Campbell paradigm

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The Campbell paradigm is a further developed paradigm of psychological attitude research by Florian Kaiser and colleagues , which is based on the consistency of attitude and behavior . Behavior is not explained in terms of subjective benefit expectations, but (analogous to the tripartite model of attitudes) as a consistent spontaneous manifestation of individual attitudes. This makes the Campbell paradigm is fundamentally different from the widely used theories based on rational decision (rational choice theories Engl.), The prototype of the theory of planned behavior is. According to these theories, it is rational if behavior brings about advantages and no disadvantages, i.e. when behavior has the highest possible net benefit.

Fig. 1: Explanation of behavior in the context of the Campbell paradigm

The paradigm is named after Donald T. Campbell , who explained how behavior came about as early as 1963, as follows: Behavior, for example turning off the light when leaving a room, is basically the result of two influencing factors: the subjective importance of environmental and climate protection (This means a person's environmental attitude) and objective behavioral costs associated with behavior, in this case extinguishing light (see Fig. 1). Formally, according to Kaiser and colleagues, it is better not to describe this relationship deterministically, as proposed by Campbell, but rather probabilistically within the framework of the Rasch model (see inset).

According to the Rasch model, the natural logarithm of the ratio of the probability ( ) that person k will extinguish the light (the specific behavior i ), and its counter-probability ( ) that person k will not extinguish the light , is the result of a general attitude of k ( ), in this case the environmental setting, and the specific costs ( ) associated with extinguishing the light (e.g. not to forget it when going out). That more or less means that k 's attitude ( ) together with i ' s specific behavioral costs ( ) determine the likelihood ( ) that behavior i will manifest itself when the occasion arises.

Only if the personal attitude exceeds the cost of the behavior there is a realistic chance that the behavior will also be shown (see Fig. 1). This specific behavioral explanation of the Campbell paradigm in turn serves as the theoretical basis for attitudes measurement.

Attitude measurement

According to Campbell and Kaiser, a person's individual attitudes can be determined through the cost of behavior. The attitude of a person corresponds to the behavioral costs that this person is willing to incur in order to achieve a hiring goal associated with an attitude. For example, the general goal behind the environmental mindset is obviously to protect the environment, and the goal behind the health mindset is to maintain or restore health.

Behavioral costs include everything that makes behavior more difficult or easier for actors. It is things like effort, time and financial costs, but also social norms and expectations, cultural practices and antagonistic social preferences that go hand in hand with behavior. To illustrate: someone with a pronounced preference for Rammstein music (that is, a person with a very positive Rammstein music attitude) will take the considerable effort and expense to attend concerts by this band. People with less preference for the band's music, on the other hand, will only go to one concert if they are given the ticket. And if you don't like Rammstein, you won't even voluntarily listen to a song by them on the radio.

The example shows, on the one hand, that you can do very different things to express a more or less strong preference for Rammstein music (going to concerts, listening to the radio). On the other hand, the example shows that what you do to hear Rammstein, in turn, is associated with different costs. Consequently, the costs that someone is willing to accept, and thus the behavior that someone shows in order to achieve a hiring goal, can also be used to measure individual attitudes. So far, several scales for different individual attitudes have already been developed based on this basic idea of ​​the Campbell paradigm: environmental attitude, attitude towards nature, (negative) attitude towards man-made climate change, attitude towards health, attitude towards social contacts / privacy in the office, attitude towards one's own mental freshness and attitude towards social ones Expectations (tendency to conform).

Code of conduct

Fig. 2a: Behavior as a cost-moderated function of individual setting
Fig. 2b: Behavior as a function of two compensatory factors (attitude and specific behavioral costs)

In social psychology, attitudes classically reflect human motivation and thus behavioral tendencies. Analogously to this, the instrument for recording individual environmental attitudes was first introduced into the literature as a measure of environmentally protective behavior or the tendency to behave in an environmentally protective manner. This classic view of attitude as a measure of motivation is ultimately only justified, of course, if one can reliably and consistently predict a person's manifest behavior from the knowledge of a person's attitude, i.e. if the much-cited gap between attitude and behavior does not really exist.

The explanation of behavior in the context of the Campbell paradigm is, as u. a. the Rasch model makes it clear that it is extremely economical. It describes behavior as a function of two compensatory factors: individual attitude and the socio-cultural framework in which the behavior takes place. It is these objective framework conditions that ultimately determine the costs of a specific behavior (see Fig. 1). The choice of a vegetarian lunch is not only the result of individual environmental attitudes, but also the socio-cultural boundary conditions associated with the choice of food; so makes z. B. a financial incentive vegetarian menus are generally more attractive. But the question is, for whom?

In the current literature there is a considerable number of (partly contradicting) conjunctive models that explain behavior by means of cost-moderated attitudes differences (see Fig. 2a). In contrast, the Campbell paradigm provides that behavioral costs affect behavior regardless of attitudes (see Fig. 2b). Accordingly, financial incentives generally make vegetarian menus more attractive for everyone. This compensatory relationship between behavioral costs and (environmental) attitudes has been repeatedly confirmed in a quasi-experimental manner in environmental protection.

The circularity problem

If, however, individual attitudes are derived from the behavior shown by a person, then it is circular to predict the same behavior again with this attitude (derived from the same behaviors). What good is it if we can predict from observing someone donating to environmental protection that he or she is donating to environmental protection? Campbell himself recognized this circularity, which is why the explanation of behavior based on the Campbell paradigm seemed trivial and therefore useless to him and many others. In fact, the circularity problem can be solved comparatively easily, as Kaiser and colleagues argue.

If individual attitudes differences (e.g. differences in environmental attitudes) are derived from verbal behavior expressed in questionnaires (e.g. via opinions such as "Not enough is being done to protect the environment"), via statements such as "I am annoyed that Not enough is done against greenhouse gases ", and claims such as" I gave up my car yesterday "), then it is by no means trivial if one can predict manifest behavior, such as actually going without a car, with attitudes derived from verbal behavior. One can avoid the problem of circularity if the indicators of an attitude and its consequences remain logically and practically 100% distinguishable.

Verbal behavior can therefore be used to measure individual attitudes. This is done by determining differences in attitudes using questionnaires on retrospective behavioral reports, behavioral intentions, statements and opinions. As a consequence of individual attitudes differences, one then uses observable behavior (e.g. the manifest choice of a vegetarian lunch) or the objectively measurable consequences of a large number of behaviors (e.g. the amount of electricity consumed by a person each year).

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c Florian G. Kaiser, Katarzyna Byrka, Terry Hartig: Reviving Campbell's Paradigm for Attitude Research . In: Personality and Social Psychology Review . tape 14 , no. 4 , April 30, 2010, ISSN  1088-8683 , p. 351-367 , doi : 10.1177 / 1088868310366452 ( sagepub.com [accessed March 24, 2020]).
  2. ↑ a b Rosenberg, MJ, Hovland, CI, McGuire, WJ, Abelson, RP, & Brehm, JW: Attitude organization and change: An analysis of consistency among attitude components. In: Yale Univer. Press. 1960 ( apa.org [accessed March 28, 2020]).
  3. ↑ a b c d Florian G. Kaiser, Mark Wilson: The Campbell Paradigm as a Behavior-Predictive Reinterpretation of the Classical Tripartite Model of Attitudes . In: European Psychologist . tape 24 , no. 4 , July 10, 2019, ISSN  1016-9040 , p. 359–374 , doi : 10.1027 / 1016-9040 / a000364 , PMID 32116425 , PMC 7039345 (free full text).
  4. ^ The Social Learning Theory of Julian B. Rotter. Retrieved April 10, 2020 .
  5. ^ A b Donald T. Campbell: Social Attitudes and Other Acquired Behavioral Dispositions. In: S. Koch (Ed.): Psychology: A study of a science. tape 6 . McGraw-Hill, New York 2016, p. 94-172 , doi : 10.1037 / 10590-003 .
  6. ^ A b Adrian Brügger, Florian G. Kaiser, Nina Roczen: One for All? In: European Psychologist . tape 16 , no. 4 , January 1, 2011, ISSN  1016-9040 , p. 324–333 , doi : 10.1027 / 1016-9040 / a000032 ( hogrefe.com [accessed March 27, 2020]).
  7. ↑ a b Florian G. Kaiser, Terry Hartig, Adrian Brügger, Caroline Duvier: Environmental Protection and Nature as Distinct Attitudinal Objects: An Application of the Campbell Paradigm . In: Environment and Behavior . tape 45 , no. 3 , April 2013, ISSN  0013-9165 , p. 369-398 , doi : 10.1177 / 0013916511422444 ( sagepub.com [accessed March 28, 2020]).
  8. ↑ a b c Florian G. Kaiser, Adrian Brügger, Terry Hartig, Franz X. Bogner, Heinz Gutscher: Appreciation of nature and appreciation of environmental protection: How stable are these attitudes and which comes first? In: European Review of Applied Psychology . tape 64 , no. 6 , November 2014, p. 269–277 , doi : 10.1016 / j.erap.2014.09.001 ( elsevier.com [accessed on March 28, 2020]).
  9. ↑ Jan Urban: Are we measuring concern about global climate change correctly? Testing a novel measurement approach with the data from 28 countries . In: Climatic Change . tape 139 , no. 3-4 , December 2016, ISSN  0165-0009 , p. 397-411 , doi : 10.1007 / s10584-016-1812-0 ( springer.com [accessed March 28, 2020]).
  10. ↑ Katarzyna Byrka, Florian G. Kaiser: Health performance of individuals within the Campbell paradigm . In: International Journal of Psychology . tape 48 , no. 5 , October 2013, ISSN  0020-7594 , p. 986-999 , doi : 10.1080 / 00207594.2012.702215 .
  11. ↑ Antal Haans, Florian G. Kaiser, Yvonne AW de Kort: Privacy Needs in Office Environments: Development of Two Behavior-Based Scales . In: European Psychologist . tape 12 , no. 2 , January 2007, ISSN  1016-9040 , p. 93-102 , doi : 10.1027 / 1016-9040.12.2.93 ( hogrefe.com [accessed on March 28, 2020]).
  12. ↑ Femke Beute, Florian G. Kaiser, Antal Haans, Yvonne de Kort: Striving for mental vigor through restorative activities: Application of the Campbell Paradigm to construct the Attitude toward mental vigor scale . In: Mental Health & Prevention . tape 8 , December 2017, p. 20–26 , doi : 10.1016 / j.mhp.2017.09.001 ( elsevier.com [accessed on March 28, 2020]).
  13. ^ Adrian Brügger, Michael H. Dorn, Claude Messner, Florian G. Kaiser: Conformity Within the Campbell Paradigm: Proposing a New Measurement Instrument . In: Social Psychology . tape 50 , no. 3 , May 2019, ISSN  1864-9335 , p. 133-144 , doi : 10.1027 / 1864-9335 / a000366 ( hogrefe.com [accessed March 28, 2020]).
  14. ↑ Melvin L. DeFleur, Frank R. Westie: Attitude as a Scientific Concept . In: Social Forces . tape 42 , no. 1 , October 1, 1963, ISSN  0037-7732 , p. 17–31 , doi : 10.2307 / 2574941 ( oup.com [accessed March 28, 2020]).
  15. ↑ Florian G. Kaiser, Britta Oerke, Franz X. Bogner: Behavior-based environmental attitude: Development of an instrument for adolescents . In: Journal of Environmental Psychology . tape 27 , no. 3 , September 2007, pp. 242-251 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jenvp.2007.06.004 ( elsevier.com [accessed April 10, 2020]).
  16. ↑ Florian G. Kaiser: A General Measure of Ecological Behavior . In: Journal of Applied Social Psychology . tape 28 , no. 5 , March 1998, ISSN  0021-9029 , p. 395-422 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1559-1816.1998.tb01712.x .
  17. ↑ Florian G. Kaiser, Mark Wilson: Assessing People's General Ecological Behavior: A Cross-Cultural Measure . In: Journal of Applied Social Psychology . tape 30 , no. 5 , May 2000, ISSN  0021-9029 , p. 952-978 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1559-1816.2000.tb02505.x .
  18. ↑ Florian G. Kaiser, Mark Wilson: Goal-directed conservation behavior: the specific composition of a general performance . In: Personality and Individual Differences . tape 36 , no. 7 , May 2004, pp. 1531–1544 , doi : 10.1016 / j.paid.2003.06.003 ( elsevier.com [accessed March 28, 2020]).
  19. ↑ Leonard Bickman: Environmental Attitudes and Actions . In: The Journal of Social Psychology . tape 87 , no. 2 , August 1972, ISSN  0022-4545 , p. 323-324 , doi : 10.1080 / 00224545.1972.9922533 ( tandfonline.com [accessed March 29, 2020]).
  20. ↑ Melvin L. DeFleur, Frank R. Westie: Verbal Attitudes and Overt Acts: An Experiment on the Salience of Attitudes . In: American Sociological Review . tape 23 , no. 6 December 1958, p. 667-673 , doi : 10.2307 / 2089055 ( apa.org [accessed March 29, 2020]).
  21. ^ Richard T. LaPiere: Attitudes vs. Actions . In: Social Forces . tape 13 , no. 2 , December 1, 1934, ISSN  0037-7732 , p. 230–237 , doi : 10.2307 / 2570339 ( oup.com [accessed March 29, 2020]).
  22. ^ Allan W. Wicker: Attitudes versus Actions: The Relationship of Verbal and Overt Behavioral Responses to Attitude Objects . In: Journal of Social Issues . tape 25 , no. 4 , October 1969, p. 41-78 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1540-4560.1969.tb00619.x .
  23. ↑ Florian G. Kaiser, Anders Biel: Assessing General Ecological Behavior . In: European Journal of Psychological Assessment . tape 16 , no. 1 , January 2000, ISSN  1015-5759 , pp. 44–52 , doi : 10.1027 // 1015-5759.16.1.44 ( hogrefe.com [accessed April 16, 2020]).
  24. ↑ Florian G. Kaiser, Carmen Keller: Disclosing Situational Constraints to Ecological Behavior: A Confirmatory Application of the Mixed Rasch Model * * The original data upon which this paper is based are available at www.hhpub.com/journals/ejpa . In: European Journal of Psychological Assessment . tape 17 , no. 3 , September 2001, ISSN  1015-5759 , p. 212–221 , doi : 10.1027 // 1015-5759.17.3.212 ( hogrefe.com [accessed April 16, 2020]).
  25. ↑ Hannah Scheuthle, Vicente Carabias-Hutter, Florian G. Kaiser: The Motivational and Instantaneous Behavior Effects of Contexts: Steps Toward a Theory of Goal-Directed Behavior1 . In: Journal of Applied Social Psychology . tape 35 , no. October 10 , 2005, ISSN  0021-9029 , p. 2076-2093 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1559-1816.2005.tb02210.x .
  26. ↑ Florian Kaiser, Oliver Arnold, Siegmar Otto: Attitudes and Defaults Save Lives and Protect the Environment Jointly and Compensatorily: Understanding the Behavioral Efficacy of Nudges and Other Structural Interventions . In: Behavioral Sciences . tape 4 , no. 3 , July 17, 2014, ISSN  2076-328X , p. 202–212 , doi : 10.3390 / bs4030202 , PMID 25379277 , PMC 4219263 (free full text) - ( mdpi.com [accessed March 29, 2020]).
  27. ↑ Florian G. Kaiser, P. Wesley Schultz: The Attitude-Behavior Relationship: A Test of Three Models of the Moderating Role of Behavioral Difficulty . In: Journal of Applied Social Psychology . tape 39 , no. 1 , January 2009, p. 186–207 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1559-1816.2008.00435.x .
  28. ↑ Andreas Diekmann, Peter Preisendörfer: ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR: DISCREPANCIES BETWEEN ASPIRATIONS AND REALITY . In: Rationality and Society . tape 10 , no. 1 , February 1998, ISSN  1043-4631 , p. 79-102 , doi : 10.1177 / 104346398010001004 ( sagepub.com [accessed March 29, 2020]).
  29. ^ P. Wesley Schultz, Stuart Oskamp, Effort as a Moderator of the Attitude-Behavior Relationship: General Environmental Concern and Recycling . In: Social Psychology Quarterly . tape 59 , no. 4 , December 1996, pp. 375–383 , doi : 10.2307 / 2787078 ( apa.org [accessed March 29, 2020]).
  30. ^ Gregory A. Guagnano, Paul C. Stern, Thomas Dietz: Influences on Attitude-Behavior Relationships: A Natural Experiment with Curbside Recycling . In: Environment and Behavior . tape 27 , no. 5 , September 1995, ISSN  0013-9165 , pp. 699-718 , doi : 10.1177 / 0013916595275005 ( sagepub.com [accessed March 29, 2020]).
  31. ↑ Heather Barnes Truelove, Amanda R. Carrico, Elke U. Weber , Kaitlin Toner Raimi, Michael P. Vandenbergh: Positive and negative spillover of pro-environmental behavior: An integrative review and theoretical framework . In: Global Environmental Change . tape November 29 , 2014, p. 127–138 , doi : 10.1016 / j.gloenvcha.2014.09.004 ( elsevier.com [accessed on March 29, 2020]).
  32. ^ A b Florian G. Kaiser, Laura Henn, Beatrice Marschke: Financial rewards for long-term environmental protection . In: Journal of Environmental Psychology . March 2020, p. 101411 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jenvp.2020.101411 ( elsevier.com [accessed March 29, 2020]).
  33. ↑ Katarzyna Byrka, Florian G. Kaiser, Joanna Olko: Understanding the Acceptance of Nature-Preservation-Related Restrictions as the Result of the Compensatory Effects of Environmental Attitude and Behavioral Costs . In: Environment and Behavior . tape 49 , no. 5 , June 2017, ISSN  0013-9165 , p. 487-508 , doi : 10.1177 / 0013916516653638 ( sagepub.com [accessed March 29, 2020]).
  34. ↑ Oliver Taube, Alexandra Kibbe, Max Vetter, Maximilian Adler, Florian G. Kaiser: Applying the Campbell Paradigm to sustainable travel behavior: Compensatory effects of environmental attitude and the transportation environment . In: Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behavior . tape 56 , July 2018, p. 392-407 , doi : 10.1016 / j.trf.2018.05.006 ( elsevier.com [accessed on March 29, 2020]).
  35. ↑ Oliver Taube, Max Vetter: How green defaults promote environmentally friendly decisions: Attitude-conditional default acceptance but attitude-unconditional effects on actual choices . In: Journal of Applied Social Psychology . tape 49 , no. November 11 , 2019, ISSN  0021-9029 , p. 721-732 , doi : 10.1111 / jasp.12629 ( wiley.com [accessed March 29, 2020]).
  36. ^ David Raden: Situational Thresholds and Attitude-Behavior Consistency . In: Sociometry . tape 40 , no. 2 , June 1977, p. 123 , doi : 10.2307 / 3033515 ( apa.org [accessed April 1, 2020]).
  37. ↑ Florian G. Kaiser, Martin Merten, Eunike Wetzel: How do we know we are measuring environmental attitude? Specific objectivity as the formal validation criterion for measures of latent attributes . In: Journal of Environmental Psychology . tape 55 , February 2018, p. 139–146 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jenvp.2018.01.003 ( elsevier.com [accessed April 1, 2020]).
  38. ↑ Oliver Arnold, Alexandra Kibbe, Terry Hartig, Florian G. Kaiser: Capturing the Environmental Impact of Individual Lifestyles: Evidence of the Criterion Validity of the General Ecological Behavior Scale . In: Environment and Behavior . tape 50 , no. 3 , April 2018, ISSN  0013-9165 , p. 350–372 , doi : 10.1177 / 0013916517701796 ( sagepub.com [accessed April 1, 2020]).

Web links

List of contributors to the Campbell Paradigm
established scientists former students of FG Kaiser
Florian G. Kaiser Katarzyna Byrka
Terry Hartig Antal Haans
Mark Wilson Adrian Gadient-Brugger
Siegmar Otto Oliver Taube / Arnold
Yvonne de Kort Alexandra Kibbe
Jan Urban Laura Henn
Not so Biel Nina Roczen
Claude Messner Jacqueline Frick
Franz X. Bogner Hannah Scheuthle