Qualitative data

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The term qualitative data or qualitative data material is understood to mean non-numerical material in empirical research ; corresponding methods have existed in social science since the 1990s. In contrast to numerical (quantitative) data, which are available in the form of numbers, non-numerical data are material that can be given or collected textually, verbally, visually or in a similar form .

Data material

As described above, qualitative (see Table 1 below) and quantitative ( number form ) data can be separated by their appearance. But there is no contradiction associated with this separation. On the contrary, a meaningful combination of qualitative and quantitative data and methods ( e.g. mixed methods approaches , triangulation , grounded theory, etc. ) can enrich research processes .

The following examples in Table 1 (see below) offer a more detailed overview of the forms of qualitative data material . The delimitation is to be understood as an example, since many data formats overlap.

Table 1: Qualitative data
shape	Present material
Textually	Newspaper articles	Diaries	Product logos
Verbal	Audio recordings	Transcripts	Conversation protocols
Medial	Chat rooms	Blogs	Websites
Visually	film records	Photographs	Image sequences
additional	drawings	SketchNotes	...

Data collection and data generation

Data collection and data generation must be separated because data can be collected on the one hand and generated on the other.

Furthermore, the separation describes a more broad and a narrow wider concept. The generation of data (more closely) refers to the active production of data - for example through an interview .

On the other hand, collecting data (more broadly) describes on the one hand the selection of existing data "from existing material" - for example a printed newspaper article - and on the other hand the expansion of the existing data through further production in the research process " - for example transcribing interviews.

The following table 2 (see below) provides a brief overview of qualitative methods for collecting data .

Table 2: Qualitative data collection
Survey procedure	description
Qualitative observation	Ethnographic field observations use open observation protocols or field notes as well as photos and video recordings that were created by the researchers.
Qualitative interview	In the case of unstructured or semi-structured interviews, interview transcripts are produced in which the statements of the interviewees and respondents are contained verbatim.
Qualitative questionnaire	In this process, free-text answers and essays are written by the study participants.
Qualitative document analysis	Qualitative document analyzes use existing text, sound, image and video documents or other artifacts: e.g. B. newspaper articles, TV programs, contributions from online forums, house rules, letters, photo albums or children's drawings.

Verbal data

From the perspective of a research culture, a difference can be made between the USA and Germany. In the USA, observation was the preferred method of data collection for a longer period of time. In Germany, on the other hand, the focus was on open interviews. Nonetheless, the focus has softened in recent years and other types of interviews (such as the guided interview) have come into focus. In summary, interviews, narratives and group procedures are central to generating and collecting data.

Interviews as an approach according to Flick

Interviews describe surveys that are carried out by questioners (called interviewers) with the aim of finding out personal or factual information from research participants.

One can hardly speak of "the" qualitative interview per se. The number and diversity of types and procedures is too wide and deep for that. In addition, even different specialist literature can come up with different terms for a form of interview.

Therefore - from a diverse number of qualitative interviews - the focused, semi-standardized, problem-centered and ethnographic interview is presented after the compilation by Flick (2016). The critical evaluation of the one-sided approach is left to the reader.

In addition to access to the interview, narratives and group procedures can also be used to generate and collect qualitative data (see Table 3).

Focused interview

The focused interview has been developed for the analysis of uniform media stimuli (film, radio broadcast, sound recording, etc.). A comparison between "objective" (facts) and "subjective" (interpretation) components should be possible through the uniform stimulus or incentive to talk and the subsequent interview.

To ensure the quality of the focused interview, the following components are provided:

Not influencing the interviewees,
Specificity of the point of view and definition of the situation from their point of view,
Capture a wide range of the meaning of the stimulus and
Profundity and personal frame of reference on the part of the respondents.

Semi-standardized interview

The semi-standardized interview can be used to reconstruct subjective theories . The concept of subjective theory describes the connection between freely expressible answers to open questions (explicit knowledge) and rather hidden perceptions (implicit assumptions) about an object of investigation. The subject in no way only means things, but also, for example, trust in relationships.

The structure of the answers is determined and their content validated at a second appointment via the survey using a guide. This procedure is known as validation using the structure-laying technique.

Problem-centered interview

The problem-centered interview is mostly used when biographical data relating to a specific problem are to be collected. Similar to the focused interview, there are certain components that characterize this format of the interview:

Problem - a problem that is relevant to society or the person is focused by the researchers ,
Subject - the data collection and data generation should develop and change based on the subject of interest,
Process - the dialogue between people should enable the problem to be understood through more in-depth questions

The goal of the problem-centered interview is the "most unbiased recording of individual actions, subjective attitudes and ways of processing social reality.

Comparison of procedures for collecting verbal data

The survey methods can also be compared with one another in more detail. The following table 3 provides an overview of the possibilities and limits presented above for collecting qualitative data.

Table 3: Comparison of the procedures for collecting verbal data
	interview					stories		Group proceedings
Procedure ↦	Focused	Semi-standardized	Problem centered	Experts	Ethnographic	Narrative	Episodic	Focus groups	Group discussion	Talking together
Criteria ↧	Focused	Semi-standardized	Problem centered	Experts	Ethnographic	Narrative	Episodic	Focus groups	Group discussion	Talking together
Openness to the interview partner's subjective point of view through:	• No influence from unstructured questions	• Open questions	• Object and process oriented • Space for narration	• Limited, as only interested in expert knowledge	• Descriptive questions	• No influence on stories that have been started once	• Telling meaningful experiences • Selection by interview partners	• Consideration of the context of the group	• Non-directive discussion leadership • Little controlling atmosphere for discussion	• Refraining from narrative stimulus and methodical interventions
Structuring (e.g. deepening) the subject by:	• Presetting of stimuli • structured questions • Focus on feelings	• Questions directed towards hypotheses • Questions aimed at confrontation	• Guideline as a basis for expressions • Break off unproductive representations	• Guide as a tool for structuring	• Structural issues • Contrastive questions	• Invitation to tell a story • narrative demand • Accounting	• Connection of narrative and argument • Specifying concrete situations that should be told	• Guide to governance	• Dynamics that develop in the group • Control by guidelines	• Dynamics of the shared narrative • Check list for social data • Protocol of observations
Contribution to the general development of the interview method	• Four criteria for the design of interviews • Analysis of the subject as a second kind of data	• Content structured using structure-laying technique • Suggestions for clarifying unconscious knowledge	• Short questionnaire • Postscript	• Focus on control: restriction of the interview to experts	• Focus elicitation: Problem generating situations for interviews	• Structure of the interview at the beginning and at the end • Exploring the instrument of narration	• Systematic connection of narrative and reasoning as sorts of data • Targeted invitation to tell stories	• Simulation of how discourses and social representations arise in their diversity	• Alternative to questioning individual people through group dynamics	• Connection of narration and analysis of interaction • Emphasis on construction in storytelling
scope of application	• Analysis of subjective meanings	• Reconstruct subjective theories	• Problems relevant to society or biography	• Knowledge of experts in institutions	• As part of field research in open fields	• History of biographies	• Change, routines and situations in everyday life	• Marketing, media and evaluation	• Research on opinions and attitudes	• Research on families
Implementation problems	• Dilemma of the compatibility of the criteria	• Comprehensive methodological guidelines • Problems with evaluation	• Switching from narration to question-and-answer scheme unsystematically	• Focus on the role of the expert, less the person • Blockade with experts	• Mediation between friendly conversation and formal interview	• one-sided interview • Problems of the narrators • Problem of pressure to move	• Clarify the principle • Use of the guide	• Sampling of groups and participants	• Mediation between silent and speaking people • Process hardly predictable	• No systematic focus on the narratives
Limits of the method	• Assumption of knowing objective features of the object is questionable • Hardly used in its pure form	• Specification of a structure • It is necessary to adapt the method to the subject and the interviewee	• Oriented to problem • Connection of the elements of the interview unsystematically	• Limitation of the evaluation to expert interviews	• Useful in combination with observation and field research	• The analogy of experience and narration is assumed • Reduction to what can be told	• Limitation to everyday knowledge	• Collecting the data • Identification of individual and parallel speakers	• High organizational effort • Problems of comparability	• No need for control • Hardly standalone as the only method • Scope of case analysis
further reading	Merton & Kendall 1979	Scheele & Groeben 1988	Ruff 1998; Witzel 1985	Bogner, Littig & Menz 2002	Heyl 2001; Spradley 1979	Küsters 2009; Sagittarius 1983; Hermanns 1995	Flick 1996 Flick 2011	Barbour 2007; Lunt & Livingstone 1996	Bohnsack 2015; Loos & Schäffer 2001	Hildebrand & Jahn 1988

Interviews as good practice

In order to produce usable qualitative data, good practice is required. The following are in 4 Table issues presented for reflection before the survey through interviews.

Table 4: What is a good interview? - What does it depend on?
Checklist for choosing an interview type and evaluating its application
1. Question	• Can the interview type capture the essential aspects of the question? • Can the application of the interview type capture the essential aspects of the question?
2. Interview type	• Is there a justification for jumping between interview types and stimuli in the question? • Is jumping between interview types and stimuli in the theory part justified?
3. Interviewer	• Can interviewers use the interview type? • What role do your own fears, insecurities and expectations play in the situation?
4. Respondent	• Is the interview type suitable for the target group of the application? • How can fears, insecurities and expectations of interviewees be taken into account?
5. Scope for respondents	• Can the respondents present their point of view as part of the questions? • Can the respondents assert their point of view against the framework of the questions?
6. History of interaction	• Did the interviewers realize the interview type? • Did the interviewers give the respondents enough leeway? • Did interviewers cope with their role? Why yes or no? • Was their role clearly defined for the respondents? • Was the interviewer's role clearly defined for the respondents? • Was the situation clearly defined for the respondents? • Were the respondents able to match their roles? Why yes or no?
7. Evaluation goal	• Are narrowed-down answers the goal of the evaluation? • Are clear answers the goal of the evaluation? • Are complex answers the goal of the evaluation? • Are complex patterns the goal of the evaluation? • Are contexts the goal of the evaluation? • What are the other goals of the evaluation?
8. Claim to generalization	• At which level should statements be made?
Generalization	• About the individual case (e.g. about the interviewed person and their biography) • In relation to groups (e.g. about a professional group) • Generally valid statements?

Data interpretation

In addition to the collection of data, a distinction can also be made between the numerous analysis methods.

A subdivision and selection is made in Table 5 by distinguishing between specialized and general methods of data analysis.

Table 5: Selection of qualitative interpretation methods
classification	Qualitative data analysis methods (selection)
Specialized processes , the qualitative to certain types of Data material and / or certain content-related issues are tailored	1. Qualitative analysis of children's drawings
	2. Metaphor Analysis
	3. Narrative analysis
	4. Interpretative phenomenological analysis
	5. Conversational analysis
	6. Critical discourse analysis
	7. Qualitative analysis of video material
	8. Depth hermeneutics
General procedures that are relatively broad for different things qualitative data material and for different content Questions can be used	9. Objective hermeneutics
	10. Qualitative content analysis
	11. Documentary method
	12. Grounded theory methodology

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^ Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , pp. 32, 222 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).
↑ König / Zedler Qualitative Research , 2nd edition, page 7, Beltz-Verlag 2002
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Uwe Flick: Qualitative social research: An introduction . Complete revised and exp. New edition 2016, 7th edition. Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg 2016, ISBN 3-499-55694-4 , pp. 193-277 .
^ Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , pp. 222 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).
^ Walter Hussy, Margrit Schreier, Gerald Echterhoff: Research methods in psychology and social sciences for Bachelor (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2013, ISBN 978-3-642-34361-2 , pp. 193, 223-244 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-642-34362-9 .
^ Walter Hussy, Margrit Schreier, Gerald Echterhoff: Research methods in psychology and social sciences for Bachelor (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2013, ISBN 978-3-642-34361-2 , pp. 52 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-642-34362-9 ( springer.com ).
↑ Siegfried Schumann: Quantitative and qualitative empirical research . Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-17833-8 , p. 143 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-658-17834-5 ( springer.com ).
↑ Siegfried Schumann: Quantitative and qualitative empirical research . Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-17833-8 , p. 143-144 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-658-17834-5 ( springer.com ).
^ Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , pp. 222-223 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).
^ Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).
^ Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , pp. 599 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).
↑ ^a ^b Andrea Heistinger: Qualitative Interviews - A guide to preparation and implementation including some theoretical comments. Study excursion "Coffee in Mexico", WS 2006/2007. In: University of Innsbruck. Retrieved February 3, 2020 .
^ Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , pp. 601 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).

[1] Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , pp. 32, 222 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).

[2] König / Zedler Qualitative Research , 2nd edition, page 7, Beltz-Verlag 2002

[:1-3] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Uwe Flick: Qualitative social research: An introduction . Complete revised and exp. New edition 2016, 7th edition. Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg 2016, ISBN 3-499-55694-4 , pp. 193-277 .

[4] Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , pp. 222 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).

[5] Walter Hussy, Margrit Schreier, Gerald Echterhoff: Research methods in psychology and social sciences for Bachelor (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2013, ISBN 978-3-642-34361-2 , pp. 193, 223-244 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-642-34362-9 .

[6] Walter Hussy, Margrit Schreier, Gerald Echterhoff: Research methods in psychology and social sciences for Bachelor (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2013, ISBN 978-3-642-34361-2 , pp. 52 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-642-34362-9 ( springer.com ).

[7] Siegfried Schumann: Quantitative and qualitative empirical research . Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-17833-8 , p. 143 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-658-17834-5 ( springer.com ).

[8] Siegfried Schumann: Quantitative and qualitative empirical research . Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-17833-8 , p. 143-144 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-658-17834-5 ( springer.com ).

[:0-9] Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , pp. 222-223 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).

[10] Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).

[11] Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , pp. 599 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).

[:2-12] Andrea Heistinger: Qualitative Interviews - A guide to preparation and implementation including some theoretical comments. Study excursion "Coffee in Mexico", WS 2006/2007. In: University of Innsbruck. Retrieved February 3, 2020 .

[13] Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation (= Springer textbook ). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-33305-0 , pp. 601 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-33306-7 ( springer.com ).

Qualitative data

contents

Data material

Data collection and data generation

Verbal data

Interviews as an approach according to Flick

Focused interview

Semi-standardized interview

Problem-centered interview

Comparison of procedures for collecting verbal data

Interviews as good practice

Data interpretation

Further reading, software, links, podcasts and videos

literature

software

Left

Videos

Podcasts

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