Antisemitism and Marasmiellus scandens: Difference between pages

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{{Taxobox
{{Antisemitism}}
| name = ''Marasmiellus scandens''
| regnum = [[Fungi]]
| phylum = [[Basidiomycota]]
| classis = [[Basidiomycetes]]
| subclassis = [[Agaricomycetidae]]
| ordo = [[Agaricales]]
| familia = [[Marasmiaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Marasmiellus]]''
| species = '''''M. scandens'''''
| binomial = ''Marasmiellus scandens''
| binomial_authority = (Massee) Dennis & D.A. Reid, (1957)
| synonyms =
''Marasmius byssicola'' <small>Petch, (1928)</small><br>
''Marasmius scandens'' <small>Massee</small><br>
}}


'''Marasmiellus scandens''' is a [[plant pathogen]] that causes white thread on [[cacao]].
'''Antisemitism''' (alternatively spelled '''anti-semitism''' or '''anti-Semitism'''; also rarely known as ''judeophobia'') is the [[prejudice]] against or hostility toward [[Jew]]s as a group. The prejudice or hostility is usually characterized by a combination of [[Religion|religious]], [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]], [[cultural]] and [[ethnic group|ethnic]] biases. While the term's [[etymology]] might suggest that antisemitism is directed against all [[Semitic peoples]], since its creation it has been used exclusively to refer to hostility towards Jews.<ref name=Lewis_MEI1973>"Antisemitism has never anywhere been concerned with anyone but Jews." [[Bernard Lewis|Lewis, Bernard]]. [http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html "Semites and Antisemites"], ''Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East'', The Library Press, 1973.</ref><ref>See, for example:
*"Anti-Semitism", ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 2006.
*[[Paul Johnson (writer)|Johnson, Paul]]. ''A History of the Jews'', HarperPerennial 1988, p 133 ff.
*[[Bernard Lewis|Lewis, Bernard]]. [http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html "The New Anti-Semitism"], ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25-36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at [[Brandeis University]] on March 24, 2004.</ref>


== External links ==
Antisemitism may be manifested in many ways, ranging from individual expressions of [[hatred]] and [[discrimination]] against individual Jews to organized [[pogroms|violent attacks]] by [[mobs]] or even [[state]] [[police]] or [[military]] attacks on entire Jewish communities. Extreme instances of [[persecution]] include the [[German Crusade, 1096|German Crusade]] of 1096, the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion from England]] in 1290, the [[Spanish Inquisition]], the [[Alhambra decree|expulsion from Spain]] in 1492, the [[Jews in Portugal|expulsion from Portugal]] in 1497, various [[pogroms]], and the most infamous, the [[Holocaust]] under [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Germany]].
* [http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/Names.asp Index Fungorum]<br>

* [http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases USDA ARS Fungal Database]
==Forms==
The Roman-Catholic historian [[Edward Flannery]] distinguished four varieties of antisemitism<ref>Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', Stimulus Books, first published 1965, this edition 2004.</ref>:

*Political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples [[Cicero]] and [[Charles Lindbergh]];
*[[Religious antisemitism|Theological or religious antisemitism]], sometimes known as anti-Judaism;
*Nationalistic antisemitism, citing [[Voltaire]] and other [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as [[kashrut]] and [[shabbat]];
*[[Racial antisemitism]], as practiced in the [[Holocaust]] by the [[Nazi]]s.
In addition, from the 1990s, some writers claim to have identified a [[new antisemitism]], a form of antisemitism coming simultaneously from the [[Left-wing politics|far left]], the [[far right]], and [[Islamism|radical Islam]], which tends to focus on opposition to [[Zionism]] and a Jewish homeland in the [[State of Israel]], and which may deploy traditional antisemitism motifs.<ref name="New-AS-List">
*[[Phyllis Chesler|Chesler, Phyllis]]. ''The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158-159, 181
*[[Warren Kinsella|Kinsella, Warren]]. [http://www.warrenkinsella.com/words_extremism_nas.htm The New antisemitism], accessed March 5, 2006
*[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html "Jews predict record level of hate attacks: Militant Islamic media accused of stirring up new wave of antisemitism"], ''[[The Guardian]]'', August 8, 2004.
*Endelman, Todd M. "Antisemitism in Western Europe Today" in ''Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World''. University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 65-79
*Matas, David. ''Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and antisemitism'', p.31. Dundurn Press, 2005.
</ref> Proponents of the concept argue that [[anti-Zionism]], [[anti-Americanism]], [[anti-globalization]], [[third worldism]], and demonization of [[Israel]] or double standards applied to its conduct may be linked to antisemitism, or constitute disguised antisemitism.<!-- BROKEN? <ref name=Taguieff/><ref name=Rosenbaum/> --> Critics of the concept argue that it conflates anti-Zionism with antisemitism, defines legitimate criticism of [[Israel]] too narrowly and demonization too broadly, trivializes the meaning of antisemitism, and exploits antisemitism in order to silence debate.<ref name=Klug>Klug, Brian. [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040202&s=klug The Myth of the New Anti-Semitism]. ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'', posted January 15, 2004 (February 2, 2004 issue), accessed January 9, 2006.</ref><ref name="Lerner">[[Michael Lerner (rabbi)|Lerner, Michael]]. [http://baltimorechronicle.com/2007/020207LERNER.shtml There Is No New Anti-Semitism], posted February 5, 2007, accessed February 6, 2007.</ref>

==Etymology and usage==
[[Image:Bookcover-1880-Marr-German uber Juden.jpg|left|thumb|120px|Cover page of Marr's ''The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism'', 1880 edition]]
The term ''[[Semite]]'' refers broadly to speakers of a language group which includes both [[Arab]]s and [[Jew]]s. However, the term ''antisemitism'' is specifically used in reference to attitudes held towards Jews.
The word ''antisemitic'' (''{{lang|de|antisemitisch}}'' in German) was probably first used in 1860 by the [[Austria]]n Jewish [[scholar]] [[Moritz Steinschneider]] in the phrase "antisemitic prejudices" ({{lang-de|"antisemitische Vorurteile"}}).<ref>In: [[Alex Bein]]. ''The [[Jewish Question]]: Biography of a World Problem''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, Page 594. ISBN 0838632521</ref> Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize [[Ernest Renan]]'s ideas about how "[[Semitic]] races" were inferior to "[[Aryan]] races." These [[Pseudoscience|pseudo-scientific]] theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in [[Europe]] in the second half of the 19th century, especially as [[Prussia]]n nationalistic historian [[Heinrich von Treitschke]] did much to promote this form of racism. In Treitschke's writings ''Semitic'' was [[synonym]]ous with ''Jewish'', in contrast to its usage by Renan and others.

In 1873 German journalist [[Wilhelm Marr]] published a pamphlet ''"The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective."'' (''"Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet."'') in which he used the word ''"Semitismus"'' interchangeably with the word "Judentum" to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish,or the Jewish spirit). Although he did not use the word "Antisemitismus" in the panphlet, the coining of the latter word followed naturally from the word "Semitismus", and indicated either opposition to the Jews as a people, or else oppositon to jewishness or the Jewish spirit, which he saw as infiltrating German culture.<ref>Wilhelm Marr. [http://www.archive.org/details/DerSiegdesJudenthumsueberdasGermanenthum|Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet.] Rudolph Costenoble. 1879, 8th edition. Archive.org</ref> In his next pamphlet, ''"The Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit"'', published in 1880, Marr developed his ideas further and coined the related [[German language|German]] word ''Antisemitismus'' - ''antisemitism'', derived from the word "Semitismus" that he had earlier used.

The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year he founded the ''"League of Antisemites"'' ("''Antisemiten-Liga''"), the first German organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence, and advocating their [[population transfer|forced removal]] from the country.

So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''"Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte,"'' and [[Wilhelm Scherer]] used the term "''Antisemiten''" in the January issue of ''"Neue Freie Presse"''. The related word ''[[semitism]]'' was coined around 1885. See also the coinage of the term "[[Definitions of Palestine and Palestinian#Referring to Jews in a national rather than religious sense|Palestinian]]" by Germans to refer to ethnic [[Jew]]s, as distinct from the religion of [[Judaism]].

Despite the use of the prefix "anti," the terms ''Semitic'' and ''anti-Semitic'' are not directly opposed to each other (unlike similar-seeming terms such as [[anti-Americanism|anti-American]] or [[anti-Hellenism|anti-Hellenic]]). To avoid the confusion of the [[misnomer]], many scholars on the subject (such as [[Emil Fackenheim]]) now favor the unhyphenated ''antisemitism''<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.facinghistory.org/campus/reslib.nsf/99ca830bb4f483948525717f005abfc7/2820f36c177cc758852571860065e8c2/$FILE/complete_antisemitism.pdf Antisemitism. The Power of Myth] (Facing History).|184&nbsp;KB}} Accessed August 21, 2006</ref> in order to emphasize that the word should be read as a single unified term, not as a meaningful [[Root (linguistics)|root word]]-[[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]] combination.

The term ''antisemitism'' has historically referred to prejudice against [[Jew]]s alone, and this was the only use of the word for more than a century. It does not traditionally refer to prejudice against other people who speak [[Semitic language]]s (e.g. [[Arab]]s or [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]). [[Bernard Lewis]], Professor of Near Eastern Studies Emeritus at Princeton University, says that "Antisemitism has never anywhere been concerned with anyone but Jews."<ref name=Lewis_MEI1973/> [[Yehuda Bauer]] also articulated this view in his writings and lectures: (the term) "Antisemitism, especially in its [[hyphen]]ated spelling, is inane nonsense, because there is no Semitism that you can be [[anti]] to."<ref name=Bauer>[[Yehuda Bauer|Bauer, Yehuda]]. {{PDFlink|[http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf "Problems of Contemporary Antisemitism"]|196&nbsp;KB}}. Accessed March 12, 2006.</ref><ref name=Bauer2>Bauer, Yehuda. ''A History of the Holocaust'', Franklin Watts, 1982, p. 52. ISBN 0-531-05641-4</ref> A similar point is made by Professor Shmuel Almog, of the Institute of Contemporary Jewry at the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], who writes "So the hyphen, or rather its omission, conveys a message; if you hyphenate your 'anti-Semitism', you attach some credence to the very foundation on which the whole thing rests."<ref name=Almog>[[Shmuel Almog|Almog, Shmuel]]. [http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/hyphen.htm "What's in a Hyphen?"], SICSA Report: Newsletter of the [[Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism]] (Summer 1989).</ref>

In recent decades, some groups have argued that the term should be extended to include prejudice against Arabs or [[Anti-Arabism]]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, in the context of answering accusations of Arab antisemitism; further, some, including the [[Islamic Association of Palestine]], have argued that this implies that Arabs cannot, ''by definition'', be antisemitic.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The argument runs that since the [[Semitic]] [[language family]] includes [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Hebrew languages|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]] languages and the historical term "Semite" refers to all those who consider themselves descendants of the Biblical [[Shem]], "anti-Semitism" should be likewise inclusive. However, this usage is not generally accepted{{Fact|date=September 2008}}.

===Definitions===
[[Image:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|left|Antisemitic caricature (France, 1898)]]

Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against [[Jew]]s, a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] scholar and [[City University of New York]] professor Helen Fein defines it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, [[ideology]], [[folklore]] and imagery, and in actions – social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence – which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."

Professor Dietz Bering of the [[University of Cologne]] further expanded on Professor Fein's definition by describing the structure of antisemitic beliefs. To antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the antisemites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."

[[Bernard Lewis]] defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.<ref name="autogenerated1">[[Bernard Lewis|Lewis, Bernard]]. [http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html "The New Anti-Semitism"], ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25-36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at [[Brandeis University]] on March 24, 2004.</ref>

There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. The United States Department of State defines antisemitism in its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism as "hatred toward Jews — individually and as a group — that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."<ref name=USDS>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/40258.htm "Report on Global Anti-Semitism"''], [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]], January 5, 2005.</ref>

In 2005, the [[European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]] (EUMC), a body of the [[European Union]], developed a more detailed discussion: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities. In addition, such manifestations could also target the [[state of Israel]], conceived as a Jewish collectivity. Antisemitism frequently charges Jews with conspiring to harm [[human]]ity, and it is often used to blame Jews for 'why things go wrong'."

The EUMC then listed "contemporary examples of antisemitism in public life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in the religious sphere." These included: "Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews; accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group; [[Holocaust denial|denying the Holocaust]]; and accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations. The EUMC also discussed ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, depending on the context, while clarifying that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic." (see [[#Antisemitism and anti-Zionism|anti-Zionism]] below).<ref name=EUMC>[[European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]], {{PDFlink|[http://eumc.eu.int/eumc/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf "Working Definition of Antisemitism"]|33.8&nbsp;KB}}, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref> To encourage additional usage of the definition, the European Forum on Antisemitism has commissioned [http://www.european-forum-on-antisemitism.org/working-definition-of-antisemitism translations of the working definition into numerous languages.]

===Evolution of usage as a term===
[[Image:1889 French elections Poster for antisemitic candidate Adolf Willette.jpg|thumb|left|France, 1889. Elections poster for self-described "candidat antisémite" [[Adolphe Willette]]]]
In 1879, [[Wilhelm Marr]] founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga'' (Antisemitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe in the latter 19th century. For example, [[Karl Lueger]], the popular mayor of [[fin de siècle]] [[Vienna]], skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage.<ref>Richard S. Geehr. ''Karl Lueger, Mayor of Fin-de-Siècle Vienna'', Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1989. ISBN 0814320554</ref> In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, ''The New York Times'' notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9404E7D91E30E333A25752C1A9659C946196D6CF Dr. Karl Lueger Dead; Anti-Semitic Leader and Mayor of Vienna Was 66 Years Old.] ''The New York Times'', March 11, 1910.</ref> In 1895 [[A. C. Cuza]] organized the ''Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle'' in Bucharest. In the period before [[World War II]], when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, organization, or political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.

The early zionist pioneer, [[Judah Leib Pinsker]], in a pamphlet written in 1882, said that antisemitism was an inherited predisposition:{{cquote|Judeophobia is a psychic aberration. As a psychic aberration it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable.' ... 'In this way have Judaism and Anti-Semitism passed for centuries through history as inseparable companions.'... ...'Having analyzed Judeophobia as an hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and having represented Anti-Semitism as proceeding from an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion that we must give' up contending against these hostile impulses as we must against every other inherited predisposition.<ref>[[Wikisource:Auto-Emancipation| ''Auto-Emancipation'' by Judah Leib Pinsker]]</ref>}}

In the aftermath of [[Kristallnacht]], [[Josef Goebbels|Goebbels]] announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."<ref>''Daily Telegraph'', November 12, 1938. Cited in [[Martin Gilbert|Gilbert, Martin]]. ''Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction.'' Harper Collins, 2006, p. 142.</ref>

After [[Hitler]]'s rise to power, and particularly after the extent of the [[Nazi]] [[genocide]] of Jews became known, the term "antisemitism" acquired [[pejorative]] connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term.<ref>Jacob Rader Marcus. ''United States Jewry, 1776-1985.'' Wayne State University Press, 1989, page 286. ISBN 0814321860</ref><ref>Alex Bein. ''The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, Page 580. ISBN 0838632521</ref> Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no antisemites in the world... Nobody says, 'I am antisemitic.'" You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."<ref>[[Yehuda Bauer]]: ''The Most Ancient Group Prejudice'' in Leo Eitinger (1984): ''The Anti-Semitism of Our Time''. Oslo. Nansen Committee. p.14. citing from: Jocelyn Hellig (2003): ''The Holocaust and Antisemitism: A Short History.'' Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851683135. p.73</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of antisemitism}}

===Ancient world===
Examples of antipathy to [[Jews]] and [[Judaism]] during [[ancient world|ancient times]] are easy to find. Statements exhibiting prejudice towards Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers.<ref>Daniels. J,L, ''Anti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period'' in JBL 98 (1979) P.45 - 65</ref> There are examples of [[Greeks|Greek]] rulers desecrating the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Sabbath observance, study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in [[Alexandria]] in the 3rd century BCE. [[Philo of Alexandria]] described an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.

The Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BC.<ref>Colpe, Carsten (Berlin). "Anti-Semitism." Brill's New Pauly. Antiquity volumes edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider . Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 28 April 2008</ref>

Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying [[Roman Empire]] were at first antagonistic and resulted in [[Jewish-Roman wars|several rebellions]]. According to [[Suetonius]], the emperor [[Tiberius]] expelled from Rome, Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th century [[England|English]] historian [[Edward Gibbon]] identified a more tolerant period beginning in about 160 CE.

According to [[James P. Carroll|James Carroll]], "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the [[Roman Empire]]. By that ratio, if other factors such as [[pogrom]]s and [[forced conversion|conversion]]s had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<ref>Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) ISBN 0-395-77927-8 p.26</ref><ref>[http://www.townhall.com/columnists/DennisPrager/2006/02/21/explaining_jews,_part_iii_a_very_insecure_people Explaining Jews, Part III: A very insecure people::By Dennis Prager]</ref>

===Persecutions in the Middle Ages===
{{Main|Jews in the Middle Ages}}

From the 9th century CE, Christian and Jewish ''[[dhimmi]]'' were allowed to freely practice their religion in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] to a greater extent than in [[Middle Ages|medieval Christian Europe]]. Under [[Al-Andalus|Islamic rule]], there was a [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]] that lasted until at least the 11th century,<ref>{{citation|first=María Rosa|last=Menocal|author-link=María Rosa Menocal|title=The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain|date=April 2003|publisher=Back Bay Books|isbn=0316168718}}</ref> when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place in the [[Iberian Peninsula]]; those that occurred in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].<ref name="Schweitzer267-268"> Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 267-268.</ref><ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada Granada] by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''. 1906 ed. </ref><ref>Harzig, Hoerder & Shubert, 2003, p. 42.</ref> Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted in [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Iraq]] and [[Yemen]]. Jews were also forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and [[Baghdad]] at certain times.<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries]</ref> The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147,<ref name=islamicworldeb>Islamic world. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 2, 2007, from [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 Encyclopædia Britannica Online].</ref> far surpassed the [[Almoravides]] in fundamentalist outlook, and they treated the ''dhimmis'' harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.<ref name=frank>Frank and Leaman, 2003, p. 137-138.</ref><ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm The Almohads]</ref><ref>[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees]</ref> Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,<ref name=frank/> while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim]</ref><ref> Kraemer, 2005, pp. 16-17.</ref>
During the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe there was full-scale persecution against Jews in many places, with [[blood libel]]s, expulsions, [[forced conversion]]s and [[wiktionary:massacre|massacres]]. A main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In the [[First Crusade]] (1096) flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed; see [[German Crusade, 1096]]. In the [[Second Crusade]] (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the [[Shepherds' Crusade]]s of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including in, 1290, the banishing of all English Jews; in 1396, 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and, in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<ref>[http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html Why the Jews? - Black Death]</ref>

As the [[Black Death]] epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than half of the population, Jews were used as [[scapegoat#Political/sociological scapegoating|scapegoats]]. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately [[well poisoning|poisoning wells]]. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. Although [[Pope Clement VI]] tried to protect them by the July 6, 1348, [[papal bull]] and an additional bull in 1348, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt alive in [[Strasbourg]], where the plague hadn't yet affected the city.<ref name="Black"/>

===Seventeenth century===
During the mid-to-late 17th century the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in hundreds of thousands. First, the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] when [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]'s [[Cossack]]s massacred tens of thousands of [[History of Jews in Poland|Jews]] in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's [[Ukraine]]). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and ''[[slave trade|jasyr]]'' (captivity in the [[Ottoman Empire]]).<ref>"Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed." [http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html Judaism Timeline 1618-1770], ''[[CBS News]]''. Accessed May 13, 2007.</ref><ref>"... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage." [[Martin Gilbert]]. ''Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past'', Columbia University Press, 1999, ISBN 0231109652, p. 219.</ref>

===Eighteenth century===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}}
In 1744, [[Frederick II of Prussia]] limited the number of Jews allowed to live in [[Breslau]] to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged a similar practice in other [[Prussia]]n cities. In 1750 he issued the ''Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft'': the "protected" Jews had an alternative to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting [[Simon Dubnow]]). In the same year, Archduchess of [[Austria]] [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] ordered Jews out of [[Bohemia]] but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This [[extortion]] was known as ''malke-geld'' (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] abolished most of these persecution practices in his ''Toleranzpatent'', on the condition that [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. [[Moses Mendelssohn]] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."

In 1772, the empress of Russia [[Catherine II]] forced the Jews of the [[Pale of Settlement]] to stay in their [[shtetls]] and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the [[partition of Poland]].<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Poland.html The Virtual Jewish History Tour By Rebecca Weiner]</ref>

{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}

===Nineteenth century===
Historian [[Martin Gilbert]] writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. [[Benny Morris]] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish [[gaberdine]]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name=Morris10/>

In 1850 the [[Germany|German]] composer [[Richard Wagner]] published ''[[Das Judenthum in der Musik]]'' ("Jewishness in Music") under a [[pseudonym]] in the ''[[Neue Zeitschrift für Musik]]''. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries (and rivals) [[Felix Mendelssohn]] and [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]], but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in [[German culture]].

===Twentieth century===
[[Image:Nazi Anti-Semitic Propaganda by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|left|Two common Anti-semitic depictions of Jews during Nazi Germany: on the left is the Capitalist/Communist global parasite depiction; on the right is the [[Wandering Jew]].]]
In the first half of the twentieth century, in the USA, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrollment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The [[Leo Frank]] lynching by a mob of prominent citizens in [[Marietta, Georgia|Marietta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States. The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] which had been inactive since 1870.

Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer [[Henry Ford]] propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper ''[[The Dearborn Independent]]''. The radio speeches of [[Father Coughlin]] in the late 1930s attacked [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]] and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Such views were also shared by some prominent politicians; [[Louis T. McFadden]], Chairman of the [[United States House Committee on Banking and Currency]], blamed Jews for president Roosevelt's decision to abandon the [[gold standard]], and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money."<ref>{{cite book |last=Arad |first=Gulie Ne'eman |title=America, Its Jews, and the Rise of Nazism |year=2000 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Indianapolis |isbn=0253338093 |pages=p.174 }}</ref>

In the 1940s the [[aviator]] [[Charles Lindbergh]] and many prominent Americans led The [[America First Committee]] in opposing any involvement in the war against Fascism. During his July 1936 visit he wrote letters saying that there was “more intelligent leadership in Germany than is generally recognized.”

The [[German American Bund]] held parades in [[New York City]] during the late 1930s where [[Nazi]] uniforms were worn and flags featuring [[swastika]]s were raised alongside American flags. The US House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) was very active in denying the Bund's ability to operate. With the start of US involvement in [[World War II]] most of the Bund's members were placed in [[internment camp]]s, and some were deported at the end of the war.

Sometimes, during race riots, as in [[Detroit]] in 1943, Jewish businesses were targeted for looting and burning.

[[Image:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|right|thumb|200px|"Selection" on the ''Judenrampe'', [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]], May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the [[gas chamber]]s. This image shows the arrival of Hungarian Jews from [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Carpatho-Ruthenia]], many of them from the [[Berehove|Berehov]] ghetto. It was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the SS. Courtesy of [[Yad Vashem]].<ref name=AuschwitzAlbum>[http://www1.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/home_auschwitz_album.html "The Auschwitz Album"], [[Yad Vashem]].</ref>]]

Of course, the [[Holocaust]] in Europe is one of the most prominent examples of antisemitism. Six million Jews, along with five million other "[[Untermenschen]]" targeted by the Nazis, were killed.<ref>Wolfgang Benz in Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust,'' Macmillan Reference Books; Reference edition (October 1, 1995)</ref><ref>[[Lucy Dawidowicz|Dawidowicz, Lucy]]. ''The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945''. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975.</ref>

This is seen by many as the culmination of generations of antisemitism in Europe.

Antisemitism was commonly used as an instrument for personal conflicts in [[USSR|Soviet Russia]], starting from conflict between [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] and [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]] ("Jews are trotskists, trotskists are Jews") and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. Departament IV of [[NKVD]] was called "Jewsekcia" for its activity in "cleansing" party structures from Jews. Antisemitism in the [[USSR]] reached its peak after 1948 during the campaign against [[Rootless cosmopolitan|"rootless cosmopolitan"]], when several hundred Yiddish-writing poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

After the war, the [[Kielce pogrom]] and "[[March 1968 events]]" in communist [[Poland]] represented a further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The common theme behind the anti-Jewish violence in the postwar Poland were [[blood libel]] rumours <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233&ots=Se_CvAI3X6&dq=Cracow+Kupa+synagogue+ritual+murder&num=100&sig=0t5WKlHjavg6aVgoL1ertcsPn9U]</ref> <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74&ots=VvcY2-LqLQ&dq=blood+libel+kielce&num=100&sig=JY3EykCZ-dp3x3HoBc1jM2vFzks]</ref> .

The cult of [[Simon of Trent]] was disbanded in 1965 by [[Pope Paul VI]], and the shrine erected to him was dismantled. He was removed from the calendar, and his future veneration was forbidden, though a handful of extremists still promote the narrative as a fact. In the 20th century, the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in [[Russia]] represented incidents of blood libel in Europe. Unproven rumours of Jews killing Christians were used as justification for killing of Jews by Christians.

==Christianity and antisemitism==
{{main|Religious antisemitism}}
{{main|Christianity and antisemitism}}

Religious antisemitism is also known as anti-Judaism. As the name implies, it was the practice of [[Judaism]] itself that was the defining characteristic of the antisemitic attacks. Under this version of antisemitism, attacks would often stop if Jews stopped practicing or changed their public faith, especially by [[Religious conversion|conversion]] to the official or right religion, and sometimes, liturgical exclusion of Jewish converts (the case of Christianized ''[[Marranos]]'' or Iberian Jews in the late 15th and 16th centuries convicted of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs). <ref>See, for example, Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', Stimulus Books, first published 1985, this edition 2004.</ref>

Jews have lived as a religious minority in Christian and Muslim lands since the Roman Empire became Christian. Christianity and Islam have both portrayed Jews as those who rejected God's truth. Christians and Muslims have, over the centuries, alternately lived in peace with Jews and persecuted them.

===New Testament and antisemitism===
{{main|Antisemitism in the New Testament}}

Certain historians have noted that the [[New Testament]], although recognized as being largely authored by Jews within a Jewish cultural context, has been singled out for its progressively antagonistic tone and hostile attitude toward Jews. Particularly, the [[Gospel of John]] has been singled out in antisemitic texts, because it includes many anti-Jewish episodes, and it contains many references to Jews in a pejorative manner.<ref>Flannery (2004) pp. 33</ref>

{{bibleverse|1|Thessalonians|2:13-16|31}} has repeatedly been employed for antisemitic purposes. The verse speaks of violence suffered at the hands of one's own countrymen. It claims that the Churches in Judea had been persecuted by the Jews who killed [[Jesus]] and that such people displease God, oppose all men, and had prevented Paul from speaking to the gentile nations concerning the New Testament message. During the Second Temple period there were sectarian differences among Jewish religious groups regarding communication with Gentiles.<ref> see the JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA entry [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=G&search=gentiles#543 Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah]</ref><ref>The JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA entry [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=49&letter=Z&search=zealot#134 Phinehas the Model Zealot] states: 'Others threaten to slay any uncircumcised Gentile who listens to a discourse on God and His laws, unless he undergoes the rite of circumcision <nowiki>[comp. Sanh. 59a; Sifre, Deut. 345]</nowiki>; should he refuse to do so, they kill him instantly. From this practise they have received the name of 'Zealots' or 'Sicarii.'</ref> <ref>The JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA entry [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=956&letter=B#2719As | BET HILLEL AND BET SHAMMAI] explains: As all the nations around Judea made common cause with the Romans, the Zealots were naturally inflamed against every one of them; and therefore the Shammaites proposed to prevent all communication between Jew and Gentile, by prohibiting the Jews from buying any article of food or drink from their heathen neighbors. The Hillelites, still moderate in their religious and political views, would not agree to such sharply defined exclusiveness; but when the Sanhedrin was called together to consider the propriety of such measures, the Shammaites, with the aid of the Zealots, gained the day. Eleazar ben Ananias invited the disciples of both schools to meet at his house. Armed men were stationed at the door, and instructed to permit every one to enter, but no one to leave. During the discussions that were carried on under these circumstances, many Hillelites are said to have been killed; and there and then the remainder adopted the restrictive propositions of the Shammaites, known in the Talmud as "The Eighteen Articles." On account of the violence which attended those enactments, and because of the radicalism of the enactments themselves, the day on which the Shammaites thus triumphed over the Hillelites was thereafter regarded as a day of misfortune (Tosef., Shab. i. 16 et seq.; Shab. 13a, 17a; Yer. Shab. i. 3c).</ref> The verse has created significant debate among scholars because some feel it contradicts the other writings attributed to [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]], and because Paul did not have an attitude of revulsion toward his life as a Pharisee before Christianity.<ref>Richardson (1986) pp. 21-22</ref>

The New Testament states that while on trial, Jesus was struck in the face by a Jewish guard for allegedly speaking ill of the high priest ({{bibleverse||John|18:20-22|31}}). Such incidents were the source of the myth of the [[wandering Jew]], who was doomed to the punishment of endless roaming and suffering fated to never die.<ref>Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 32</ref>

The [[Death and resurrection of Jesus|death of Jesus]], according to the New Testament, was done in brutal mockery by the Roman soldiers. [[Pontius Pilate]]'s words ({{bibleverse||Matthew|27:24-25|31}}) imply that the Jews were entirely responsible for the killing. When Jesus is nailed to the cross, the New Testament states that those present mocked Jesus ({{bibleverse||Matthew|27:39|31}}); some have speculated that the unnamed individuals were in fact Jews. Further speculation states that the overall impression on [[Christians]] was that the Jews controlled the events that lead to the death of Jesus <ref>Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 35</ref>, although the Roman (or goy/gentile) involvement in the affair, specifically the form of execution, is attested to within the New Testament text.

The process by which some believe that Christians began to see Judaism first as a rival, and then as a scapegoat, is seen as traceable through select passages in the New Testament, as well as early Christian writings and of the Apostolic fathers. The destruction of the [[Second Temple]] was seen as judgment from God to the Jews for the death of Jesus. <ref>Richardson (1986) pp. 23</ref> Parallel passages to this affect can be seen in the Old Testament [[nevi'im]] (prophets), specifically [[Jeremiah|Book of Jeremiah]], which speaks of the judgment, destruction, and deportation of the Jewish nation from Jerusalem by the Babylonians (under [[Nebuchadrezzar II]] in 587 BC )

The majority of the New Testament was written by Jews who became followers of [[Jesus]], and all but two books ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] and [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]) are traditionally attributed to such Jewish followers. Nevertheless, there are a number of passages in the New Testament that some see as antisemitic, or have been used for antisemitic purposes, most notably:

<blockquote>Jesus speaking to a group of [[Pharisees]]: "I know that you are descendants of [[Abraham]]; yet you seek to kill me, because my word finds no place in you. I speak of what I have seen with my Father, and you do what you have heard from your father." They answered him, "Abraham is our father." Jesus said to them, "If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did. ... You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks according to his own nature, for he is a liar and the father of lies. But, because I tell the truth, you do not believe me. Which of you convicts me of sin? If I tell the truth, why do you not believe me? He who is of God hears the words of God; the reason why you do not hear them is you are not of God." ({{bibleverse||John|8:37-39|31}}, {{bibleverse||John|8:44-47|31}})</blockquote>

<blockquote>[[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] speaking before a synagogue council just before his execution: "You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the [[Holy Spirit]]. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it." ({{bibleverse||Acts|7:51-53|31}}, RSV)</blockquote>

<blockquote>"Behold, I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie — behold, I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and learn that I have loved you." ({{bibleverse||Revelation|3:9|31}}, RSV).
</blockquote>
Some biblical scholars point out that Jesus and Stephen are presented as Jews speaking to other Jews, and that their use of broad accusation against Israel is borrowed from [[Moses]] and the later Jewish prophets (e.g. {{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|9:12-14|31}}; {{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|31:27-29|31}}; {{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|32:5|31}}, {{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|32:20-21|31}}; {{bibleverse|2|Kings|17:13-14|31}}; {{bibleverse||Isiah|1:4|31}}; {{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|9:12-14|31}}{{bibleverse||Hosea|q:12-149|31}}; {{bibleverse||Hosea|10:9|31}}). Jesus once calls his own disciple Peter 'Satan' ({{bibleverse||Mark|8:33|31}}). Other scholars hold that verses like these reflect the Jewish-Christian tensions that were emerging in the late first or early second century, and do not originate with Jesus.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}

Drawing from the Jewish prophet [[Jeremiah]] ({{bibleverse||Jeremiah|31:31-34|31}}), the [[New Testament]] taught that with the death of Jesus a [[New Covenant (theology)|new covenant]] was established which rendered obsolete - and in many respects seen as superseding - the first covenant established by Moses ({{bibleverse||Hebrews|8:7-13|31}}; {{bibleverse||Luke|22:20|31}}). Observance of the earlier covenant traditionally characterizes [[Judaism]]. This New Testament teaching, and later variations to it, are part of what is called [[supersessionism]]. However, the early Jewish followers of Jesus continued to practice [[circumcision]] and observe [[Kashrut|dietary laws]], which is why the failure to observe these laws by the first [[Gentile]] Christians became a matter of controversy and dispute some years after Jesus' death ({{bibleverse||Acts|11:3|31}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|15:1|31}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|16:3|31}}).

The New Testament holds that Jesus' (Jewish) disciple [[Judas Iscariot]] ({{bibleverse||Mark|14:43-46|31}}), the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] governor [[Pontius Pilate]] along with Roman forces ({{bibleverse||John|19:11|31}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|4:27|31}}) and Jewish leaders and people of Jerusalem were (to varying degrees) responsible for the death of Jesus ({{bibleverse||Acts|13:27|31}}). Diaspora Jews are not blamed for events which were outside their control.

After Jesus' death, the New Testament portrays the Jewish religious authorities in [[Jerusalem]] as hostile to Jesus' followers, and as occasionally using force against them. Stephen is executed by stoning ({{bibleverse||Acts|7:58|31}}). Before his conversion, Saul puts followers of Jesus in prison ({{bibleverse||Acts|8:3|31}}; {{bibleverse||Galatians|1:13-14|31}}; {{bibleverse|1|Timothy|1:13|31}}). After his conversion, [[Paul of Tarsus|Saul]] is whipped at various times by Jewish authorities ({{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|11:24|31}}), and is accused by Jewish authorities before Roman courts (e.g., {{bibleverse||Acts|25:6-7|31}}). However, opposition from Gentiles is also cited repeatedly ({{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|11:26|31}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|16:19|31}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|19:23|31}}). More generally, there are widespread references in the New Testament to suffering experienced by Jesus' followers at the hands of others ({{bibleverse||Romans|8:35|31}}; {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|4:11|31}}; {{bibleverse||Galatians|3:4|31}}; {{bibleverse|2|Thessalonians|1:5|31}}; {{bibleverse||Hebrews|10:32|31}}; {{bibleverse|1|Peter|4:16|31}}; {{bibleverse||Revelation|20:4|31}}).

See Joseph Atwill's interview on the [http://www.videoshoutout.com/view_video.php?viewkey=3619e98159e9b6febf55 The Roots of Anti-Semitism]

===Early Christianity===
A number of early and influential Church works — such as the dialogues of [[Justin Martyr]], the homilies of [[John Chrysostom]], and the testimonies of church father [[Cyprian]] — are strongly anti-Jewish.

During a discussion on the celebration of [[Easter]] during the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 CE, Roman emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] said, <blockquote> ...it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. (...) Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way.<ref name=Eusebius>[[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]]. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/25023.htm "Life of Constantine (Book III)"], 337 CE, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref></blockquote>

Prejudice against Jews in the [[Roman Empire]] was formalized in 438, when the ''Code of [[Theodosius II]]'' established [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire. The [[Justinian Code]] a century later stripped Jews of many of their rights, and Church councils throughout the sixth and seventh century, including the Council of Orleans, further enforced anti-Jewish provisions. These restrictions began as early as 305, when, in Elvira, (now [[Granada]]), a Spanish town in [[Andalusia]], the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the Jew first converted to Catholicism. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Catholics. Jews could not keep Catholic Christian [[concubine]]s and were forbidden to bless the fields of Catholics. In 589, in Catholic [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], the [[Third Council of Toledo]] ordered that children born of marriage between Jews and Catholic be baptized by force. By the Twelfth Council of Toledo (681) a policy of forced conversion of all Jews was initiated (Liber Judicum, II.2 as given in Roth).<ref name=Roth>Roth, A. M. Roth, and Roth, Norman. ''Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain'', Brill Academic, 1994.</ref> Thousands fled, and thousands of others converted to Roman Catholicism.

===Europe (Middle Ages)===
{{main|Jews in the Middle Ages|Antisemitism in Europe (Middle Ages)}}

Antisemitism was widespread in Europe during the [[Middle Ages]]. In those times, a main cause of prejudice against Jews in Europe was the religious one. Although not part of [[Roman Catholic]] [[dogma]], many Christians, including members of the [[clergy]], held the Jewish people [[collective guilt|collectively responsible]] for the death of Jesus, a practice originated by [[Melito of Sardis]].
Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed the doors for many professions to the Jews, pushing them into occupations considered socially inferior such as accounting, rent-collecting and [[moneylending]], which was tolerated then as a "[[The ends justify the means#necessary evil|necessary evil]]".<ref name=Paley>Paley, Susan and Koesters, Adrian Gibbons, eds. {{PDFlink|[http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/ViewersGuide.pdf "A Viewer's Guide to Contemporary Passion Plays"]|74.4&nbsp;KB}}, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref> During the [[Black Death]], Jews were accused as being the cause, and were often killed.<ref name="Black"> See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, ''La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire'' ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' magazine, n°310, June 2006, p.47 {{fr icon}} </ref> There were expulsions of Jews from [[England]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]] during the Middle Ages as a result of antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |title=Holocaust and Return to Zion: A Study in Jewish Philosophy of History |last=Spero |first=Shubert |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2000 |publisher=KTAV Publishing House
, Inc. |location= |isbn=0881256366 |pages=164 }} </ref>

[[Image:Judensau Frankfurt.jpg|thumb|18th century Frankfurt Judensau]]
[[German language|German]] for "Jews' sow", ''[[Judensau]]'' was the derogatory and dehumanizing imagery of Jews that appeared around the 13th century. Its popularity lasted for over 600 years and was revived by the Nazis. The Jews, typically portrayed in [[obscene]] contact with [[unclean animals]] such as [[pig]]s or [[owl]]s or representing a [[devil]], appeared on [[cathedral]] or [[church (building)|church]] ceilings, pillars, utensils, etchings, etc. Often, the images combined several antisemitic motifs and included derisive prose or poetry.
<blockquote>"Dozens of Judensaus... intersect with the portrayal of the Jew as a [[deicide|Christ killer]]. Various illustrations of the murder of [[Simon of Trent]] blended images of Judensau, the [[devil]], the murder of little Simon himself, and the [[Crucifixion]]. In the seventeenth-century engraving from Frankfurt<ref>Cohen's book includes an earlier variation of the same image.</ref> ... a well-dressed, very contemporary-looking Jew has mounted the sow backward and holds her tail, while a second Jew sucks at her milk and a third eats her feces. The horned devil, himself wearing a [[Yellow badge|Jewish badge]], looks on and the butchered Simon, splayed as if on a cross, appears on a panel above."<ref>Jeremy Cohen (2007): ''Christ Killers: The Jews and the Passion from the Bible to the Big Screen.'' Oxford University Press. p.208 ISBN 0195178416</ref></blockquote>

In [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''"[[Merchant of Venice]],"'' considered to be one of the greatest romantic comedies of all time, the villain [[Shylock]] was a Jewish moneylender. By the end of the play he is mocked on the streets after his daughter elopes with a Christian. Shylock, then, compulsorily converts to Christianity as a part of a deal gone wrong. This has raised profound implications regarding Shakespeare and antisemitism.<ref>[http://www.berens.org/tikkun.html On Beyond Shylock] by Bradley S. Berens</ref>

During the Middle Ages, the story of Jephonias,<ref>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/pilgr/sources/TransVirginis.html#46 Transitus or Dormitio Virginis], the original 5th or 6th century text</ref> the Jew who tried to overturn Mary's funeral bier, changed from his converting to Christianity into his simply having his hands cut off by an angel.<ref>[http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/99an2a.html Self-Description and the Antisemite: Denying Privileged Access]</ref>

[[Image:Descreationofhost.gif|thumb|right|A 15th century German woodcut showing an alleged host desecration.<br/>''1:'' the hosts are stolen<br/>''2:'' the hosts bleed when pierced by a Jew<br/>''3:'' the Jews are arrested<br/>''4:'' they are burned alive.]]
On many occasions, Jews were subjected to [[blood libel against Jews|blood libels]], false accusations of drinking the blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian [[Eucharist]].
Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Jews were excluded from many trades, the occupations varying with place and time, and determined by the influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Often Jews were barred from all occupations but money-lending and peddling, with even these at times forbidden.

===19th and 20th century===

{{seealso|Christianity and Judaism|Relations between Catholicism and Judaism}}

Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Roman Catholic Church still incorporated strong antisemitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism, the opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds, and racial antisemitism. [[Pope Pius VII]] (1800-1823) had the walls of the Jewish [[Ghetto]] in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were [[Napoleon and the Jews|released by Napoleon]], and Jews were restricted to the Ghetto through the end of the Papal States in 1870. Additionally, official organizations such as the [[Jesuits]] banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. Brown University historian [[David Kertzer]], working from the Vatican archive, has further argued in his book ''[[The Popes Against the Jews]]'' that in the 19th and early 20th centuries the [[Roman Catholic Church]] adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of antisemitism. Kertzer's work is not, therefore, without critics; scholar of Jewish-Christian relations [[Rabbi David G. Dalin]], for example, criticized Kertzer in the ''[[Weekly Standard]]'' for using evidence selectively.

<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: [[Image:ChristlichSozial Poster.JPG|left|thumb|200px|Antisemitic [[Christian Social Party (Austria)|Christian Social Party]] poster depicting a [[Jew]]ish/[[Socialist]] [[serpent]] choking an [[eagle]] similar to that of the [[Coat of arms of Austria]]. The Christian Social Party of Austria had the backing of the [[Catholic]] institution. The serpent is red, the color of socialism, and is wearing a [[Kippah]].]] -->

The [[Second Vatican Council]], the [[Nostra Aetate]] document, and the efforts of [[Pope John Paul II]] have helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however. The Nazis used [[Martin Luther]]'s book, ''[[On the Jews and Their Lies]]'', to [[On the Jews and Their Lies#The Nazis|claim]] a moral righteousness for their ideology. In 1994, the Church Council of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]], the largest [[Lutheran]] denomination in the United States and a member of the [[Lutheran World Federation]] publicly [[On the Jews and Their Lies#Lutheran Church response in the 20th century|rejected]] Luther's antisemitic writings. The controversial document [[Dabru Emet]] was issued by many American Jewish scholars in 2000 as a statement about Jewish-Christian relations. This document says, <blockquote>
"Nazism was not a Christian phenomenon. Without the long history of Christian anti-Judaism and Christian violence against Jews, Nazi ideology could not have taken hold nor could it have been carried out. Too many Christians participated in, or were sympathetic to, Nazi atrocities against Jews. Other Christians did not protest sufficiently against these atrocities. But Nazism itself was not an inevitable outcome of Christianity."
</blockquote>

===Accusations of deicide===
{{main|Jewish deicide}}

Though never a part of [[Christian]] [[dogma]], many Christians, including members of the [[clergy]], held the Jewish people under a [[antisemitic canard]] to be [[collective guilt|collectively responsible]] for [[deicide]], the [[Jewish deicide|killing of Jesus]], whom they believed to be God.<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/jubilee_2000/magazine/documents/ju_mag_01111997_p-31_en.html Nostra Aetate: a milestone - Pier Francesco Fumagalli<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref>

According to this interpretation, the Jews present at Jesus’ death as well as the Jewish people collectively and for all time had committed the sin of deicide, or God-killing. The accusation has been the most powerful warrant for antisemitism by Christians.<ref>Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 26</ref>

[[Passion play]]s are dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of [[Jesus]] and have historically been used in remembrance of Jesus' death during [[Lent]]. These plays historically blamed the Jews for [[deicide|the death of Jesus]] in a [[polemic]]al fashion, depicting a crowd of Jewish people condemning Jesus to [[crucifixion]] and a Jewish leader assuming eternal [[collective guilt]] for the crowd for the murder of Jesus, which, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' explains, "for centuries prompted vicious attacks — or [[pogrom]]s — on Europe's Jewish communities".<ref name=Sennott>Sennott, Charles M. [http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/04/10/in_poland_new_passion_plays_on_old_hatreds/ "In Poland, new 'Passion' plays on old hatreds"], ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', April 10, 2004.</ref> ''[[Time Magazine|Time]]'' magazine in its article, ''The Problem With Passion'', explains that "such passages (are) highly subject to interpretation".<ref name=Biema>Van Biema, David. [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101030901-477956,00.html "The Problem With Passion"], ''[[Time Magazine]]'', August 25, 2003.</ref> Although modern scholars interpret the "blood on our children" ({{bibleref|Matthew|27:25}}) as "a specific group's oath of responsibility" some audiences have historically interpreted it as "an assumption of eternal, racial guilt". This last interpretation has often incited violence against Jews; according to the [[Anti-Defamation League]], "Passion plays historically unleashed the torrents of hatred aimed at the Jews, who always were depicted as being in partnership with the devil and the reason for Jesus' death".<ref name=Foxman>[[Abraham Foxman|Foxman, Abraham H.]] [http://www.adl.org/ADL_Opinions/Interfaith/oped_2004012_pbp.htm "'Passion' Relies on Theme of antisemitism"], ''[[The Palm Beach Post]]'', January 25, 2004.</ref> The ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', in its article, ''Capturing the Passion'', explains that "historically, productions have reflected negative images of Jews and the long-time church teaching that the Jewish people were [[collective guilt|collectively responsible]] for Jesus' death. Violence against Jews as 'Christ-killers' often flared in their wake."<ref name=Lampman>Lampman, Jane. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0710/p11s01-lire.html?entryBottomStory "Capturing the Passion"], ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', July 10, 2003.</ref> ''[[Christianity Today]]'' in ''Why some Jews fear The Passion (of the Christ)'' observed that "Outbreaks of Christian antisemitism related to the Passion narrative have been...numerous and destructive."<ref name=Hansen>Hansen, Colin. [http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/newsletter/2004/feb20.html "Why some Jews fear ''The Passion''"], ''[[Christianity Today]]'', 2004.</ref> The [[Religion Newswriters Association]] observed that
<blockquote>"in Easter 2001, three incidents made national headlines and renewed their fears. One was a column by [[Paul Weyrich]], a conservative Christian leader and head of the [[Free Congress Foundation]], who argued that "Christ was crucified by the Jews." Another was sparked by comments from the NBA point guard and born-again Christian [[Charlie Ward]], who said in an interview that Jews were persecuting Christians and that Jews "had his [Jesus'] blood on their hands." Finally, the evangelical Christian comic strip artist [[Johnny Hart]] published a B.C. strip that showed a menorah disintegrating until it became a cross, with each panel featuring the last words of Jesus, including "[[Seven Last Words#Father forgive them.2C for they know not what they do|Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do]]."<ref name=religionlink>[http://www.religionlink.org/tip_040120a.php "'Passion' plays out locally"] February 17, 2004</ref>
</blockquote>

The charge of deicide and all direct and indirect antisemitism was ruled wrong by the [[Second Vatican Council]] in 1962 and most Christians have followed suit since.<ref name=Paley>Paley, Susan and Koesters, Adrian Gibbons, eds. [http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/ViewersGuide.pdf "A Viewer's Guide to Contemporary Passion Plays"], accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>

In 1988, the Bishops' Committee for Ecumenical and Inter religious Affairs of the [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]] published ''Criteria for the Evaluation of Dramatizations of the Passion'', in order to ensure that Passion Plays adhere to the teaching of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and the [[Pontifical Biblical Commission]] as expressed in ''[[Nostra Aetate]]'' no. 4 (October 28, 1965). These criteria were summarized for the [[Archdiocese of Boston]] as:<ref name =sirois> Sirois, Celia. [http://www.rcab.org/EandI/jewish/guidelines_Passion.html "Guidelines for Dramatizing the Passion of the Lord"]</ref>
* The overriding preoccupation of any dramatization of the Passion must be, in the words of [[Ellis Rivkin]], not who killed Christ, but what killed Christ, namely, our sins.
* Those scripting a Passion play must use the best available biblical scholarship to elucidate the gospel texts which were not written to preserve historical facts so much as to proclaim the saving truth about Jesus.
* Harmonizing the four accounts of Jesus’ Passion — ''i.e''. constructing a single story of the Passion by combining elements from the four gospel versions — risks violating the integrity of the texts, each of which offers a distinct theological interpretation of Jesus ’ death.
* Because of the nature of the gospels, the choice of what gospel passages to use in the making of a Passion play must be guided by the Church’s teaching that “the Jews should not be presented as rejected or accursed by God as if this followed from Sacred Scripture” (Nostra Aetate 4). The claim that a passage is “in the Bible” may not suffice to justify its inclusion.
* As ignorance of Judaism often leads to misinterpretation of events, the complexity of the Jewish world of Jesus must be carefully researched and correctly represented; ''e.g''., it is important to know that the high priest was appointed by the Roman procurator.
* Crowd scenes must represent this rich diversity and reflect a range of responses to Jesus among the crowd as among their leaders.
* The Jewishness of Jesus and his followers must be taken seriously. They must be portrayed as Jews among Jews and not set apart by means of costuming or makeup.
* Stereotypes of Jews and Judaism (''e.g''. depicting Jews as avaricious) must be avoided. [This is especially important in portraying Judas, whose name means Jew, and who is given money for betraying Jesus.]
* The Pharisees are not mentioned in the gospel accounts of Jesus’ Passion and therefore should not be depicted as responsible for his death. The Jews most directly implicated in the death of Jesus are the Temple priests.
* Roman soldiers should be on stage throughout the play to keep before the audience the pervasive and oppressive reality of Roman occupation.
* Problematic passages, like Matthew’s “his blood be on us and on our children” (27:25), that can be misconstrued as blaming all Jews of all time for the death of Jesus, should be omitted. As a general rule in these cases, the Bishops suggest that “if one cannot show beyond reasonable doubt that the particular gospel element selected or paraphrased will not be offensive or have the potential for negative influence on the audience for whom the presentation is intended, the element cannot, in good conscience, be used” (“Criteria,” p. 12).

On January 6, 2004, the Consultative Panel on Lutheran-Jewish Relations of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] similarly issued a statement urging any Lutheran church presenting a Passion Play to adhere to their ''Guidelines for Lutheran-Jewish Relations'', stating that "the New Testament . . . must not be used as justification for hostility towards present-day Jews," and that "blame for the death of Jesus should not be attributed to Judaism or the Jewish people."<ref name=elca>[http://www.bc.edu/research/cjl/meta-elements/texts/cjrelations/news/News_Jan2004.htm#ELCA "Lutheran Statement on The Passion of the Christ"] January 6, 2004</ref>

In 2003 and 2004 some people compared [[Mel Gibson]]'s recent film ''The Passion of the Christ'' to these kinds of passion plays, but this characterization is hotly disputed; an analysis of that topic is in the article on [[The Passion of the Christ]]. Despite such fears, there have been no publicized antisemitic incidents directly attributable to the movie's influence. However, the film's reputation for antisemitism led to the movie being distributed and well-received throughout the Muslim world, even in nations that typically suppress public expressions of Christianity.<ref>[http://www.asianews.it/dos.php?l=en&dos=16&art=544 Gibson's Passion arrives in the Middle East] Accessed October 8, 2006</ref>

==Islam and antisemitism==

{{Main|Islam and antisemitism}}
{{seealso|Arabs and antisemitism|History of the Jews under Muslim rule}}

Various definitions of antisemitism in the context of Islam are given. The extent of antisemitism among Muslims varies depending on the chosen definition:

*Scholars like [[Claude Cahen]] and [[Shelomo Dov Goitein]] define it to be the animosity specifically applied to Jews only and do not include discriminations practiced against Non-Muslims in general. <ref name="Shelomo Dov Goitein"> [[Shelomo Dov Goitein]], A Mediterranean Society: An Abrudgment in One Volume, p. 293 </ref> <ref name="Cahen"> "Dhimma" by Claude Cahen in [[Encyclopedia of Islam]] </ref> <ref name="OxfordDic">The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, ''Antisemitism'' </ref> For these scholars, antisemitism in Medieval Islam has been local and sporadic rather than general and endemic [Shelomo Dov Goitein]<ref name="Shelomo Dov Goitein"/> , not at all present [Claude Cahen], <ref name="Cahen"/> or rarely present.<ref name="OxfordDic"/>

* According to [[Bernard Lewis]], antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." <ref> Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism", The American Scholar, Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25-36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at Brandeis University on March 24, 2004 </ref> For Lewis, from the late nineteenth century, movements appear among Muslims of which for the first time one can legitimately use the term anti-semitic. <ref> Lewis(1984), p.184 </ref>

===Jews in Islamic texts===

[[Leon Poliakov]],<ref name="EncJud">Poliakov</ref> [[Walter Laqueur]],<ref name="Laqueur192"/> and [[Jane Gerber]],<ref>Gerber 78</ref> suggest that passages in the [[Qur'an]] contain attacks on Jews for their refusal to recognize [[Muhammad]] as a [[prophet]] of [[God]].<ref name="EncJud"/> "The Qurʾān is engaged mainly in dealing with the sinners among the Jews and the attack on them is shaped according to models that one encounters in the New Testament."<ref> Uri Rubin, [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]], Jews and Judaism </ref> Muhammad had also friends among Jews <ref name="Laqueur192"/> and there are also Qur'anic verses showing respect for the Jews (e.g. see {{Quran-usc|2|47}}, {{Quran-usc|2|62}})<ref> Poliakov (1961), pg. 27 </ref> <ref> Glazov, Jamie, "Symposium: The Koran and Anti-Semitism", FrontPageMag.com, June 25, 2004. (retrieved May 3, 2006) </ref> and preaching tolerance (e.g. see {{Quran-usc|2|256}}).<ref name="Laqueur192">Laqueur 192</ref> The Qur'an differentiates between "good and bad" Jews, Poliakov states.<ref>Poliakov (1961), pg. 27</ref> Laqueur argues that the conflicting statements about Jews in the Muslim holy text has defined [[Arab]] and Muslim attitude towards Jews to this day, especially during periods of rising [[Islamic fundamentalism]].<ref>Laqueur 191</ref>

During Muhammad's life, Jews lived in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], especially in and around [[Medina]]. They reportedly refused Muhammad's offer for them to convert and accept him as the Prophet.<ref> F.E.Peters(2003), p.103 </ref> According to [[F.E. Peters]], they also began to secretly to conspire with Muhammad's enemies in Mecca to overthrow him (despite having signed a peace treaty <ref name="Sameul">Samuel Rosenblatt, ''Essays on Antisemitism: The Jews of Islam'', p.112 </ref>). <ref> F.E.Peters(2003), p.194 </ref> <ref> The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), pp.43-44 </ref> After each major battle, Muhammad accused one of the Jewish tribes of treachery and attacked it. Two Jewish tribes were expelled and the last one was wiped out. <ref> Esposito (1998), pp.10-11</ref><ref name="Laqueur192"/> Samuel Rosenblatt states that these incidents were not part of policies directed exclusively against Jews, and that Muhammad was more severe with his pagan Arab kinsmen than foreigner monotheists.<ref name="Sameul"/>

The words "humility" and "humiliation" occur frequently in the Qur'an and later Muslim literature in relation to Jews. According to Lewis, "This, in Islamic view, is their just punishment for their past rebelliousness, and is manifested in their present impotence between the mighty powers of Christendom and Islam." The standard Quranic reference to Jews is verse {{Quran-usc|2|61}}: "And remember ye said: "O Moses! we cannot endure one kind of food (always); so beseech thy Lord for us to produce for us of what the earth groweth, -its pot-herbs, and cucumbers, Its garlic, lentils, and onions." He said: "Will ye exchange the better for the worse? Go ye down to any town, and ye shall find what ye want!" They were covered with humiliation and misery; they drew on themselves the wrath of Allah. This because they went on rejecting the Signs of Allah and slaying His Messengers without just cause. This because they rebelled and went on transgressing. "<ref name = "Lewis p128">Lewis (1999), p. 128</ref>

Cowardice, greed, and chicanery are but a few of the characteristics that the Qur'an ascribes to the Jews.<ref>Gerber (1986), pp. 78&ndash;79</ref>(Quranic verse needed) The Qur'an further associates Jews with interconfessional strife and rivalry (Qur'an {{quran-usc|2|113}}). It claims that Jews believe that they are children of God (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|5|18}}) and that only they will achieve salvation.({{Quran-usc|2|111}}) According to the Qur'an, Jews blasphemously claim that [[Ezra]] is the son of God, as [[Christians]] claim Jesus is, (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|9|30}}) and that God’s hand is fettered. (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|5|64}}) Together with the [[pagans]], Jews are, “the most vehement of men in enmity to those who believe”. (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|5|82}}) Some of those who are Jews,<ref name="Yahud">Here the Qur'an uses an Arabic expression ''alladhina hadu'' ("those who are Jewish"), which appears in the Qur'an ten times. "Yahud". ''Encyclopedia of Islam''</ref> "pervert words from their meanings", (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|4|44}}) have committed wrongdoing, for which God has "forbidden some good things that were previously permitted them", (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|4|160}}) they listen for the sake of mendacity, (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|5|41}}) and some of them have committed usury and will receive "a painful doom." (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|4|161}})<ref name="Yahud"/> The Qur'an gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, "...but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers."(Qur'an {{Quran-usc|3|54}}) In the Muslim view, the [[crucifixion of Jesus]] was an illusion, and thus the Jewish plots against him ended in complete failure.<ref>Lewis (1999), p. 120</ref> In numerous verses ({{Quran-usc|3|63}}; {{Quran-usc|3|71}}; {{Quran-usc|4|46}}; {{Quran-usc|4|160-161}}; {{Quran-usc|5|41-44}}, {{Quran-usc|5|63-64}}, {{Quran-usc|5|82}}; {{Quran-usc|6|92}})<ref>Gerber (1986), p. 91</ref> the Qur'an accuses Jews of deliberately [[tahrif|obscuring and perverting scripture]].<ref name = "Gerber p78">Gerber (1986), p. 78</ref>

The [[Sirah Rasul Allah|traditional biographies of Muhammad]] recount the expulsion of the Jewish tribes of [[Banu Qaynuqa]] and [[Banu Nadir]] from Medina, the massacre of [[Banu Qurayza]], and [[Battle of Khaybar|Muhammad's attack on the Jews of Khaybar]]. The [[rabbi]]s of Medina are singled out as "men whose malice and enmity was aimed at the Apostle of God [i.e., Muhammad]". Jews appear in the biographies of Muhammad not only as malicious, but also deceitful, cowardly, and totally lacking in resolve. Their ignominy is presented in marked contrast to Muslim heroism, and in general conforms to the Quranic image of people with "wretchedness and baseness stamped upon them".(Qur'an {{quran-usc|2|61}})<ref name="Yahud"/>

: Another hadith says: "A Jew will not be found alone with a Muslim without plotting to kill him."<ref name = "Gerber p78"/> According to another hadith, Muhammad said: "The Hour will not be established until you fight with the Jews, and the stone behind which a Jew will be hiding will say. "O Muslim! There is a Jew hiding behind me, so kill him.'"({{Bukhari|4|52|177}}) This hadith has been quoted countless times, and has become part of the charter of [[Hamas]].<ref>Laqueur (2006), p. 192</ref>

===Differences with Christianity===
[[Bernard Lewis]] holds that Muslims were not antisemitic in the way Christians were for the most part because:
# The gospels are not part of the educational system in Muslim society and therefore Muslims are not brought up with the stories of [[Jewish deicide]]; on the contrary the notion of deicide is rejected by the Qur'an as a blasphemous absurdity
# Muhammad and his early followers were not Jews and therefore they did not present themselves as the true Israel nor felt threatened by survival of the old Israel
# The Qur'an was not viewed by Muslims as a fulfillment of the Hebrew Bible but rather a restorer of its original messages that had been distorted over time; Thus no clash of interpretations between Judaism and Islam could arise
# Muhammad was not killed by the Jewish community and he was victorious in the clash with the Jewish community in Medina
# Muhammad did not claim to have been Son of God or Messiah but only a prophet; a claim to which Jews reproached less.
# Muslims saw the conflict between Muhammad and the Jews as something of minor importance in Muhammad's career. <ref> Lewis (1999), p.117-118</ref>

===Status of Jews under Muslim rule===
Traditionally Jews living in Muslim lands, known (along with Christians) as [[dhimmis]], were allowed to practice their religion and to administer their internal affairs but subject to certain conditions.<ref name = "Gerber p10,20">Lewis (1984), pp.10,20</ref> They had to pay the [[jizya]] (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to Muslims.<ref name = "Gerber p10,20"/> Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.<ref> Lewis (1987), p. 9, 27 </ref> Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The most degrading one was the requirement of [[Yellow badge|distinctive clothing]], not found in the Qur'an or hadith but invented in [[Early Middle Ages|early medieval]] [[Baghdad]]; its enforcement was highly erratic.<ref>Lewis (1999), p.131</ref> Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.<ref>Lewis (1999), p.131; (1984), pp.8,62</ref>

The notable examples of massacre of Jews include the [[1066 Granada massacre]], when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in [[Granada]], [[crucifixion|crucified]] [[Jew]]ish [[vizier]] [[Joseph ibn Naghrela]] and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city. "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day."<ref name = "Gottheil-1906">[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada Granada] by Richard Gottheil, [[Meyer Kayserling]], ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''. 1906 ed.</ref> This was the first persecution of Jews on the Peninsula under Islamic rule. There was also the killing or forcibly conversion of them by the rulers of the [[Almohad]] dynasty in [[Al-Andalus]] in the 12th century. <ref>Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p.77 </ref> Notable examples of the cases where the choice of residence was taken away from them includes confining Jews to walled quarters ([[mellah]]s) in Morocco beginning from the 15th century and especially since the early 19th century. <ref> Lewis (1984), p. 28 </ref> Most conversions were voluntary and happened for various reasons. However, there were some forced conversions in the 12th century under the [[Almohad]] dynasty of North Africa and [[al-Andalus]] as well as in Persia.<ref>Lewis (1984), pp.17,18,94,95; Stillman (1979), p.27</ref>

===Pre-modern times===
The portrayal of the Jews in the early Islamic texts played a key role in shaping the attitudes towards them in the Muslim societies. According to [[Jane Gerber]], "the Muslim is continually influenced by the theological threads of anti-Semitism embedded in the earliest chapters of Islamic history."<ref>Gerber (1986), p. 82</ref> In the light of the Jewish defeat at the hands of Muhammad, Muslims traditionally viewed Jews with contempt and as objects of ridicule. Jews were seen as hostile, cunning, and vindictive, but nevertheless weak and ineffectual. Cowardice was the quality most frequently attributed to Jews. Another stereotype associated with the Jews was their alleged propensity to trickery and deceit. While most anti-Jewish polemicists saw those qualities as inherently Jewish, [[Ibn Khaldun]] attributed them to the mistreatment of Jews at the hands of the dominant nations. For that reason, says ibn Khaldun, Jews "are renowned, in every age and climate, for their wickedness and their slyness".<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 129&ndash;130</ref>

Some Muslim writers have inserted racial overtones in their anti-Jewish polemics. [[Al-Jahiz]] speaks of the deterioration of the Jewish stock due to excessive inbreeding. [[Ibn Hazm]] also implies racial qualities in his attacks on the Jews. However, these were exceptions, and the racial theme left little or no trace in the medieval Muslim anti-Jewish writings.<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 131&ndash;132</ref>

Anti-Jewish sentiments usually flared up at times of the Muslim political or military weakness or when Muslims felt that some Jews had overstepped the boundary of humiliation prescribed to them by the Islamic law.<ref>Lewis (1999), p. 130; Gerber (1986), p. 83</ref> In [[Moorish Spain]], ibn Hazm and [[Abu Ishaq]] focused their anti-Jewish writings on the latter allegation. This was also the chief motivation behind the [[1066 Granada massacre]], when "[m]ore than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day",<ref name = "Gottheil-1906"/> and in [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]] in 1033, when 6,000 Jews were killed.<ref name=Morris10>[[Benny Morris|Morris, Benny]]. ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001''. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10-11.</ref> There were further massacres in Fez in 1276 and 1465.<ref>Gerber (1986), p. 84</ref>

Islamic law does not differentiate between Jews and Christians in their status as dhimmis. According to [[Bernard Lewis]], the normal practice of Muslim governments until modern times was consistent with this aspect of [[sharia]] law.<ref name = "Lewis p128"/> This view is countered by Jane Gerber, who maintains that of all dhimmis, Jews had the lowest status. Gerber maintains that this situation was especially pronounced in the latter centuries, when Christian communities enjoyed protection, unavailable to the Jews, under the provisions of [[Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire]]. For example, in 18th century [[Damascus]], a Muslim noble held a festival, inviting to it all social classes in descending order, according to their social status: the Jews outranked only the peasants and prostitutes.<ref>Gerber (1986), pp. 84&ndash;85</ref> In 1865, when the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire was proclaimed, [[Cevdet Pasha]], a high-ranking official observed: "whereas in former times, in the Ottoman State, the communities were ranked, with the Muslims first, then the Greeks, then the Armenians, then the Jews, now all of them were put on the same level. Some Greeks objected to this, saying: 'The government has put us together with the Jews. We were content with the supremacy of Islam.'"<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 136&ndash;137; Gerber (1986), p. 86</ref>

Some scholars have questioned the correctness of the term "antisemitism" to Muslim culture in pre-modern times.<ref>Cahen, Cl. "[http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-1823 ḎH̲imma.]" Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.21 November 2006></ref><ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref> [[Mark Cohen]] (1995) p. xvii </ref><ref> Nissim Rejwan, ''Israel's Place in the Middle East: A Pluralist Perspective'', University Press of Florida, p.31 </ref> Robert Chazan and Alan Davies argue that the most obvious difference between pre-modern Islam and pre-modern Christendom was the "rich melange of racial, ethic, and religious communities" in Islamic countries, within which "the Jews were by no means obvious as lone dissenters, as they had been earlier in the world of polytheism or subsequently in most of medieval Christendom." According to Chazan and Davies, this lack of uniqueness ameliorated the circumstances of Jews in the medieval world of Islam.<ref> Encyclopedia of religion, anti-semitism article. </ref> According to [[Norman Stillman]], antisemitism, understood as hatred of Jews as Jews, "did exist in the medieval Arab world even in the period of greatest tolerance".<ref>Stillman (1979), p. 63</ref>

===Nineteenth century===
Historian [[Martin Gilbert]] writes that in the 19th century the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

There was a massacre of Jews in [[Baghdad]] in 1828<ref name=Morris10/> and in 1839, in the eastern Persian city of [[Meshed]], a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the [[Sefer Torah|Torah scrolls]]. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted.<ref name=Gilbert179>[[Martin Gilbert|Gilbert, Martin]]. ''Dearest Auntie Fori. The Story of the Jewish People''. HarperCollins, 2002, pp. 179-182.</ref> There was another massacre in Barfurush in 1867.<ref name=Morris10/>

In 1840, the [[History of the Jews in Syria|Jews of Damascus]] were falsely accused of having murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having [[blood libel|used their blood]] to bake [[Matzo|Passover bread]] or Matza. A Jewish barber was tortured until he "confessed"; two other Jews who were arrested died under torture, while a third converted to Islam to save his life. Throughout the 1860s, the [[History of the Jews in Libya|Jews of Libya]] were subjected to what Gilbert calls punitive taxation. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in [[Marrakech]] and [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]] in [[Morroco]]. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in [[Tunis]], and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on [[Djerba|Jerba Island]]. In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in [[Demnat]], Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight. In 1891, the leading Muslims in [[Jerusalem]] asked the Ottoman authorities in [[Constantinople]] to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving from [[Russia]]. In 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in [[Tripolitania]].<ref name=Gilbert179/>

[[Benny Morris]] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish [[gaberdine]]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name=Morris10/>

According to [[Mark Cohen]] in ''The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies'', most scholars conclude that Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose in the nineteenth century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalism, and was imported into the Arab world primarily by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamized").<ref> [[Mark Cohen]] (2002), p.208 </ref>

===20th century===

[[Image:Grossmufti-inspecting-ss-recruits.jpg|right|thumb|[[Mohammad Amin al-Husayni|Al-Husayni]] inspects Islamic [[Waffen SS]] recruits for [[Nazi Germany]].]]

{{see also|Jewish exodus from Arab lands}}
The massacres of Jews in Muslim countries continued into the 20th century. Martin Gilbert writes that 40 Jews were murdered in [[Taza]], Morocco in 1903. In 1905, old laws were revived in [[Yemen]] forbidding Jews from raising their voices in front of Muslims, building their houses higher than Muslims, or engaging in any traditional Muslim trade or occupation.<ref name=Gilbert179/> The Jewish quarter in Fez was almost destroyed by a Muslim mob in 1912.<ref name=Morris10/> There were [[Nazism|Nazi]]-inspired pogroms in [[Algeria]] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in [[Iraq]] and [[Libya]] in the 1940s (see [[Farhud]]). Pro-Nazi Muslims slaughtered dozens of Jews in Baghdad in 1941.<ref name=Morris10/>

George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the [[Arab world]] to several factors, including the breakdown of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and traditional [[Islamic]] society; domination by Western [[colonialism|colonial powers]] under which Jews gained a disproportionately larger role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment against Jewish [[nationalism]] and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular [[regime]]s to [[scapegoat]] local Jews for political purposes.<ref name=Gruen>Gruen, George E. [http://www.jcpa.org/jl/jl102.htm "The Other Refugees: Jews of the Arab World"], ''The Jerusalem Letter'', [[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]], June 1, 1988.</ref>

Antagonism and violence increased still further as resentment against [[Zionism|Zionist]] efforts in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] spread. [[Anti-Zionism|Anti-Zionist]] propaganda in the Middle East frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of [[the Holocaust]] to [[Demonization|demonize]] Israel and its leaders. At the same time, [[Holocaust denial]] and Holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries. Arabic- and Turkish-editions of Hitler's ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' and ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' have found an audience in the region with limited critical response by local intellectuals and media. See [[International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust]].

According to [[Robert Satloff]], Muslims and Arabs were involved both as rescuers and as perpetrators of the Holocaust during Italian and German Nazi occupation of Morocco, Tunisia and Libya.<ref>[http://www.meforum.org/article/1073 Righteous Muslims. A briefing by Robert Satloff] by Rachel Silverman, ''Jewish Exponent'', December 14, 2006 ([[Middle East Forum]], December 11, 2006)</ref>

Antisemitism has been reportedly found in Arab and Iranian media and schoolbooks. For example, the Center for Religious Freedom of [[Freedom House]] analyzed a set of Saudi Ministry of Education textbooks in use during the current academic year in Islamic studies courses for elementary and secondary school students. Among the statements and ideas found against non-Wahhabi Muslims and "non-believers" were those that teach Muslims to "hate" Christians, Jews, "polytheists" and other "unbelievers," including non-Wahhabi Muslims, though, incongruously, not to treat them "unjustly"; teach the infamous forgeries ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', as historical fact and relate modern events to it; teach that "Jews and the Christians are enemies of the [Muslim] believers" and that "the clash" between the two realms is perpetual; instruct that "fighting between Muslims and Jews" will continue until Judgment Day, and that the Muslims are promised victory over the Jews in the end; cite a selective teaching of violence against Jews, while in the same lesson, ignoring the passages of the Qur'an and hadiths that counsel tolerance; include a map of the Middle East that labels Israel within its pre-1967 borders as "Palestine: occupied 1948"; discuss Jews in violent terms, blaming them for virtually all the "subversion" and wars of the modern world.<ref>[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=70&release=379 freedomhouse.org: Press Release<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> A {{PDFlink|[http://www.hudson.org/files/publications/CRF_SaudiReport_2006.pdf 38-page overview]|277&nbsp;KB}} of Saudi Arabia's curriculum has been released to the press by the [[Hudson Institute]].

==Racial antisemitism==
{{main|Racial antisemitism}}

[[Racial antisemitism]] is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the [[eugenics]] movement, which categorized non-"Europeans" as inferior. It more specifically claims that the so-called Nordic Europeans are superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a [[Semitic race]] and emphasized their "alien" extra-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion. Anthropologists discussed whether the Jews possessed any Arabic-[[Armenoid]], African-[[Nubian]] or Asian-[[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ancestries. Since the [[second world war]] racial antisemitism has rarely appeared outside of [[Neo-Nazi]] and [[white supremacist]] movements.

Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the [[Industrial Revolution]], following the [[Jewish Emancipation|emancipation of the Jews]], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing [[nationalism]], the rise of [[eugenics]], and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.

==New antisemitism==
{{main|New antisemitism}}
In recent years some scholars have advanced the concept of ''New antisemitism'', coming simultaneously from the [[Left-wing politics|left]], the [[Right-wing politics|right]], and [[Islamism|radical Islam]], which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the [[State of Israel]],<ref name="New-AS-List" /> and argue that the language of [[Anti-Zionism]] and criticism of [[Israel]] are used to attack the Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and [[Zionism]] are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to antisemitism.<ref>
Sources for the following are:
*[[Yehuda Bauer|Bauer, Yehuda]]. [http://web.archive.org/web/20030705131522/http://humanities.ucsc.edu/JewishStudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf "Problems of Contemporary Anti-Semitism"], 2003, retrieved April 22, 2006.
*[[Phyllis Chesler|Chesler, Phyllis]]. ''The New Anti-Semitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158-159, 181.
*Doward, Jamie. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html Jews predict record level of hate attacks: Militant Islamic media accused of stirring up new wave of anti-semitism], ''[[The Guardian]]'', August 8, 2004.
*[[Warren Kinsella|Kinsella, Warren]]. [http://www.warrenkinsella.com/words_extremism_nas.htm The New anti-Semitism], accessed March 5, 2006.
*[[Jonathan Sacks|Sacks, Jonathan]]. [http://israel.jcca.org/articles.htm?y=620051118152416 "The New Antisemitism"], Ha'aretz, September 6, 2002, retrieved on January 10, 2007.
*[[Mark Strauss|Strauss, Mark]]. [http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=2791 "Antiglobalism's Jewish Problem"] in Rosenbaum, Ron (ed). ''Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism'', Random House 2004, p 272.</ref> The concept has been criticized by those who argue it is used to stifle debate and deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, is intended to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.<ref>[[Brian Klug|Klug, Brian]]. [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040202&s=klug The Myth of the New Anti-Semitism]. ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'', posted January 15, 2004 (February 2, 2004 issue), accessed January 9, 2006; and [[Michael Lerner (rabbi)|Lerner, Michael]]. [http://baltimorechronicle.com/2007/020207LERNER.shtml There Is No New Anti-Semitism], posted February 5, 2007, accessed February 6, 2007.</ref>

==Bans on kosher slaughter==
{{seealso|Legal aspects of ritual slaughter}}
[[Shechita|Kosher slaughter]] is currently banned alongside of Islamic [[Dhabīḥah Halal]] slaughter in [[Norway]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Sweden]], and partially banned in the Netherlands (for older animals only, who are considered to take longer to lose consciousness). Support for these bans does come from groups like [[PETA]] on the grounds that failing to stun the animal hurts it and is cruel. <ref>Sources for the following are:
* {{cite web |url=http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/The_Shechita_Controversy.asp |title=The Shechita Controversy |accessdate=2008-02-02 |last=Shafran |first=Avi |coauthors= |date=2004-12-26 |work= |publisher=}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.goveg.com/feat/agriprocessors/ |title=Investigation reveals slaughter horrors at Agriprocessors |accessdate=2008-02-02 |work= |publisher=[[PETA]]}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.goveg.com/pdfs/HumaneKosherSignatories.pdf |title=Jewish Leaders Respond to Animal Abuse at AgriProcessors |accessdate=2008-02-02 |format=PDF |date= |work= |publisher=[[PETA]]}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.grandin.com/ritual/qa.cattle.insensibility.html |title=Answers to questions about cattle insensibility and pain during kosher slaughter and analysis of the Agriprocessors video
|accessdate=2008-02-02 |last=Grandin |first=Temple |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.grandin.com/ritual/kosher.meat.uruguay.html |title=Kosher Meat from Uruguay |accessdate=2008-02-02 |last=Grandin |first=Temple |coauthors= |month=May | year=2004 |work= |publisher=}}
* {{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Should Halal and Kosher meat be banned?
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/talking_point/2977678.stm |work= |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=2003-06-16 |accessdate=2008-02-02 }}
* {{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Halal and Kosher slaughter 'must end'
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2977086.stm |work= |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=2003-06-10 |accessdate=2008-02-02 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.shechitauk.org/faqs.php#a1 |title=Why can't animals be stunned first and still be kosher? |accessdate=2008-02-02 |format= |work=}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.jewishveg.com/media11.html |title=When Kosher Isn't Kosher |accessdate=2008-02-02 |last=Gross |first=Aaron |coauthors= |date=March-April 2005 |work= |publisher=}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.oukosher.org/index.php?/articles/single/setting_the_record_straight_on_kosher_slaughter/ |title=Setting the Record Straight on Kosher Slaughter |accessdate=2008-02-02 |last=Genack |first=Menachem |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=OU Kosher}}</ref>
Some people claim that these laws exist because of antisemitic or islamophobic sentiments, as many of them were indeed initiated by antisemites,<ref>{{cite news |first=Howard M. |last=Berlin |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Jews, Muslims on same side of several battles |url=http://www.drberlin.com/op-ed/battles.htm |work=editorial |publisher=The News Journal |date=2004-03-08 |accessdate=2008-02-02 }}</ref> whereas others believe that they exist solely because of concerns for animal rights.

One of the main reasons the [[Chassidim]] were excommunicated by the contemporary Jewry was their development of the [[Shechitah#The knife|Chasidische Hallaf]], the principal modern utensil in [[Shechitah]] <ref>[http://asimplejew.blogspot.com/2007/02/question-answer-with-akiva-of-mystical.html A Simple Jew: Question & Answer With Akiva Of Mystical Paths - Shechita<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> . The Swiss banned kosher slaughter in 1902 and saw an antisemitic backlash against a proposal to lift the ban a century later.<ref name=HBerlin>Berlin, Howard, [http://www.drberlin.com/op-ed/battles.htm "Jews, Muslims on same side of several battles"], NewsJournal, March 8, 2004</ref> Both the Netherlands and Switzerland have considered extending the ban in order to prohibit importing kosher products. The former chief rabbi of Norway, [[Michael Melchior]], argues that antisemitism is a motive for the bans: "I won't say this is the only motivation, but it's certainly no coincidence that one of the first things Nazi Germany forbade was kosher slaughter. I also know that during the original debate on this issue in Norway, where shechitah has been banned since 1930, one of the parliamentarians said straight out, 'If they don't like it, let them go live somewhere else.'"<ref name=WND>World Net Daily, [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=29841 "Europe's new face of antisemitism: 5 countries now ban production of kosher meat as synagogues burn, boycott of Israel continues"], December 3, 2002</ref>

==Current situation==
A report from the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] from March 14 2008 detailed "an upsurge" across the world of antisemitism -- hostility and discrimination toward Jewish people.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Report: Anti-Semitism on the rise globally |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/03/14/anti-semitism/index.html |work= |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=2008-03-14 |accessdate=2008-03-15 }}</ref>

On August, 2005, the [[United States]] expressed 'serious concern' over anti-Christian and anti-Jewish passages in [[Pakistan Studies|Pakistani textbooks]] and termed them as "unacceptable and inciteful".[http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=53011]

===United States===
{{main|Antisemitism in the United States}}

In the [[United States]], in the context of the "Global [[War on Terrorism]]" there have been statements by both the Democrat [[Ernest Hollings]] and the Republican [[Pat Buchanan]] that suggest that the [[George W. Bush]] administration went to war in order to win Jewish supporters. Some note these statements echo Lindberg’s 1941 claim before the US entered World War II that a Jewish minority was pushing America into a war against its interests. During 2004, a number of prominent public figures accused Jewish members of the Bush administration of tricking America into war against [[Saddam Hussein]] to help Israel. U.S. Senator Ernest Hollings (D-South Carolina) claimed that the US action against Saddam was undertaken 'to secure Israel.' Television talk show host Pat Buchanan said a 'cabal' had managed 'to snare our country in a series of wars that are not in America’s interests.'" Both these statements were labeled antisemitic by Dr. [[Rafael Medoff]], director of the [[David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies]].<ref>Rafael Medoff, [http://www.wymaninstitute.org/articles/2004-09-lindbergh.php President Lindbergh? Roth's New Novel Raises Questions About Antisemitism in the 1940s--and Today], David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies, September 2004. Retrieved June 20, 2007.</ref>

On April 3, 2006, the [[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]] announced its finding that incidents of antisemitism are a "serious problem" on college campuses throughout the United States. The Commission recommended that the [[U.S. Department of Education]]'s [[Office for Civil Rights]] protect college students from antisemitism through vigorous enforcement of ''Title VI'' of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and further recommended that [[United States Congress|Congress]] clarify that Title VI applies to discrimination against Jewish students.<ref>[[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]]: {{PDFlink|[http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/050306FRUSCCRRCAS.pdf Findings and Recommendations Regarding Campus Antisemitism]|19.3&nbsp;KB}}. April 3, 2006</ref>''

On July 28, 2006, [[Naveed Afzal Haq]] shot six women, one fatally, in the [[Seattle Jewish Federation shooting]]. Police have classified the shooting as a [[hate crime]] based on Haq statements during a [[9-1-1]] call.<ref name=LATimes>Associated Press. [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,206172,00.html=true "1 Killed, 5 Wounded in Seattle Jewish Center Shooting"], ''[[Fox News]]'', July 29, 2006.</ref>

On September 19, 2006, [[Yale University]] founded [[The Yale Initiative for Interdisciplinary Study of Antisemitism]], the first North American university-based center for study of the subject, as part of its [[Institution for Social and Policy Studies]]. Director [[Charles Small]] of the Center cited the increase in antisemitism worldwide in recent years as generating a "need to understand the current manifestation of this disease".<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/09/19/america/NA_GEN_US_Yale_Anti_Semitism.php Yale creates center to study antisemitism] Associated Press, September 19, 2006</ref>

According to an [[Anti-Defamation League]] survey 14 percent of U.S. residents had antisemitic views. The 2005 survey found "35 percent of foreign-born [[Hispanics]]" and "36 percent of [[African-American]]s hold strong antisemitic beliefs, four times more than the 9 percent for whites".<ref>[http://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASUS_12/4680_12.htm ADL Survey: Anti-Semitism Declines Slightly in America; 14 Percent of Americans Hold 'Strong' Anti-Semitic Beliefs<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

===Europe===
{{see|Antisemitism in Europe}}
Antisemitism has increased significantly in Europe since 2000, with significant increases in verbal attacks against Jews and vandalism such as graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries. Physical assaults against Jews including beatings, stabbings and other violence increased markedly, in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death. Since 2000, [[Austria]] and [[Germany]] have consistently had the highest rates of physical violence, verbal attacks, and vandalism against Jews.<ref name = "mgjmsp">[http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-urban-f04.htm Anti-Semitism In Germany Today: Its Roots And Tendencies - Susanne Urban<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> The [[Netherlands]] and [[Sweden]] have also consistently had high rates of anti-semitic attacks since 2000, being only behind Austria and Germany.<ref>The 2005 U.S. State Department Report on Global Antisemitism.</ref>

[[France]] is home to [[Western Europe]]’s largest [[Muslim]] population ([[Islam in France|about 4 million]]) as well as the continent’s largest Jewish community (about 600,000). Jewish leaders decry an intensifying antisemitism in France, mainly among Muslims of [[Arab]] or [[African]] heritage, but also growing among [[Caribbean]] islanders from former French colonies.<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/841445.html Jews for Le Pen] by Daniel Ben-Simon. Haaretz. 25/03/07</ref>

However, it is Muslims rather than Jews who can expect to suffer more from bigotry in France, stated Holocaust survivor and former French cabinet minister [[Simone Veil]]. "Let's not exaggerate," she said. While noting that radical Islamists are behind some violent incidents against Jews in certain French neighbourhoods, "Anti-Arab sentiment is much stronger in France than anti-Semitism." France's Jewish community is much more integrated than its almost 6 million Muslims, she noted, claiming Muslim youth are moved by a militant and anti-Jewish hierarchy.<ref>{{cite news |first=Irwin |last=Block |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=More hatred towards Muslims and Jews in France: Holocaust survivor |url=http://www.canada.com/montrealgazette/news/story.html?id=85ca8e66-a12c-40b0-9ce8-95823057df6c&k=46226 |work= |publisher=[[The Gazette (Montreal)|The Gazette]] |date=2007-10-13 |accessdate=2008-02-02 }}</ref> Former Interior Minister [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] denounced the killing of [[Ilan Halimi]] on 13 February 2006 as an antisemitic crime.

In 2004 the UK Parliament set up an all-party inquiry into antisemitism, which published its findings in 2006. The inquiry stated that "until recently, the prevailing opinion both within the Jewish community and beyond [had been] that antisemitism had receded to the point that it existed only on the margins of society." It found a reversal of this progress since 2000. It aimed to investigate the problem, identify the sources of contemporary antisemitism and make recommendations to improve the situation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Report of the All-Party Parliamentary Inquiry
into Antisemitism|url=http://thepcaa.org/Report.pdf |month=September | year=2006|access=14 February 2007|author=All-Party Parliamentary Group against Antisemitism (UK)|format=PDF}}</ref> On January 1,, 2006, Britain's chief [[rabbi]], Sir [[Jonathan Sacks]], warned that what he called a "[[tsunami]] of antisemitism" was spreading globally. In an interview with BBC's [[Radio Four]], Sacks said that antisemitism was on the rise in Europe, and that a number of his rabbinical colleagues had been assaulted, synagogues desecrated, and Jewish schools burned to the ground in Germany. He also said that: "People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because [...] British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making [...] some European Jewish communities uncomfortable."<ref name=Gillan>Gillan, Audrey. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1676509,00.html "Chief rabbi fears 'tsunami' of hatred"], ''Guardian'', January 2, 2006.</ref>

Much of the new European antisemitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running [[Arab-Israeli conflict]] since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large immigrant Arab communities in European cities. However, compared to France, the United Kingdom and much of the rest of Europe, in Germany Arab and pro-Palestinian groups are involved in only a very small percentage of antisemitic incidents. Indigenous Germans are far more likely to commit violent antisemitic acts, attack Jews verbally or vandalize Jewish property. This is also true of [[Sweden]] and [[Austria]].<ref>Stephen Roth Institute, Tel Aviv University, http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/.</ref><ref name = "mgjmsp"/> According to ''The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism'', most of the current antisemitism in Europe, with exceptions to [[Germany]], [[Austria]], and [[Sweden]], comes from militant Islamic and Muslim groups, and most Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim immigrants reside.<ref name=roth>[http://www.tau.ac.il/Antisemitism/asw2004/general-analysis.htm "Annual Reports: General Analysis, 2004"], The Steven Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism, Tel Aviv University, accessed March 12, 2006.</ref>

Similarly, in the Middle East, anti-Zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to demonize Israel and its leaders — for instance, comparing Israel's treatment of the Palestinians to Nazi Germany's treatment of Jews. At the same time, Holocaust denial and Holocaust minimization efforts find increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries.

The Interior Minister of Germany, [[Wolfgang Schaeuble]], points out the official policy of Germany: "We will not tolerate any form of extremism, xenophobia or anti-Semitism."<ref name=bbcwolfgang>{{cite web
|title=BBC NEWS | Europe | Germans warned of neo-Nazi surge
|accessdate=2007-06-06
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5005472.stm
}}</ref> Although the number of right-wing groups and organisations grew from 141 (2001)<ref name=bundesamt1>Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. [http://www.verfassungsschutz.de/download/SHOW/vsbericht_2003.pdf Verfassungsschutzbericht 2003]. Annual Report. 2003, Page 29</ref> to 182 (2006)<ref name=bundesamt2>[[Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz]]. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. [http://www.verfassungsschutz.de/download/de/publikationen/verfassungsschutzbericht/vsbericht_2006/vsbericht_2006.pdf ''Verfassungsschutzbericht 2006''. Annual Report]. 2006, Page 51</ref>, especially in the formerly communist East Germany,<ref name=bbcwolfgang/> Germany's measures against right wing groups and antisemitism are effective, despite Germany having the highest rates of antisemitic acts in Europe. According to the annual reports of the [[Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz|Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution]] the overall number of far-right extremists in Germany dropped during the last years from 49,700 (2001),<ref name=bundesamt1/> 45,000 (2002),<ref name=bundesamt1/> 41,500 (2003),<ref name=bundesamt1/> 40,700 (2004),<ref name=bundesamt2/> 39,000 (2005),<ref name=bundesamt2/> to 38,600 in 2006<ref name=bundesamt2/>. Germany provided several million Euro's to fund "nationwide programs aimed at fighting far-right extremism, including teams of traveling consultants, and victims' groups."<ref name=ihtassociated>
[[The Associated Press]]. [http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/10/22/europe/EU_GEN_Germany_Neo_Nazis.php "Berlin police say 16 arrested during neo-Nazi demonstration".] ''[[International Herald Tribune]]''. October 22, 2006</ref> Despite these facts, Israeli Ambassador Shimon Stein warned in October 2006 that Jews in Germany feel increasingly "unsafe," stating that they "are not able to live a normal Jewish life" and that heavy security surrounds most synagogues or Jewish community centers.<ref name=ihtassociated/> Yosef Havlin, Rabbi at the Chabad Lubavitch Frankfurt does not agree with the Israeli Ambassador and states in an interview with ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' magazine in September 2007, that the German public does not support Nazis, instead he has personally experienced the support of Germans, as a Jew and Rabbi he "feels welcome in his (hometown) Frankfurt, he is not afraid, the city is no-go-area".<ref>''Der Spiegel''. [http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/0,1518,505159,00.html "Wir dürfen uns auf keinen Fall verstecken"]. ''[[Der Spiegel]]''. September 12, 2007</ref> Despite this comment, on the 11th of September, 2007 an antisemitic incident occurred whereby Frankfurt Rabbi, Zalman Gurevitch, was stabbed repeatedly, the attacker subsequently threatening in German "I'll kill you, you (expletive) Jew."<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title="Police: Anti-Semitic insult preceded Frankfurt rabbi stabbing" |url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/902882.html |work= |publisher=[[Haaretz]] |date=2007-11-09 |accessdate=2008-02-02 }} </ref>

Independent voices, including leading Jewish philanthropist Baron [[Eric de Rothschild]] who received an honorary doctorate from [[Hebrew University]], suggest that the extent of antisemitism in Europe has been exaggerated. In an interview with the Jerusalem Post he says that "some of the complaints emanating from Israel about the treatment of French Jews amount to 'an element of [[schadenfreude]] (taking pleasure at another's misfortune) on the part of those who have already made aliya: When the cousins come over, they say, It's terrible [in France] - you have to come to Israel." About France he says: "People are in fact philo-Semitic in the government, mayors, to an extent which goes beyond pure electoral calculations" and "the one thing you can't say is that France is an anti-Semitic country."<ref>Krieger, Leila Hilary. [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull&cid=1150191582833 "Rothschild: France not anti-Semitic"]. ''[[Jerusalem Post]]'', Jun. 15, 2006</ref>

===Middle East===
{{see|Antisemitism in Middle East}}

According to the [[Pew Global Attitudes Project]] released on August 14, 2005, high percentages of the populations of six Muslim-majority countries have negative views of Jews. To a questionnaire asking respondents to give their views of members of various religions along a spectrum from "very favorable" to "very unfavorable," 60% of [[Turkey|Turks]], 88% of [[Morocco|Moroccans]], 99% of [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] Muslims and 100% of [[Jordan]]ians checked either "somewhat unfavorable" or "very unfavorable" for Jews.<ref>
*[http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=248 PEW Globel Attitudes Report] statistics on how the world views different religious groups
*{{cite news |first=Meg |last=Bortin |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Poll Finds Discord Between the Muslim and Western Worlds |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/23/world/23pew.html?ei=5090&en=5b361ce4828f5847&ex=1308715200&adxnnl=1&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=all&adxnnlx=1180479483-EJoZc0Poq7pWF1C9iBvPng |work= |publisher=[[New York Times]] |date=June 23, 2006 |accessdate=2007-05-29 }} </ref>

In [[Egypt]], Dar al-Fadhilah published a translation of [[Henry Ford]]'s antisemitic treatise, ''[[The International Jew]]'', complete with distinctly antisemitic imagery on the cover.<ref>[http://www.intelligence.org.il/eng/sib/4_04/as_egypt.htm Examples of anti-Semitism in the Arab and Muslim world] on intelligence.org.il, site of the Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center
at the Center for Special Studies (C.S.S), Israel. Accessed 24 September 2006.</ref>

The [[Saudi Arabia]]n government website initially stated that Jews would not be granted tourist visas to enter the country.<ref>[http://www.house.gov/apps/list/press/ny09_weiner/022604Saudi.html "Official Saudi Arabia Tourism Website: No Jews Allowed. 'Jewish People' May Not Receive Travel Visas Required To Travel Into The Kingdom"] by Congressman Anthony D. Weiner (D-Queens & Brooklyn) February 26, 2004</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3493448.stm "Jews barred in Saudi tourist drive"] (BBC) February 27, 2004.</ref>
It has since removed this statement, and apologized for posting "erroneous information". Members of religions other than Islam, including Jews, are not permitted to practice their religion publicly in Saudi Arabia;

Saudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often promote the idea that "the Jews" are conspiring to take over the entire world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' as factual.<ref name=CMIP-KSA2001>[http://www.edume.org/reports/10/38.htm CMIP report: "The Jews in World History according to the Saudi textbooks"]. ''The Danger of World Jewry'', by Abdullah al-Tall, pp. 140&ndash;141 (Arabic). ''Hadith and Islamic Culture'', Grade 10, (2001) pp. 103&ndash;104.</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/pdfdocs/KSAtextbooks06.pdf}} 2006 ''Saudi Arabia's Curriculum of Intolerance'', Report by Center for Religious Freedom of Freedom House. 2006</ref>

In 2001, Arab Radio and Television of Saudi Arabia produced a 30-part television miniseries entitled "Horseman Without a Horse", a dramatization of ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]''.<ref>[http://www.adl.org/presrele/islme_62/4013_62.asp ADL]</ref>

One Saudi Arabian government newspaper suggested that hatred of all Jews is justifiable.<ref>''Al-Riyadh'', Saudi government daily, April 15, 2002, Turki 'Abdallah as-Sudayri, ''All of History is against Them''</ref>

[[Saudi-Arabian textbook controversy|Saudi textbooks]] vilify Jews (and Christians and non-[[Wahabi]] Muslims): according to the May 21, 2006 issue of ''[[The Washington Post]]'', Saudi textbooks claimed by them to have been sanitized of antisemitism still call Jews apes (and Christians swine); demand that students avoid and not befriend Jews; claim that Jews worship the devil; and encourage Muslims to engage in Jihad to vanquish Jews.<ref>Shea, Nina. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/19/AR2006051901769.html "This is a Saudi textbook. (After the intolerance was removed.)"], ''[[The Washington Post]]'', May 21, 2006, p. B01.</ref>

Al-Manar recently aired a drama series, called ''The Diaspora'', which observers allege is based on historical antisemitic allegations. [[BBC]] reporters who watched the series said that correspondents who have viewed ''The Diaspora'' note that it quotes extensively from the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion'', a notorious 19th century publication used by the Nazis among others to fuel race hatred.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3581514.stm BBC NEWS | World | Europe | France offers 'hate TV' reprieve<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref>

Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.<ref>Bernard Lewis. ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton University Press, 1984, page 33.</ref><ref>Aluma Solnick. [http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Area=sr&ID=SR01102 ''Based on Koranic Verses, Interpretations, and Traditions, Muslim Clerics State: The Jews Are the Descendants of Apes, Pigs, And Other Animals''.] MEMRI Special Report - No. 11, November 1, 2002</ref> In April 2002, Egyptian Sheikh [[Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy]], Grand [[Imam]] of [[Al-Azhar]] [[Mosque]] and Grand [[Sheikh]] of [[Al-Azhar University]], and the highest ranking Sunni Arab cleric,<ref>[http://www.juancole.com/2006/09/tantawi-jihad-is-purely-defensive.html Informed Comment] - [[Juan Cole]]. 05 September, 2005.</ref> described Jews in his weekly sermon as "the enemies of Allah, descendants of apes and pigs." [[Abdul Rahman Al-Sudais]] is the leading [[imam]] of the [[Masjid al-Haram|Grand mosque]] located in the Islamic holy city of [[Mecca]], [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>
*Neil J. Kressel. [http://chronicle.com/free/v50/i27/27b01401.htm "The Urgent Need to Study Islamic Anti-Semitism"], ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', ''The Chronical Review'', March 12, 2004.
*Tom Gross, [http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/gross200406181018.asp "Living in a Bubble: The BBC’s very own Mideast foreign policy".], ''[[National Review]]'', June 18, 2004.</ref> The [[BBC]] aired a [[Panorama (TV series)|Panorama]] episode, entitled ''A Question of Leadership'', which reported that al-Sudais referred to Jews as "the scum of the human race" and "offspring of apes and pigs", and stated, "the worst [...] of the enemies of Islam are those [...] whom he [...] made monkeys and pigs, the aggressive Jews and oppressive [[Zionists]] and those that follow them [...] Monkeys and pigs and worshippers of false Gods who are the Jews and the Zionists."<ref name="panorama">{{cite interview
|last=Sacranie
|first=Iqbal
|subjectlink = Iqbal Sacranie
|last2 = Abdul Bari
|first2 = Muhammad
|subjectlink2 = Muhammad Abdul Bari
|last3 = Kantharia
|first3 = Mehboob
|last4 = Siddiqui
|first4 = Ghayasuddin
|interviewer = John Ware
|title=A Question of Leadership
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/panorama/4171950.stm
|program = ''[[Panorama (TV series)|Panorama]]''
|callsign = [[BBC]]
|city = [[London, England]]
|date=August 21, 2005
|accessdate=2007-03-30
}}</ref> In another sermon, on April 19, 2002, he declared that Jews are "evil offspring, infidels, distorters of [others'] words, calf-worshippers, prophet-murderers, prophecy-deniers [...] the scum of the human race whom Allah cursed and turned into apes and pigs [...]"<ref>[http://arts.monash.edu.au/jewish-civilisation/visiting/kinberg-jews-koran.pdf "Jews In The Koran And Early Islamic Traditions"] by Dr. Leah Kinberg. Lecture delivered in May 2003, Monash University, Melbourne, quoting [http://www.alminbar.cc/alkhutab/khutbaa.asp?mediaURL=5544]</ref>

On December 11, 2006 the "[[International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust]]" opened in [[Tehran]], [[Iran]] with widespread condemnation.<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/12/11/iran.holocaust/index.html "Iran hosts Holocaust conference"]. [[CNN]]. Accessed 27-12-2006.</ref> The conference, called for by and held at the behest of Ahmadinejad, was widely described as a "Holocaust denial conference" or a "meeting of Holocaust deniers",<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/12/12/europe/EU_GEN_Europe_Holocaust_Denial.php "Across Europe, outrage over meeting of Holocaust deniers in Iran"]. ''[[International Herald Tribune]]''. Accessed 11-12-2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,1970042,00.html "Holocaust deniers gather in Iran for 'scientific' conference"]. ''[[The Guardian]]''. Accessed 11-12-2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/11/world/middleeast/11cnd-iran.html?hp&ex=1165899600&en=89a54e1e0974643d&ei=5094&partner=homepage "Holocaust Deniers and Skeptics Gather in Iran"], ''[[The New York Times]]''. Accessed 11-12-2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.upi.com/NewsTrack/view.php?StoryID=20061212-072558-3819r "Iran students rebel over Holocaust denial."] United Press International. Accessed 12-12-2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6637685 "Iran Further Isolates Itself with 'Holocaust Denial'"] [[Weekend Edition]], [[National Public Radio]]. Accessed 17-12-2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/12/20061212.html "Statement on Holocaust Denial Conference Sponsored by Iranian Regime"], The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, December 12, 2006.</ref> though Iran has said that it was not a [[Holocaust denial]] conference.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,453691,00.html "Berlin Counters Holocaust Conference"] ''Spiegel Online''. Accessed 27-12-2006.</ref>

On May 5, 2001, after [[Shimon Peres]] visited [[Egypt]], the Egyptian ''[[al-Akhbar]]'' internet paper stated that: "lies and deceit are not foreign to Jews[...]. For this reason, Allah changed their shape and made them into monkeys and pigs."<ref>[http://www.adl.org/egyptian_media/media_2002/stereotypes.asp Anti-Semitism in the Egyptian Media: February 2001 - February 2002], "Classic Anti-Semitic Stereotypes", [[Anti Defamation League]]. Accessed March 4, 2007.</ref>

In Israel, [[Zalman Gilichenski]] has warned about the spread of antisemitism among [[Russian diaspora#Israel|immigrants from Russia]] in the last decade.<ref>See [http://pogrom.org.il/eng_articles.php?cat_id=1 his website] and by example [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/israels-nightmare-homegrown-neonazis-in-the-holy-land-396392.html Israel's nightmare: Homegrown neo-Nazis in the Holy Land], [[The Independent]], London, 2007-10-09</ref>

==See also==

*[[1968 Polish political crisis]]
*[[Anti-globalization and antisemitism]]
*[[Anti-Judaism]]
*''[[Anti-Semite and Jew]]''
*[[Anti-Zionism]]
*[[Antisemitic canard]]
*[[Antisemitism around the world]]
*[[Antisemitism in Europe (Middle Ages)]]
*[[Antisemitism in the Arab world]]
*[[Blood libel]]
*[[Christianity and antisemitism]]
*[[Criticism of Judaism]]
*[[Dreyfus affair]]
*[[Farhud]]
*[[General Order No. 11 (1862)]]
*[[History of antisemitism]]
*[[Holocaust denial]]
*[[Host desecration]]
*[[Islam and antisemitism]]
*[[May Laws]]
*[[Nazi propaganda]]
*[[Nazism]]
*[[New antisemitism]]
*[[Persecution of Jews]]
*[[Philo-Semitism]]
*[[Pogrom]]
*[[Racial policy of Nazi Germany]]
*[[Secondary antisemitism]]
*[[Self-hating Jew]]
*[[Semiticization]]
*[[Timeline of antisemitism]]
*[[Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944-1946]]
*[[Jan T. Gross]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}


==References==
==References==
<references />
{{Sisterlinks}}
* [[Yosef Bodansky|Bodansky, Yossef]]. ''Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument'', Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999.
* Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II'', Cambridge University Press 2001.
* Cavero Coll, Juan Pedro. "El pueblo judio en la Historia", Vol. 1, Lulu.com, 2007. ISBN-13: 9781847536570
* Cavero Coll, Juan Pedro. "El pueblo judio en la Historia", Vol. 2, Lulu.com, 2007. ISBN-13: 9781847997326
* Chanes, Jerome A. ''[[Antisemitism: A Reference Handbook]]'', ABC-CLIO, 2004.
* Cohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide'', Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996.
*{{cite book |title=The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism |last=Flannery |first=Edward H. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2004 |publisher=Paulist Press |location= |isbn=0809143240 |pages=}}
* [[Avner Falk|Falk, Avner]]. ''Anti-Semitism: The History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred''. Wesport, Connecticut, Praeger, 2008. ISBN 9780313353840.
* Freudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'', University Press of America, 1994.
* [[Jane Gerber|Gerber, Jane S.]] (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In ''History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism'', ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. ISBN 0-8276-0267-7
* [[Raul Hilberg|Hilberg, Raul]]. ''[[The Destruction of the European Jews]]''. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes.
* [[Paul Johnson (writer)|Johnson, Paul]]: ''A History of the Jews'' (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987) ISBN 0-06-091533-1
* [[Walter Laqueur|Laqueur, Walter]]. ''The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day''. Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530429-2
* [[Bernard Lewis|Lewis, Bernard]] (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8
* Lewis, Bernard (1999). ''Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice''. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7
* [[Deborah Lipstadt|Lipstadt, Deborah]]. ''Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory'', Penguin, 1994.
* McKain, Mark. ''[[Anti-Semitism: At Issue (2005)|Anti-Semitism: At Issue]]'', Greenhaven Press, 2005.
* Michael, Robert and Philip Rosen. [http://www.scarecrowpress.com/ISBN/0810858622 Dictionary of Antisemitism], The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007
* Perry, Marvin and Frederick Schweitzer. ''Anti-Semitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present.'' Palgrave Macmillan. 2002.
*[[Leon Poliakov|Poliakov, Leon]] (1997). "Anti-Semitism". ''[[Encyclopedia Judaica]]'' (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. [[Cecil Roth]]. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8
* Prager, Dennis, Telushkin, Joseph. ''Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism''. Touchstone (reprint), 1985.
*{{cite book |title=Anti-Judaism in Early Christianity |last=Richardson |first=Peter |authorlink= |year=1986 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |location= |isbn=0889201676 |pages=}}
* Roth, Philip. [[The Plot Against America]], 2004
* Selzer, Michael (ed). ''"Kike!" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America'', New York 1972.
* Steinweis, Alan E. ''Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany''. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-674-02205-X.
* [[Norman Stillman|Stillman, Norman]] (1979). ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0
* Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]''. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1603&letter=A&search=anti-semitism Anti-semitism] entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], 1901-1906 ed.

==Further reading==
* [http://www.paulasays.com/articles/on_anti-semitism/2007_a_year_of_anti-semitism.html List of Anti-Semitic Attacks Worldwide in 2007]
*[http://www.paulasays.com/articles/on_anti-semitism/Anti-Semitism1.html List of Anti-Semitic Attacks Worldwide in 2006]
* [http://www.ajc.org/site/c.ijITI2PHKoG/b.2512779/k.66E6/Fighting_AntiSemitism.htm Anti-Semitism Multimedia] AJC Survey of Anti-Semitism, Roots and Responses
* [http://www.adl.org/main_Anti_Semitism_International/Default.htm Global Anti-Semitism] (ADL compilation of modern day anti-semitism happening around the world.)
*[http://www.jewishjournal.com/home/searchview.php?id=17335/ "Experts explore effects of Ahmadinejad anti-Semitism"], ''Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles'', March 9, 2007
* [http://www.adl.org/main_Arab_World/default.htm Arab Antisemitism]
* [http://www.aish.com/seminars/whythejews/ Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism]
* Stav, Arieh (1999). ''Peace: The Arabian Caricature - A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery''. Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-215-X
* Falk, Avner. (2008). ''Anti-Semitism: The History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred''. Wesport, Connecticut, Praeger, ISBN 9780313353840
* [http://www.antisemitism.org.il/ Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism] (with up to date calendar of anti-semitism today)
* [http://har2.huji.ac.il:83/ALEPH/ENG/SAS/BAS/BAS/START Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism] hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/antisem.html Anti-Semitism and responses]
* [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/ The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary anti-Semitism and Racism] hosted by the Tel Aviv University - (includes an annual report)
* [http://www.shma.com/nov02/pierre.htm Jews, the End of the Vertical Alliance, and Contemporary Antisemitism]
* [http://www.freeman.org/m_online/dec04/plaut.php An Israeli point of view on antisemitism, by Steve Plaut]
* [http://www.coe.int/t/E/human_rights/ecri/1-ECRI/2-Country-by-country_approach/ Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports]
* [http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/J/ State University of New York at Buffalo, The Jedwabne Tragedy]
* [http://www.cyberroad.com/poland/jews_today.html Jews in Poland today]
* [http://www.adl.org/main_Anti_Semitism_International/Default.htm Anti-Defamation League's report on International Anti-Semitism]
* [http://memri.org/ The Middle East Media Research Institute] - documents antisemitism in Middle-Eastern media.
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/his/judeophobia.htm Judeophobia: A short course on the history of anti-Semitism] at [http://www.zionism-israel.com] Zionism and Israel Information Center.
* [http://www.pinteleyid.com If Not Together, How?]: Research by April Rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism, and related teaching tools about antisemitism, for activists.
* [http://www.vintagepostcards.com/mm5/merchant.mvc?Screen=CTGY&Category_Code=ethnjua Vintage Postcards with an Anti-Jewish theme]
* [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/818365.html What makes an anti-Semite?] Dina Porat, ''Haaretz'', January 27, 2007
* [http://www.theaugeanstables.com/essays-on-judeophobia/anti-semitism-post-modern/ "Post Modern"]
* [http://www.theaugeanstables.com/2006/04/02/post-modern-anti-semitism-part-i/ Post-Modern Anti-Semitism: Part I]
* [http://www.theaugeanstables.com/reflections-from-second-draft/judeophobia-anti-judaism-anti-semitism-anti-zionism/ Judeophobia: Anti-Judaism, Anti-Semitism, Anti-Zionism]

==External links==
* United States Holocaust Memorial Museum - [http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/ Special Focus: Antisemitism]; and Encyclopedia [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007170 1], [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007167 2], [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007171 3], [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007173 4], [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007166 5], [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005175 6]
* [http://www.jewishaffairs.org Antisemitism and anti-Israelism]
*[http://www.antisemitism.org.il/eng/search/?country=63&id_category=&region= Antisemitism measuring]
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/HistoryJewishPersecution.htm 2,000 Year Timeline of Jewish Persecution]
*[http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/voices/holocaust.html Voices of the Holocaust] - a learning resource from the British Library
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/his/judeophobia.htm A course on Judeophobia]
* [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2005/serbia.htm Tel Aviv University on antisemitism]
* [http://www.thepcaa.org 2006 UK Parliamentary Inquiry into antisemitism]
* [http://omedia.org/Show_Article.asp?DynamicContentID=1853&MenuID=719&ThreadID=1014008 The New Anti-Judaism - according to Professor Irwin Cotler,] Dr. Rivka Shafek Lissak
* [http://www.analitik.org.ua/author/46076f2011c07/ Antisemitism in modern Ukraine]
* [http://www.yale.edu/yiisa/ Yale Initiative for the Interdisciplinary Study of Antisemitism]
* [http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/discrimination/issues/antisemitism.asp Human Rights First Antisemitism Program]

{{Template group
|list =
{{Antisemitism topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Racism topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Jews and Judaism}}
{{Discrimination}}
}}


[[Category:Plant pathogens and diseases]]
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[[Category:Antisemitism| ]]
[[Category:Marasmiaceae]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism-related controversies]]
[[Category:Anti-national sentiment]]
[[Category:Racism]]
[[Category:Religious persecution]]
[[Category:Jewish political status]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism]]


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Revision as of 09:02, 11 October 2008

Marasmiellus scandens
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Phylum:
Basidiomycota
Class:
Basidiomycetes
Subclass:
Agaricomycetidae
Order:
Agaricales
Family:
Marasmiaceae
Genus:
Marasmiellus
Species:
M. scandens
Binomial name
Marasmiellus scandens
(Massee) Dennis & D.A. Reid, (1957)
Synonyms

Marasmius byssicola Petch, (1928)
Marasmius scandens Massee

Marasmiellus scandens is a plant pathogen that causes white thread on cacao.

External links

References


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This Basidiomycota-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

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This plant disease article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

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