:40, 4 August 2008 (UTC)


== Respiratory System ==
However this was generally regarded as unsatisfactory by both Catholics and Protestants. The political temperature of the surrounding lands was rising, as religious unrest grew in the [[Netherlands]]. The Huguenots tried to gain French government support for intervention against the Spanish forces arriving in the Netherlands. Failing this, Protestant troops then made an unsuccessful attempt to capture and take control of King Charles IX at Meaux in 1567. This provoked a further outbreak of hostilities (the '''Second War''') which ended in another unsatisfactory truce, the [[Peace of Longjumeau]] (March 1568).
You make an excellent point regarding the need to make this article less centered around humans/mammals. In this manner, the article will likely also become more specific and accurate. Thanks for the suggestion and for leading me to the page indicating that effort was being made to "clean up" the entry in general. I have expertise in some areas that have been discussed for clean up so will attempt to make more improvements. [[User:LLDMart|LLDMart]] ([[User talk:LLDMart|talk]]) 13:20, 19 August 2008 (UTC)
made an unsuccessful attempt at taking control of the King. This provoked a further outbreak of hostilities (the '''Second War''') which ended in another unsatisfactory truce, the [[Peace of Longjumeau]] (March 1568).


==Tissue (biology)==
In September of that year, war again broke out (the '''Third War'''). Catherine and Charles decided this time to ally themselves with the House of Guise. The Huguenot army was under the command of [[Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé]] and aided by forces from south-eastern France and a contingent of Protestant militias from Germany — including 14,000 mercenary ''[[reiter]]s'' led by the Calvinist [[Wolfgang, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken|Duke of Zweibrücken]].<ref>Jouanna, p.181.</ref> After the Duke was killed in action, he was succeeded by the [[Count of Mansfeld]] and the Dutch [[William the Silent|William of Orange]] and his brothers Louis and Henry. Much of the Huguenots' financing came from Queen [[Elizabeth of England]]. The Catholics were commanded by the [[Henry III of France|Duke d'Anjou]] (later King Henry III) and assisted by troops from Spain, the [[Papal States]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]].<ref>Jouanna, p.182.</ref>
Some nice entries are beginning on this page regarding plant tissue. Might you be willing to take a look and provide a bit of guidance regarding unity of style for the page? I'm getting lost in my lack of plant knowledge such that I'm having trouble revising. I think an outside set of eyes would be helpful. [[User:LLDMart|LLDMart]] ([[User talk:LLDMart|talk]]) 18:30, 25 August 2008 (UTC)


==Hagfish==
The Protestant army laid siege to several cities in the [[Poitou]] and [[Saintonge]] regions (to protect [[La Rochelle]]), and then [[Angoulême]] and [[Cognac]]. At the [[Battle of Jarnac]] ([[16 March]] [[1569]]), the Prince de Condé was killed, forcing [[Gaspard de Coligny|Admiral de Coligny]] to take command of the Protestant forces. Coligny and his troops retreated to the south-west and regrouped with [[Gabriel, comte de Montgomery]], and in spring of 1570 they pillaged [[Toulouse]], cut a path through the south of France and went up the [[Rhone]] valley up to [[La Charité-sur-Loire]]. The staggering royal debt and Charles IX's desire to seek a peaceful solution<ref>Jouanna, pp.184-5.</ref> led to the [[Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye]] ([[8 August]] [[1570]]), which once more allowed some concessions to the Huguenots. In 1572, rising tensions between local Catholics and Protestant forces attending the wedding of the Protestant Henri of Navarre, and the King's sister, Marguerite de Valois, culminated in the [[Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre]]. This led to the '''Fourth''' and '''Fifth Civil wars''' in 1572 and 1573-1576.
The hagfish is a very interesting suggestion. I assume you are suggesting it as an excellent example of the external production of mucus. Definitely worth adding. I've only begun to assess the best manor to present such information about mucus in animals that are not mammals. Mucus is also highly relevant in frog skin, for example. [[User:LLDMart|LLDMart]] ([[User talk:LLDMart|talk]]) 18:05, 28 August 2008 (UTC)


==== Henry III ====
== Discussion ==
Henry of Anjou was crowned King [[Henry III of France]] in [[1575]], at [[Rheims]], but hostilities – the '''Fifth War''' – had already flared up again.


[[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Military history#List of battles by casualties|Here]] is a discussion involving the grim edit war over [[List of battles by casualties]]. You might want to join. [[User:Wandalstouring|Wandalstouring]] ([[User talk:Wandalstouring|talk]]) 17:44, 12 September 2008 (UTC)
Henry soon found himself in the difficult position of trying to maintain royal authority in the face of feuding [[warlords]] who refused to compromise. In [[1576]], the King signed the [[Edict of Beaulieu]], granting minor concessions to the Calvinists, but a brief '''Sixth Civil War''' took place in 1577. [[Henry I, Duke of Guise]], formed the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] to protect the Catholic cause in France.
Further hostilities — the '''Seventh War''' (1579-1580) — ended in the stalemate of the [[Treaty of Fleix]].


== CO ==
The fragile compromise came to an end in [[1584]], when the King's youngest brother and heir presumptive, [[François, Duke of Anjou]], died. As Henry III had no son, under [[Salic Law]], the next heir to the throne was the Calvinist Prince [[Henry IV of France|Henri of Navarre]]. Under pressure from the Duke of Guise, Henri III reluctantly issued an edict suppressing Protestantism and annulling Henri of Navarre's right to the throne.


Hi Jcwf,
In December [[1584]], the Duke of Guise signed the [[Treaty of Joinville]] on behalf of the Catholic League with [[Philip II of Spain]], who supplied a considerable annual grant to the League. The situation degenerated into the '''Eighth War''' (1585-1589). Henry of Navarre again sought foreign aid from the German princes and [[Elizabeth I of England]]. Meanwhile, the solidly Catholic people of Paris, under the influence of the [[Committee of Sixteen]] were becoming dissatisfied with Henry III and his failure to defeat the Calvinists. On [[12 May]] [[1588]], a popular uprising raised barricades on the streets of Paris, and Henry III fled the city. The Committee of Sixteen took complete control of the government and welcomed the Duke of Guise to Paris. The Guises then proposed a settlement with a cipher as heir and demanded a meeting of the [[French States-General|Estates-General]], which was to be held in [[Blois]].


I'm afraid I don't really understand the resonance structure of CO. I drew my picture from what I saw in a text book, however it was a very old text book, (80s). Are you saying that the other two structures should be different? Or just that they are not significant enough? I would be happy to redraw the diagram if you could show me other structures. If you think the other two are not significant enough then either remove it yourself or start a section on the CO talk page. Although I think even if they are very unstable and have a low chance of occurring practically but are still theoretically present then it is an interesting diagram, but maybe the explanation about them should be changed. -- [[User:Borb|Borb]] ([[User talk:Borb|talk]]) 13:39, 11 October 2008 (UTC)
King Henri decided to strike first. On [[December 23]], [[1588]], at the [[Chateau Blois|Château de Blois]], Henry of Guise and his brother, the [[Louis II, Cardinal of Guise|Cardinal de Guise]], were lured into a trap and were murdered. The Duke of Guise had been highly popular in France, and the league declared open war against King Henry. The [[Parlement of Paris]] instituted criminal charges against the King, who now joined forces with his cousin, Henry of Navarre, to war against the League.


Hi Borb,
[[Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne]], then became the leader of the Catholic League. League presses began printing anti-royalist tracts under a variety of pseudonyms, while the [[Collège de Sorbonne|Sorbonne]] proclaimed that it was just and necessary to depose Henri III. In July [[1589]], in the royal camp at [[Saint-Cloud]], a monk named [[Jacques Clément]] gained an audience with the King and drove a long knife into his spleen. Clément was executed on the spot, taking with him the information of who, if anyone, had hired him. On his deathbed, Henri III called for Henry of Navarre, and begged him, in the name of [[Public administration|Statecraft]], to become a Catholic, citing the brutal warfare that would ensue if he refused. In keeping with [[Salic Law]], he named Henri as his heir.


A text book huh? Ouch..
==== Henri IV ====
The situation on the ground in [[1589]] was that King [[Henry IV of France]], as Navarre had become, held the south and west, and the Catholic League the north and east. The leadership of the Catholic League had devolved to the Duke de Mayenne, who was appointed Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. He and his troops controlled most of rural Normandy. However, in September 1589, Henry inflicted a severe defeat on the Duke at the [[Battle of Arques]]. Henry's army swept through Normandy, taking town after town throughout the winter.


The problem becomes visible if you add the remaining lone pairs. If you do the Lewis calculation you get:
The King knew that he had to take Paris if he stood any chance of ruling all of France. This, however, was no easy task. The Catholic League's presses and supporters continued to spread stories about atrocities committed against Catholic priests and the laity in Protestant England (see [[Forty Martyrs of England and Wales]]). The city prepared to fight to the death rather than accept a Calvinist king. The [[Battle of Ivry]], fought on [[March 14]], [[1590]], was another victory for the king, and Henry's forces went on to lay siege to [[Paris]], but the siege was broken by Spanish support. Realising that his predecessor had been right and that there was no prospect of a Protestant king succeeding in Catholic Paris, Henry reputedly uttered the famous phrase ''Paris vaut bien une messe'' (Paris is well worth a mass). He was formally received into the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in [[1593]] and was crowned at [[Chartres]] in [[1594]].


:ER (electrons required for octet rule)= 2*8 =16
Some members of the League fought on, but enough Catholics were won over by the King's conversion to increasingly isolate the diehards. The Spanish withdrew from France under the terms of the [[Peace of Vervins]]. Henry was faced with the task of rebuilding a shattered and impoverished Kingdom and reuniting France under a single authority. The wars concluded with the issuing of the [[Edict of Nantes]] by [[Henry IV of France]], which granted a degree of religious toleration to Protestants.
:VE (valence electrons available) = 4 (C) +6 (O) = 10, so total number of pairs = 10/2=5


The whole point of Lewis structures is to make up the difference by sharing electron pairs:
France, although always ruled by a Catholic monarch, had played a major part in supporting the Protestants in Germany and the Netherlands against their dynastic rivals, the Habsburgs. The period of the French Wars of Religion effectively removed France's influence as a major European power, allowing the Catholic forces in the Holy Roman Empire to regroup and recover.


:SE (shared electrons) =ER-VE= 16-10 = 6, so total shared pairs = 6/2 = 3
== The Netherlands ==
:This means the number of lone pairs (LP) should be 5-3= 2
The Low Countries have a particular history of religious conflict which had its roots in the [[Calvinist]] reformation movement of the 1560s. These conflicts became known as the [[Dutch Revolt]] or the '''Eighty Years' War'''. By dynastic inheritance the whole of the Netherlands, (modern day [[Holland]] and [[Belgium]])had come to be ruled by the kings of [[Spain]]. Following aggressive Calvinist preaching in and around the rich merchant cities of the southern Netherlands, organized anti-catholic religious protests grew in violence and frequency. In 1566, a league of about 400 members of the high nobility, themselves disgruntled at Spanish rule, presented a petition to the governor [[Margaret of Parma]], to suspend punitive actions against the Calvinists.


The ''only'' way you can do this is |C&equiv;O|, because you need three bonds.
'''Iconoclasm'''. In early August 1566, a mob stormed the church of [[Hondschoote]] in Flanders (now in Northern France).<ref name="Horst133">{{cite book
| last = Van der Horst
| first = Han
| year = 2000
| title = Nederland, de vaderlandse geschiedenis van de prehistorie tot nu (in Dutch)
| edition = 3rd
| publisher = Bert Bakker
| id = ISBN 90-351-2722-6
| pages =133}}</ref> This relatively small incident spread North and led to a massive [[iconoclasm|iconoclastic]] movement by Calvinists, who stormed churches and other religious buildings to desecrate and destroy statues and images of [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] [[saint]]s all over the Netherlands. According to the Calvinists, these statues represented worship of idols. The number of actual image-breakers appears to have been relatively small. Limm (1989) notes that "there were few cases of more than 200 people being involved at any one time" even in the northern provinces, where large crowds often attended the iconoclasm. In the case of the southern provinces, he speaks of a relatively small, orderly group moving along the country. Spaans (1999) argues that iconoclasm was actually organized by local elites for political reasons <ref>Spaans, J. "Catholicism and Resistance to the Reformation in the Northern Netherlands". In: Benedict, Ph., and others (eds), ''Reformation, Revolt and Civil War in France and the Netherlands, 1555-1585'' (Amsterdam 1999), 149-163).</ref> In general, local authorities did not step in to rein in the vandalism. The actions of the iconoclasts drove the nobility into two camps, with [[William the Silent|William of Orange]] and other grandees supporting the iconoclasts, and others, notably [[Hendrik van Brederode|Henry of Brederode]], opposing them.


Yes you can write a structure like C=O but that would leave '''3''' lone pairs like |C=O>. If you now count the electrons surrounding C, there are only 6, not a full octet. The third 'resonance' is worse. It leaves C with only 4 electrons...
In 1568, William returned to try and drive the highly unpopular [[Duke of Alba]] from [[Brussels]]. A co-ordinated Protestant attempt was made to take over the Netherlands from four different directions, with armies led by William's brothers invading from Germany and [[French Huguenots]] invading from the south. The [[Battle of Rheindalen]] near [[Roermond]] occurred on [[23 April]] [[1568]] and was won by the Spanish, but the [[Battle of Heiligerlee]], fought on [[23 May]] [[1568]], resulted in a victory for the rebel army. However the rebel campaign ended in failure as William ran out of money to pay his army and his allies were destroyed by Alba.


True resonance structures involve equivalent structures that each fulfill the octet rule. There is only one of those in this case.
In its battle to maintain Catholic control of the Low Countries, Spain was severely hampered by the fact that it was also fighting a war against the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]. Even so, by 1570 the Spanish had mostly suppressed the rebellion throughout the Netherlands. However, on [[April 1]], [[1572]], Dutch Calvinist raiders, known as [[Sea Beggars]], forced from sanctuary in England, unexpectedly captured the almost undefended northern Netherlands town of [[Capture of Brielle|Brielle]]. Most of the important cities in the provinces of Holland and Zealand immediately declared loyalty to the rebels. Notable exceptions were [[Amsterdam]] and [[Middelburg]], which remained loyal to the Catholic cause until capture in 1578. William of Orange was put at the head of the revolt, entering the Netherlands with an army 20,000 strong, and with forces of French [[Huguenot]]s in support.


(Of course, the whole Lewis story is primitive bunk compared to MO theory but that is a different matter)
==== Division ====
[[User:Jcwf|Jcwf]] ([[User talk:Jcwf#top|talk]]) 14:49, 11 October 2008 (UTC)
However, the new revolt led to increasing discord amongst the Dutch. On one side was a militant Calvinist minority that wanted to continue fighting the Catholic King Philip II, and convert all Dutch citizens to Calvinism. On the other was a minority of Catholics that wanted to remain loyal to the Landholder (Dutch: ''landvoogd'') and the Spanish-backed government below him. In between was the majority of historically Catholic citizens who had no particular allegiance, but shared a desire to restore Dutch privileges and to get rid of the Spanish mercenary armies. Alba was replaced in 1573 by [[Luis de Requesens]] and a new policy of moderation was attempted. However Spain's inability to pay its mercenary armies led to numerous mutinies and in November 1576 troops [[sack of Antwerp|sacked Antwerp]] at the cost of some 8,000 lives. This so-called "Spanish Fury" strengthened the resolve of the rebels in the 17 provinces. William of Orange took advantage of the anarchy to establish wider control of virtually the whole Netherlands in alliance with the States-General, entering Brussels in September 1577.

On [[January 6]] [[1579]], upset by Calvinist outrages in Oudenarde, Kortrijk, Briges and Ieper, and the continued aggressive Calvinism of the Northern States, some of the Southern States signed the [[Union of Arras]] ([[Atrecht]]), declaring their loyalty to the Spanish king. In response, William united the northern states of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, [[Guelders]] and the province of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] in the [[Union of Utrecht]] on [[January 23]], [[1579]]. Some southern cities like [[Bruges]], [[Ghent]], [[Brussels]] and [[Antwerp]] joined the Union of Utrecht, and effectively, the 17 provinces were now divided into two warring states.

Over the following years, Parma reconquered the major part of [[county of Flanders|Flanders]] and [[duchy of Brabant|Brabant]], as well as large parts of the northeastern provinces. The [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] religion was restored in much of this area. In 1585, Antwerp — the largest city in the Low Countries at the time — fell into his hands, which caused over half its population to flee to the north (see also [[siege of Antwerp (1584-1585)|Siege of Antwerp]]).

The Netherlands were split into an independent northern part, while the southern part remained under Spanish control. Due to the almost uninterrupted rule of the Calvinist-dominated separatists, most of the population of the northern provinces became converted to Protestantism over the next decades. The south, under Spanish rule, remained a Catholic stronghold; most of its Protestants fled to the north. Spain retained a large military presence in the south, where it could also be used against France.
After a period of peace, war took up again in [[1622]], to be finally ended on [[January 30]] [[1648]], with the [[Treaty of Munster|Treaty of Münster]] between Spain and the independent Netherlands. This treaty was part of the European scale [[Peace of Westphalia]] that also ended the [[Thirty Years' War]].

== Switzerland ==
In 1529 under the lead of [[Huldrych Zwingli]], the Protestant canton and city of [[Zürich]] had concluded with other Protestant cantons a defence alliance, the ''Christliches Burgrecht'', which also included the cities of [[Konstanz]] and [[Strasbourg]]. The Catholic cantons in response had formed an alliance with [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand of Austria]].

After numerous minor incidents and provocations from both sides, a Catholic priest was executed in the Thurgau in May 1528, and the Protestant pastor J. Keyser was burned at the stake in Schwyz in 1529. The last straw was the installation of a Catholic reeve at Baden, and Zürich declared war on [[8 June]], occupied the Thurgau and the territories of the [[Abbey of St. Gall]] and marched to [[Kappel am Albis|Kappel]] at the border to [[Canton of Zug|Zug]]. Open war was avoided by means of a peace agreement (''Erster Landfriede''), that was not exactly favourable to the Catholic side, who had to dissolve its alliance with the Austrian [[Habsburg]]s. The tensions remained essentially unresolved, and would flare high again in the [[second war of Kappel]] two years later.

On [[October 11]], [[1531]], the Catholic cantons decisively defeated the forces of Zürich in the '''Battle of [[Kappel am Albis|Kappel]]'''. The Zürich troops had little support from allied Protestant cantons, and [[Huldrych Zwingli]] was killed on the battlefield, along with twenty-four other pastors.

After the defeat, the forces of Zürich regrouped and attempted to occupy the [[Zugerberg]], and some of them camped on the ''Gubel'' hill near [[Menzingen]]. A small force of [[Aegeri]] succeeded in routing the camp, and the demoralized Zürich force had to retreat, forcing the Protestants to agree to a peace treaty to their disadvantage. Switzerland was to be divided into a patchwork of Protestant and Catholic cantons, with the Protestants tending to dominate the larger cities, and the Catholics the more rural areas.

== Britain and Ireland ==
The Reformation came to Britain with King [[Henry VIII of England]]'s breach with the Catholic Church in 1533. At this time there were only a limited number of Protestants among the general population, and these were mostly living in the towns of the South and the East of England. With the state-ordered break with the Pope in Rome, the Church in England, Wales and Ireland was placed under the rule of the King and Parliament.

The first major changes to doctrine and practice took place under Vicar-General [[Thomas Cromwell]], and the newly appointed Protestant-leaning [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Thomas Cranmer]]. The [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], which began in 1536, provoked a violent northern Catholic rebellion in the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]], which was eventually put down with much bloodshed. The reformation continued to be imposed on an often unwilling population with the aid of stern laws that made it treason, punishable by death, to oppose the King's actions with respect to religion. The next major armed resistance took place in the [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] of 1549, which was an unsuccessful rising in western England against the enforced substitution of Cranmer's English language service for the Latin Catholic Mass.

Following the restoration of Catholicisn under Queen [[Mary I of England|Mary I]] in 1553, there was a brief unsuccessful Protestant rising in the South east of England.

=== Scottish Reformation ===
The Reformation in Scotland began in conflict. Fiery Calvinist preacher [[John Knox]] returned to Scotland in 1560, having been exiled for his part in the assassination of Cardinal Beaton. He proceeded to Dundee where a large number of Protestant sympathisers and noblemen had gathered. Knox was declared an outlaw by the Queen Regent, [[Mary of Guise]],but the Protestants went at once to [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], a walled town that could be defended in case of a siege. At the church of St John the Baptist, Knox preached a fiery sermon which provoked an [[iconoclasm|iconoclastic]] riot. A mob poured into the church and it was entirely gutted. In the pattern of Calvinist riots in France and the Netherlands, the mob then attacked two friaries in the town, looting their gold and silver and smashing images. Mary of Guise gathered those nobles loyal to her and a small French army.

However, with Protestant reinforcements arriving from neighbouring counties, the queen regent retreated to [[Dunbar]]. By now Calvinist mobs had overrun much of central Scotland, destroying monasteries and catholic churches as they went. On [[30 June]], the Protestants occupied Edinburgh, though they were only able to hold it for a month. But even before their arrival, the mob had already sacked the churches and the friaries. On [[1 July]], Knox preached from the pulpit of [[St Giles' Cathedral|St Giles']], the most influential in the capital.<ref>{{Harvnb|MacGregor|1957|p=127}}</ref>

Knox negotiated by letter with [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley]], Elizabeth's chief advisor, for English support. When additional French troops arrived in [[Leith]], Edinburgh's seaport, the Protestants responded by retaking Edinburgh. This time, on [[24 October]] [[1559]], the Scottish nobility formally deposed Mary of Guise from the regency. Her secretary, [[William Maitland of Lethington]], defected to the Protestant side, bringing his administrative skills. For the final stage of the revolution, Maitland appealed to Scottish patriotism to fight French domination. Support from England finally arrived and by the end of March, a significant English army joined the Scottish Protestant forces. The sudden death of Mary of Guise in [[Edinburgh Castle]] on [[10 June]] [[1560]] paved the way for the signing of the [[Treaty of Edinburgh]], and the withdrawal of French and English troops from Scotland, leaving the Scottish Calvinists in control on the ground. Catholicism was forcibly suppressed.

The return of [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]] to Scotland in 1560, led to further tension between her and the Protestant [[Lords of the Congregation]]. Mary claimed to favour religious toleration on the French model, however the Protestant establishment feared a reestablishment of Catholicism, and sought with English help to neutralise or depose Mary. Mary's marriage to a leading Catholic, precipitated Mary's half-brother, the Earl of Moray, to join with other Protestant Lords in open rebellion. Mary set out for Stirling on [[26 August]] [[1565]] to confront them. Moray and the rebellious lords were routed and fled into exile, the decisive military action becoming known as the [[Chaseabout Raid]]. In 1567, however, Mary was captured by another rebellious force at the [[Battle of Carberry Hill|Carberry Hill]] and imprisoned in [[Loch Leven Castle]], where she was forced to abdicate the Scottish throne in favour of her one-year-old son James. Mary escaped from Loch Leven the following year, and once again managed to raise a small army. After her army's defeat at the [[Battle of Langside]] on [[May 13]], she fled to England, where she was imprisoned by Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|England]]. Her son [[James I of England|James]] was raised as a Protestant, later becoming King of England as well as Scotland.

=== English Civil War ===
Great Britain, under the Stewart king, [[James I of England|James I]], continued Elizabeth I's policy of providing military support to European Protestants in the Netherlands and France. King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] decided to send an expeditionary force to relieve the [[France|French]] [[Huguenots]] whom Royal French forces held besieged in [[La Rochelle]]. However tax-raising authority for these wars was getting harder and harder to raise from parliament.

Charles soon needed to raise more money to suppress a rebellion of Catholics in Ireland. Meanwhile English [[Puritans]] and Scottish [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] intensely opposed the king's main religious policy of unifying the [[Church of England]] and the [[Church of Scotland]] under a form of [[High Church]] Anglicanism. This, its opponents believed, was far too catholic in form, and based on the authority of [[bishop]]s. In 1638 the Scottish [[National Covenant]] was signed by aggrevied presbyterian lords and commoners, A Scottish rebellion, known as the [[Bishops War]] soon followed, leading to the defeat of a weak royalist counter-force in 1640. The rebels went on to capture [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], further weakening King Charles' authority.

The English parliament refused to vote enough money for Charles to defeat the Scots without the King giving up much of his authority and reforming the English church along more Calvinist lines. This the king refused, and deteriorating relations led to the out break of war in 1642. The first [[pitched battle]] of the war, fought at [[Battle of Edgehill|Edgehill]] on [[23 October]] [[1642]], proved inconclusive, and both the Royalists and Parliamentarians claimed it as a victory. The second field action of the war, the stand-off at [[Turnham Green (Battle)|Turnham Green]], saw Charles forced to withdraw to [[Oxford]]. This city would serve as his base for the remainder of the war.

In general, the early part of the war went well for the Royalists. The turning-point came in the late summer and early autumn of 1643, when the Earl of Essex's army forced the king to raise the [[siege of Gloucester]] and then brushed the Royalist army aside at the [[First Battle of Newbury]] on [[20 September]] [[1643]]. In an attempt to gain an advantage in numbers Charles negotiated a ceasefire with the Catholic rebels in [[Ireland]], freeing up English troops to fight on the Royalist side in England. Simultaneously Parliament offered concessions to the Scots in return for their aid and assistance.

With the help of the Scots, Parliament won at [[Battle of Marston Moor|Marston Moor]] ([[2 July]] [[1644]]), gaining [[York]] and much of the north of England. [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s conduct in this battle proved decisive, and demonstrated his leadership potential. In 1645 Parliament passed the [[Self-denying Ordinance]], by which all members of either House of Parliament laid down their commands, allowing the re-organization of its main forces into the [[New Model Army]]. By [[1646]] Charles had been forced to surrender himself to the Scots and the parliamentary forces were in control of England.

=== Ireland ===
{{See also|Cromwellian conquest of Ireland}}

Ireland had known continuous war since the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|rebellion of 1641]], with most of the island controlled by the [[Confederate Ireland|Irish Confederates]]. Increasingly threatened by the armies of the English Parliament after Charles I's arrest in 1648, the Confederates signed a treaty of alliance with the English Royalists. The joint Royalist and Confederate forces under [[James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde|the Duke of Ormonde]] attempted to eliminate the Parliamentary army holding [[Dublin]], but their opponents routed them at the [[Battle of Rathmines]] ([[2 August]] [[1649]]). As the former Member of Parliament [[Admiral Robert Blake]] blockaded Prince Rupert's fleet in [[Kinsale]], Oliver Cromwell could land at [[Dublin]] on [[15 August]] [[1649]] with an army to quell the Royalist alliance in [[Ireland]].

Cromwell's suppression of the Royalists in [[Ireland]] during 1649 still has a strong resonance for many Irish people. After the [[siege of Drogheda]], the massacre of nearly 3,500 people{{Fact|date=June 2008}} — comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including civilians, prisoners, and Catholic priests — became one of the historical memories that has driven Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife during the last three centuries. However, the massacre has significance mainly as a symbol of the Irish perception of Cromwellian cruelty, as far more people died in the subsequent [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] and scorched-earth fighting in the country than at infamous massacres such as Drogheda and [[Wexford]]. The [[Parliament of England|Parliamentarian]] conquest of Ireland ground on for another four years until 1653, when the last [[Confederate Ireland|Irish Confederate]] and Royalist troops surrendered. Historians have estimated{{Fact|date=September 2007}} that up to 30% of Ireland's population either died or had gone into exile by the end of the wars. The victors confiscated almost all Irish Catholic-owned land in the wake of the conquest and distributed it to the Parliament's creditors, to the Parliamentary soldiers who served in Ireland, and to English people who had settled there before the war.

=== Scotland, Civil War ===
{{See also|Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms#Montrose's defeat and death|Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms#Third Civil War}}

The execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] altered the dynamics of the [[Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms|the Civil War in Scotland]], which had raged between Royalists and [[Covenanters]] since 1644. By 1649, the struggle had left the Royalists there in disarray and their erstwhile leader, the [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|Marquess of Montrose]], had gone into exile. However, Montrose, who had raised a [[mercenary]] force in [[Norway]], later returned, but did not succeed in raising many Highland clans and the Covenanters defeated his army at the [[Battle of Carbisdale 1650|Battle of Carbisdale]] in [[Ross-shire]] on [[27 April]] [[1650]]. The victors captured Montrose shortly afterwards and took him to [[Edinburgh]]. On [[20 May]] the Scottish Parliament sentenced him to death and had him hanged the next day.

[[Image:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|275px|right|"Cromwell at Dunbar", Andrew Carrick Gow.]]

[[Charles II of England|Charles II]] landed in Scotland at [[Garmouth]] in [[Morayshire]] on [[23 June]] [[1650]] and signed the 1638 [[National Covenant]] and the 1643 [[Solemn League and Covenant]] immediately after coming ashore. With his original Scottish Royalist followers and his new Covenanter allies, King Charles II became the greatest threat facing the new English republic. In response to the threat, Cromwell left some of his lieutenants in Ireland to continue the suppression of the Irish Royalists and returned to England.

He arrived in Scotland on [[22 July]] [[1650]] and proceeded to lay siege to Edinburgh. By the end of August disease and a shortage of supplies had reduced his army, and he had to order a retreat towards his base at [[Dunbar]]. A Scottish army, assembled under the command of [[David Leslie (Scottish general)|David Leslie]], tried to block the retreat, but Cromwell defeated them at the [[Battle of Dunbar (1650)|Battle of Dunbar]] on [[September 3]]. Cromwell's army then took Edinburgh, and by the end of the year his army had occupied much of southern Scotland.

In July 1651, Cromwell's forces crossed the [[Firth of Forth]] into [[Fife]] and defeated the Scots at the [[Battle of Inverkeithing]] ([[20 July]] [[1651]]). The New Model Army advanced towards [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], which allowed Charles, at the head of the Scottish army, to move south into England. Cromwell followed Charles into England, leaving [[George Monck]] to finish the campaign in Scotland. Monck took [[Stirling]] on [[14 August]] and [[Dundee]] on [[1 September]]. The next year, 1652, saw the mopping up of the remnants of Royalist resistance, and under the terms of the "[[Tender of Union]]".

Despite the triumph of calvinist forces in the south and lowlands of Scotland, many highland [[clan]]s remained either Catholic or Episcopalian in sympathy. The Catholic [[Clan MacDonald]] was subject to the [[Glencoe Massacre]] for being late in pledging loyalty to the Protestant King [[William III of England|William III]] in 1691. And Highland clans rallied to the support of Catholic claimants to the British throne in the failed [[Jacobite Risings]] of the erstwhile Stuart [[James Francis Edward Stuart|King James III]] in 1715 and [[Charles Edward Stuart]] in 1745.

== Denmark ==
In 1524, King [[Christian II of Denmark|Christian II]] converted to Lutheranism and encouraged Lutheran preachers to enter Denmark despite the opposition of the Danish diet of 1524. Following the death of King [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I]] in 1533, war broke out between Catholic followers of Count Christoph of Oldenburg, and the firmly Lutheran [[Christian III of Denmark|Count Christian of Holstein]]. After losing his main support in [[Lubeck]], Christoph quickly fell to defeat, finally losing his last stronghold of [[Copenhagen]] in 1536. Lutheranism was immediately established, the Catholic bishops were imprisoned, and monastic and church lands were soon confiscated to pay for the armies that had brought Christian to power. In Denmark this increased royal revenues by 300%.

[[Thirty Years' War]]. In 1625 [[Christian IV of Denmark]], who was also the Duke of [[Holstein]], agreed to help the Lutheran rulers of neighbouring [[Lower Saxony]] against the forces of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] by intervening militarily. Denmark's cause was aided by France which, together with England, had agreed to help subsidize the war. Christian had himself appointed war leader of the Lower Saxon Alliance and raised an army of 20,000-35,000 mercenaries. Christian, however, was forced to retire before the combined forces of Imperial generals [[Albrecht von Wallenstein]] and [[General Tilly|Tilly]]. Wallenstein's army marched north, occupying [[Mecklenburg]], [[Pomerania]], and ultimately [[Jutland]]. However, lacking a fleet, he was unable to take the Danish capital on the island of [[Zealand]]. Peace negotiations were concluded in the [[Treaty of Lübeck]] in [[1629]], which stated that Christian IV could keep his control over Denmark if he would abandon his support for the Protestant German states.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* Greengrass, Mark. ''The European Reformation 1500-1618''. Longman, 1998. ISBN 0 582 061741
* [[Diarmaid MacCulloch|MacCulloch, Diarmaid]]. ''[[The Reformation: A History]]''. New York: Penguin 2003.

{{Christian History|collapsed}}

[[Category:Religion and violence]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church history]]

Revision as of 14:49, 11 October 2008

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Paramagnetism

Jcwf, Thanks for the great writing and editing and for the time you have donated to this project. I will review the page again when I have more time but I wanted to let you know that I got your note and that your edits seem sound and certainly well intentioned. I think your level of expertise is above mine on this subject. A general comment that is true of most pages in Wiki is that we should quote more sources and use footnotes. External links can be added too. Thanks for all you do. Electricmic (talk) 22:32, 1 January 2008 (UTC)

Spectroscopy

Hello. It appears that I excised that information, but I could not tell you why. I am well aware that the information is legitimate and I suspect I removed it because it was redundant or did not fit in the article's structure as it was in April and I was more concerned about resurrecting a badly-formatted article. I have tried to clear up the classification issues surroundings spectroscopy before, but it appears that whatever existed of my attempts has long since been removed. Srnec (talk) 05:03, 14 January 2008 (UTC)

Materials techniques

Yes, I agree with you that this serves a very useful purpose. Where's the proposals page? Can you post me a link? I'm in biomaterials/bioengineering, studying characterization techniques and getting blown away with how many there are and how many acronyms I have to know. I won't be able to do much editing due to school right now, but will add when and what I can. I think you're doing a good job putting these all in one place and editing articles here and there. --Amaltheus (talk) 07:04, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

I'm not sure what a portal is, though. I would like to call it "characterization techniques," which is what I do, characterize materials and matter. I'll keep adding as I can. The microscope articles are in sad shape, but many have editors dedicated to the article as it is, no matter what is wrong or missing, or, some are devoted to the biological sciences, even for techniques with extensive use and histories in the materials sciences. I do both, but most of my background is in materials science. --Amaltheus (talk) 02:08, 17 January 2008 (UTC)

Surface methods list

Hi there, Go ahead if you want. I initially created this page for people searching via search engines who need a navigator through the jungle of acronyms (as it is sometimes not bothered on scientific pages to elucidate them). It can be supposed that one knows his own metier. The list that is supposed to be merged is ordered and very comprehensive but please make sure that a relink remains in place if you intend to carry out the merger.Slicky (talk) 14:08, 19 January 2008 (UTC)

Re: Scientific techniques

I'm not discouraging the potential project/portal (or whatever). I'm just saying that you raised it on a wrong page (heck, the title on that page says it's portal, yet that page is for WikiProject). If you want a discussion, head towards village pump OhanaUnitedTalk page 20:39, 19 January 2008 (UTC)

Mass spectrometry article categorization

Since the category Mass spectrometry is a subcategory of Scientific technique, any article in the Mass spectrometry category does not need to be in the Scientific techniques category. See WP:CAT and WP:SUBCAT. So Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry‎ doesn't need to be in Scientific techniques since it is in Mass spectrometry. I also noticed that you put Field emission microscope into Scientific techniques when a better move might have been to put Category:Microscopes into Scientific techniques. I don't want to throw cold water on your scientific techniques effort, but be careful not to over categorize. --Kkmurray (talk) 22:54, 19 January 2008 (UTC)

If you don't want to throw water it would be nicer to state things without warnings such as "be careful not to ovecategorize." The warning to be careful did not enhance the message. It seems to me the urge to scold is often so great in Wikipedia interactions that the message gets lost. Are you saying categorize only in the lowest subcategory on Wikipedia in general? --Amaltheus (talk) 01:20, 20 January 2008 (UTC)
As I stated in the the village pump my categorization was very rough: I simple wanted to make sure I got all techniques covered somehow, so that we could later find them back more easily for proper organization. Some had no such category at all, others have tags that lead to categories that contain techniques but also other things. Sometimes it is the physical phenomenon, sometimes the instrument (the microscope rather than the -scopy) that gets categorized and that does not make things any easier to find. One of the things I would like to achieve is to come at a more sensible and less chaotic system of entry. I have been searching in wiki for a week or two now and I still discover useful bits and pieces here and there. It's a mess. Kkmurray.

Jcwf (talk) 04:16, 20 January 2008 (UTC)

I did look at various categorizing schemes on Wikipedia. My thought is developing a series of sub-categories might also get you a better assortment of the techniques, and maybe others will want to edit within a subcategory. The techniques subcategories might be by the various things you suggest for the template. I might do Characterization techniques using ionizing radiation, Characterization techniques using optical light. --Amaltheus (talk) 07:35, 20 January 2008 (UTC)
I don't mean to scold. Sorry if it came off that way to anyone. It was meant to be advice and encouragement. I think that organizing scientific techniques is a great idea. If you are not already aware, there are of a couple of related Wikiprojects: WikiProject Mass spectrometry, WikiProject Spectroscopy, and WikiProject Chemistry. If you need any help, peer review, etc., those are good places to go. Good luck. --Kkmurray (talk) 19:00, 22 January 2008 (UTC)

Sunbittern

No worries. I was going to format all the names, but with a study that big et al- -ing is sufficient. Feel free to copy paste the ref elsewhere if you cite it again (I tend to copy paste cites all the time). Sabine's Sunbird talk 03:11, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

Sure is. I like the Kagu and Sunbittern being off on their lonesome together. Sabine's Sunbird talk 03:27, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

Re:Hindi Spelling

Hello Jcwf. Thanks for your comments on my talk page. February is written like this: फ़रवरी and pronounced farvarī. I hope this helps. With regards, AnupamTalk 02:05, 18 July 2008 (UTC)

Evidence n stuff

No, cladistic analyses are always inductive logic-based inference. The evidence in this case is simply the linear DNA sequences, aligned or not. These tell us that most "higher waterbirds" are very closely related, to the point of apparently forming a clade, and that this emerged close to the K-Pg boundary. But how close? The evidence doesn't tell us that, though it is more compatible with some possibilities than with others, and of course it roundly refutes some.

So we need inferred hypotheses. They may or may not be correct however, being very sophisticated best-guesses resting on certain assumptions. If any of these fails (and at least one of the two key assumptions that differ in the study you cite from most others is known to fail more often than not), the entire inferred hypothesis gets knocked from its foundation - it may still be right, but there is no way to tell whether the results are right if the analysis made a key assumption in error.

You'll probably want to check out this, this, this and this. Dysmorodrepanis (talk) 00:31, 29 July 2008 (UTC)

Properties and uses of metals‎

Hi. When content is merged to another article we need to keep the history for attribution purposes, so we just redirect. See WP:MERGE for more info. -- zzuuzz (talk) 03:31, 3 August 2008 (UTC)

Metallic bond

Great work with the article. I have submitted some suggestions at Wikipedia:Peer review/Metallic bond/archive1. COntact me if you ahve any questions. Nergaal (talk) 10:53, 3 August 2008 (UTC)

History section

I think you are misreprenting Hume Rotherys views and Hume Rothery himself. He was a very good communicator and very enthusiastic that is true, but you make him sound like some sort of opportunist who was later debunked following the (sic) "debacle" of the free electron theory- bit hard don't you think? Aren't scientific models supposed to be used and then "pushed" so that they fall over - I thought that was part of the scientific process. --Axiosaurus (talk) 10:43, 4 August 2008 (UTC) Well thank you for your response.--Axiosaurus (talk) 13:40, 4 August 2008 (UTC)

Respiratory System

You make an excellent point regarding the need to make this article less centered around humans/mammals. In this manner, the article will likely also become more specific and accurate. Thanks for the suggestion and for leading me to the page indicating that effort was being made to "clean up" the entry in general. I have expertise in some areas that have been discussed for clean up so will attempt to make more improvements. LLDMart (talk) 13:20, 19 August 2008 (UTC)

Tissue (biology)

Some nice entries are beginning on this page regarding plant tissue. Might you be willing to take a look and provide a bit of guidance regarding unity of style for the page? I'm getting lost in my lack of plant knowledge such that I'm having trouble revising. I think an outside set of eyes would be helpful. LLDMart (talk) 18:30, 25 August 2008 (UTC)

Hagfish

The hagfish is a very interesting suggestion. I assume you are suggesting it as an excellent example of the external production of mucus. Definitely worth adding. I've only begun to assess the best manor to present such information about mucus in animals that are not mammals. Mucus is also highly relevant in frog skin, for example. LLDMart (talk) 18:05, 28 August 2008 (UTC)

Discussion

Here is a discussion involving the grim edit war over List of battles by casualties. You might want to join. Wandalstouring (talk) 17:44, 12 September 2008 (UTC)

CO

Hi Jcwf,

I'm afraid I don't really understand the resonance structure of CO. I drew my picture from what I saw in a text book, however it was a very old text book, (80s). Are you saying that the other two structures should be different? Or just that they are not significant enough? I would be happy to redraw the diagram if you could show me other structures. If you think the other two are not significant enough then either remove it yourself or start a section on the CO talk page. Although I think even if they are very unstable and have a low chance of occurring practically but are still theoretically present then it is an interesting diagram, but maybe the explanation about them should be changed. -- Borb (talk) 13:39, 11 October 2008 (UTC)

Hi Borb,

A text book huh? Ouch..

The problem becomes visible if you add the remaining lone pairs. If you do the Lewis calculation you get:

ER (electrons required for octet rule)= 2*8 =16
VE (valence electrons available) = 4 (C) +6 (O) = 10, so total number of pairs = 10/2=5

The whole point of Lewis structures is to make up the difference by sharing electron pairs:

SE (shared electrons) =ER-VE= 16-10 = 6, so total shared pairs = 6/2 = 3
This means the number of lone pairs (LP) should be 5-3= 2

The only way you can do this is |C≡O|, because you need three bonds.

Yes you can write a structure like C=O but that would leave 3 lone pairs like |C=O>. If you now count the electrons surrounding C, there are only 6, not a full octet. The third 'resonance' is worse. It leaves C with only 4 electrons...

True resonance structures involve equivalent structures that each fulfill the octet rule. There is only one of those in this case.

(Of course, the whole Lewis story is primitive bunk compared to MO theory but that is a different matter) Jcwf (talk) 14:49, 11 October 2008 (UTC)

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