Anglo-Spanish War (1585-1604)

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The battle between the Spanish Armada and the English Fleet (English School painting, 16th century)

The Anglo-Spanish War from 1585 to 1604 was mainly fought as a naval war. The causes were the growing religious, economic and political differences. This manifested itself in the support of the English Catholics by Spain and vice versa in the English aid for the rebellious Dutch in the first phase of the Eighty Years' War . The penetration of English merchants and pirates into the Spanish sphere of interest in the West Indies contributed to the exacerbation of the differences. The beginning of the war, which was never officially declared, was the support of the rebellious Dutch in 1585 by English troops and the English attack on Spanish possessions in the West Indies . The climax of the war was the failed attempt at invasion by the Spanish Armada in 1588. An English armada undertook a counterattack on Lisbon in 1589 with a comparable expenditure of ships and soldiers, which was also unsuccessful. There were other similar English undertakings against Spanish colonies overseas (West Indies 1595) or against the Iberian Peninsula ( conquest of Cádiz 1596) itself. The Spaniards for their part tried several times to land troops in Ireland to support the rebels there against the English. This only succeeded in 1601 at the end of the Nine Years' War , without the company being granted any success. During the entire course of the war, in addition to the larger undertakings, pirate trips by small units or individual ships played an important role. The war ended with the Treaty of London in 1604 .

prehistory

Differences in religious and economic interests

King Philip II of Spain (unknown painter around 1580)
Queen Elizabeth of England around 1580

In the first half of the 16th century there had been good relations for a long time, including alliances between England and Spain. So was Henry VIII. With Catherine of Aragon married. Maria I was married to Philip II . There were also intensive, albeit ultimately futile, efforts to bind Elizabeth I to the House of Habsburg by marriage .

The relationship was strained by the Reformation and Counter-Reformation . The remaining Catholics in England were supported from Spain. As early as 1559 Philip II toyed with the idea of ​​occupying England. In 1569–1572, Spain supported surveys in England itself.

In economic terms, English, Dutch and sometimes ships from Hanseatic cities dominated trade between the Iberian Peninsula and northern Europe. In the West Indies, too, the Spaniards were no longer without competition. John Hawkins made his first trip in 1562/63 to sell African slaves in the Spanish colonies. The tension erupted in 1567/68 on his third voyage in the battle of San Juan de Ulúa .

English privateers

In addition to normal piracy, there were state-sanctioned pirate companies in England that were partly financed by the Crown. Francis Drake attacked Nombre de Dios and a treasure transport near Panama in 1572/1573 . Francis Drake's circumnavigation of the world between 1577 and 1580, during which he made rich booty on the coast of the Pacific, was particularly spectacular . Elizabeth I denied the Spanish-Portuguese claim to discovery and the papal division of the new lands between Spain and Portugal. The pirate companies put a threat to Spanish supremacy at sea on the horizon. This was exacerbated after the annexation of Portugal by Spain in 1580. The former Portuguese possessions became a preferred target for privateers from various countries. The privateer actions contributed considerably to the development of enmity between England and Spain. In 1577, at the instigation of John Hawkins, the construction of ocean-going warships began in England.

Way to war

At first England secretly helped the rebels against Spain in the Netherlands. The country gave refuge to religious refugees. With blockades and counter blockades, the important trade between England and the Netherlands was largely prevented. In 1574 there was an Anglo-Spanish agreement. Trade between the two countries was resumed. At the same time, Dutch ships could no longer find refuge in English ports. In addition, the opponents Elizabeth I were expelled from Spanish rule. In 1570 the Pope issued a bull against Elizabeth I. As a result, there were papal-Spanish attempts to stir up unrest in Ireland and there were even attempts at invasions in 1579 and 1580. It was during this time that the popular belief developed in England that Spain was an enemy of the country. This was intensified by the denominationalization of politics and the growing influence of the Puritans and the economic competition in sea trade.

In the European network of powers, England became Spain's main opponent. Should England be defeated, it would have meant the collapse of the insurgent Dutch. A France that might become Protestant would also have been neutralized. Since Spain ended the war with the Ottomans and united with Portugal, the fleet had been strong enough to strike England. In the Netherlands, the Spaniards were successful under Farnese at this time. Since 1582/83 serious considerations for a large-scale military enterprise began in Spain.

In England people began to prepare for a defense on land. A large number of troops were raised. Walter Raleigh in particular , however, advocated promoting the strengthening of the fleet.

Relations between the two countries broke up in 1584 when the Spanish ambassador was expelled. The accusation was that he was involved in an assassination attempt on Elizabeth I, with the aim of bringing Mary Stuart to the English throne.

course

English landing in the Netherlands

In 1585 Elizabeth I openly promised her support to the rebellious Dutch in the Treaty of Nonsuch . The English promised to support the rebels with troops and material. The costs were to be reimbursed after the war. Failure to meet this requirement was one reason for the Anglo-Dutch War of 1652 . Conversely, the Dutch undertook to provide ships on request.

A military expedition under Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester , was sent to the Netherlands. The Spaniards then interned English and Dutch vehicles and ships of the Hansa in Spanish ports. As governor general in the Netherlands, Leicester pursued a policy less in the interests of the English government than in its own favor. He tried in vain to take the position of the late William of Orange and made enemies among the Dutch. He had to return to England and Elizabeth I tried in vain for peace.

Raid on the West Indies

Attack on Santo Domingo, hand-colored copper engraving by Giovanni Battista Boazio, 1589

There was no settlement of the Anglo-Spanish conflict, rather open hostilities soon broke out and Elizabeth I sent Drake to attack the Spanish colonies and to capture Spanish ships in retaliation for Spanish attacks. In 1585 he undertook a large-scale raid on the Spanish possessions in the West Indies.

This attack was no longer a private pirate enterprise, but a naval operation officially ordered by Elizabeth I. At least 25 ships were involved. In addition to the seafarers, there were also 2,300 soldiers on board. The fleet did not succeed in intercepting the Spanish silver fleet. Instead, they attacked Vigo on the Galician coast and sacked Santiago in the Cape Verde Islands . The fleet went to the Caribbean and pillaged Santo Domingo and Cartagena . Further plans failed because of a fever epidemic on the ships. The fleet headed for Virginia , where it took the failed first settlers on board and returned to England.

The expedition had cost the lives of 750 men and was a losing proposition for the shareholders. But the action has reduced the Spanish reputation. In particular, however, it reinforced Philip II's decision to invade.

Preparations for the invasion and raid on Cadiz

Philip II planned a broad military action against England. This project was sanctioned by the Pope. Philip wanted on the one hand to re-Catholicize England and on the other hand to assert his claims to the English throne. The execution of Maria Stuart in 1587 exacerbated the conflict.

William Borough map showing Francis Drake's actions in Cadiz in 1587

In order to hinder the war preparations of the opposing side, Admiral Drake wanted to attack the Bay of Cadiz with about 30 to 40 ships - including some newly built warships - in April 1587. In addition to crown warships, well-armed merchants from London were also involved. A consortium funded the company and expected profits. The English ships managed to surprise their opponents. Apart from a few galleys , there was little resistance and a large number of ships were destroyed. These included some of the strongest Spanish warships.

The fleet took Sagres to establish a base. Drake's deputy William Borough criticized this as well as Drake's unauthorized actions in Cadiz. Violent conflicts arose between the two commanders. From Sagres, the English disrupted Spanish shipping traffic considerably.

The English ships set out for the Azores to capture a Spanish ship loaded with valuable cargo. The booty, it was Philip II's personal property, was so great that the company was financially viable.

Drake later spoke of Singeing the King of Spain's Beard . The English succeeded with the company to throw back the Spanish armaments efforts. In addition, the Spanish fleet that was trying to track Drake during the operation had been so badly affected by the bad weather that it could not leave immediately. In June 1587 the English fleet returned to England.

Spanish Armada

Ships of the Spanish Armada run aground on reefs on the Cornish coast
Western Europe at the end of the 16th century - The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588

Philip II's attempt to secure a possible invasion of England diplomatically through negotiations with the Ottomans, Scots and French failed, but did nothing to change the decision to risk the attack. The Spaniards estimated the cost at seven million ducats. The Pope promised a million ducats after the island was conquered.

On May 9, 1588, the Armada left Lisbon with the aim of landing in England. The fleet consisted of about 63 galleons and comparable large warships, plus four galeasses and 32 smaller ships. There were also supply ships and other support units. About 19,000 soldiers and 8,000 seamen were on board. The company was commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia . The fleet was to take Farnese's army in the Netherlands on board and land the troops in England.

The English fleet consisted of 62 galleons and comparable units. There were also 43 smaller ships. The crew consisted of 1,500 soldiers and 14,000 seamen. The command of the English was Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham . Alternates were Drake and Hawkins.

The English ships were mostly smaller than the Spanish ones. Only eight of them were larger than 600 tons. In terms of maneuverability, they were superior. On both sides, the royal warships formed the core of the fleet, but most of the ships were merchants or privateers' ships.

The fight with the English fleet began on July 21st and lasted with interruptions until July 30th. In the English Channel , the English attacked the Spaniards and caused considerable damage. They relied on long-range combat with ship artillery, while the Spaniards were prepared for the previously common boarding combat. However, the firepower of the English proved to be too low at long range to be able to smash the sides of the opposing ships. Had they come closer they would have run the risk of getting within range of the Spanish artillery. The result was that the days of fighting in the canal had little significance. The Spaniards lost only a few ships, none of them to enemy action.

When the Spanish Armada arrived off Calais , it soon became clear that for various reasons it was impossible for the soldiers to get on board. The English had meanwhile received reinforcements, which made them outnumber the Spanish. In addition, the Spanish fleet now suffered from a lack of ammunition, while the English could get supplies. Even if relatively few Spanish ships were sunk, the damage and losses suffered by the Spaniards in the battle off Calais were great.

The Spaniards fled north. Numerous ships went down in the storm or ran onto reefs. In total, around a quarter of the fleet was lost. Others say that only about half of the ships reached Spain again. With that the intention of an invasion had failed. The victory was interpreted on the English side as God's work. On the Spanish side, the plan to radically overthrow England has now been abandoned. On the English side, the losses from direct warfare were low, but epidemics killed thousands.

English Armada

Monument to Maria Pita, who excelled in the defense of A Coruña

As a result of the defeat, the Spaniards lost the battle for Europe-wide public opinion. It was generally believed that their power had been permanently weakened. The event also showed that the Counter Reformation could be stopped. It was no longer possible to re-Catholicize Europe with military force. However, with the defeat of the Armada, Spanish naval domination was not seriously endangered. In England there was concern about another invasion.

On the English side, a counter armada was collected shortly after the Spanish attempted invasion was fended off. This was commanded by Drake and John Norreys . Originally, only an attack to destroy warships was planned. The goal was expanded through the influence of the Portuguese Prince António von Crato . He assured that if he landed in Portugal with the support of the English and French, there would be an uprising against the Spanish occupiers. Elizabeth I and others had serious doubts about this. Drake, supported by a war party around Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex , saw it differently. Ultimately, Elizabeth I gave in to their insistence. She ordered that the Spanish warships should be destroyed first. After that, the fleet was to conquer an island in the Azores in order to establish a base there. An attack on Lisbon was not planned.

The crown was unable to finance the expedition due to the high costs involved in defending against the armada. Elizabeth I granted only £ 20,000 and provided six warships. The rest of the fleet was financed by the two commanders and a consortium of merchants. A total of around 80 ships took part in the company. There was also a landing army. This was between 11,000 and 20,000 men strong. However, in many cases it was a question of volunteers with little experience and hoping for prey. In addition, the food and ammunition stocks were low.

The fleet left England in April 1589. After the crossing, the lower town of Coruña was sacked . However, the English did not succeed in conquering the citadel. After epidemics spread, the English fleet left after two weeks. This gave the Spanish time to prepare the defense of Lisbon. The fleet did not try to destroy the Spanish warships anchored in Santander and other places, but instead put the troops on land near Peniche, far north of Lisbon. The fleet itself wanted to attack the city from the south.

The landing forces were led by the Earl of Sussex. It took the troops seven days to reach Lisbon. Many soldiers deserted or died on the way. Contrary to what had been hoped, the English received little support from Portuguese. Upon their arrival, they found Lisbon ready to be defended. Without guns the English could do nothing against the fortifications and the fleet did not enter the port to attack the city from the sea. After a few weeks the soldiers embarked again. In the meantime the fleet had raised numerous supply ships. Vigo was sacked, but unfavorable wind conditions prevented the journey to the Azores. The fleet then disbanded. The company had not achieved any of the goals. Thousands of men had died mainly of illness and the expedition was a financial disaster. As a result, Drake fell out of favor with the Queen for years.

Buccaneer War

Portrait of Sir Walter Raleigh at the age of 32

The cost of naval warfare was high, at £ 1.7 million in England by 1592. After the failure of the expedition to Portugal, larger companies on the English side were initially largely avoided. The naval war was largely left to the privateers. This was by no means limited to the English and Dutch sides. The privateers from Dunkirk fought for the Spaniards . These disrupted the English and Dutch fisheries in particular. The lack of major operations gave the Spaniards an opportunity to recover from the Armada's defeat. The increased English pirate voyages soon encountered reorganized Spanish convoys better protected by fast frigates.

Nevertheless, this time was a wedding of the English privateers. Examples are the ventures of George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland , Frobisher or Raleigh. Cumberland had made two raids before the Spanish Armada attacked. In 1589 he took seven ships to Portugal and the Azores, brought up a number of ships and sacked the city of St. Michael. Cumberland's similar undertakings followed almost annually, partly with and partly without the support of Elizabeth I. The eleventh and last voyage took place in 1598 with a total of twenty own ships. He extended his radius of action to the West Indies and, through his presence in these waters, prevented the exit and return home of the silver fleet with serious economic consequences for Spain. These pirate trips remained an important part of the war until the peace agreement. The buccaneers were not limited to the northern Atlantic. For example, the Brazilian towns of Bahia (1586), Santos (1591) or Recife (1595) were attacked and looted.

The trips brought high profits and increased the available capital. The London merchants in particular benefited from the pirate trips. Many of these had dominated trade with Spain before the war and now increasingly invested the profits in trade with overseas territories. Trade with Brazil, West Africa and the Mediterranean increased in volume. Later the East Indies, the Caribbean and North America were added.

West Indian expedition

During this time the English supported the Dutch with money and soldiers in the fight against the Spaniards in the land war. The French Huguenots were also helped , while the Catholic opposing side was supported by the Spanish in the Huguenot Wars , which were similar to civil war.

In 1590 two English fleets operated in the Atlantic under Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk and Martin Frobisher . Therefore, the Spanish silver fleet from America could not cross the Atlantic. As a result, the financial situation of the Spanish government deteriorated significantly.

Francis Drake (miniature by Nicholas Hilliard , 1581)

Drake and Hawkins had been appointed commanders of an enterprise against the West Indies. One of Drake's ideas was the capture of Panama to disrupt the transport of treasures. The first plans were made in 1594. The commanders and Elizabeth I argued for months about the goals and financing of the company. Preparations were interrupted by a Spanish raid on Cornwall in 1595. In addition, rumors of impending invasions in England and Ireland made the rounds.

Only when the news came that a Spanish treasure ship with an extremely valuable cargo was wrecked in the port of Puerto Rico did the plan move. Capturing the cargo became the expedition's primary goal. Then the attack on Panama should take place. The project did not remain a secret, so the Spanish in the West Indies learned of the threat.

The English fleet left on August 28, 1595. It consisted of six royal warships. These were among the best in the fleet. There were also around 20 heavily armed merchant ships. There were 1,500 sailors and 1,000 soldiers on board. The two commanders in chief were deeply divided. Drake prevailed against Hawkins: Instead of going directly to Puerto Rico, Las Palmas on the Canary Islands was to be plundered beforehand. This project failed.

The Spaniards learned of the destination Puerto Rico from prisoners and informed the authorities there. The English had apparently assumed that the Spanish colonies were barely defended, as they were in 1585. The Spaniards now not only had a fleet there, but had fortified the cities as well.

When the English arrived in front of Puerto Rico, they found the city strongly fortified and in a state of defense. Hawkins died of a fever at the time. Drake made several loss-making attempts to capture the city, but eventually had to leave. The fleet was now heading for Panama. Riohacha and Santa Marta were looted along the way . Nombre de Dios was captured and set on fire.

On December 29th the troops were put ashore to conquer Panama. They got into an ambush and thus the conquest of the city failed. An epidemic of fever raged in the fleet on the way to Nicaragua, of which Drake also died. On the return voyage, the fleet defended itself against a superior Spanish fleet in the battle of Pinos before the ships returned to England.

Further course

The Spanish measures to defend their colonies in the Caribbean, South and Central America have proven successful. Despite the war, traffic between Spain and America was safer than it was twenty years earlier. In the long run it was not possible to permanently weaken the Spanish fleet. The lost ships had been replaced and England feared another invasion. In fact, Philip II attempted another large-scale invasion in 1596, which failed because of the bad weather.

Gulf of Cadiz in the 17th century

The Spaniards had been at war with Henry IV of France for a long time and were besieging Calais . Elizabeth I was ready to contribute to the defense if she was assured of ownership of the once English city. It didn't come to that. Before an agreement could be reached, the Spaniards conquered the city. Nevertheless, 1596 seemed to indicate a further expansion of the conflict when England, France and the Dutch concluded a triple alliance . This meant the official recognition of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces by major powers under international law . However, France broke away from the alliance just two years later.

Against the backdrop of an imminent Spanish invasion, a large new naval operation was undertaken against Cádiz in 1596 under Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, Walter Raleigh and Thomas Howard and the Dutch admiral Jan van Duijvenvoorde .

This involved 17 British and 24 Dutch warships and numerous armed merchant ships. In total, the fleet consisted of 150 ships with almost 6800 sailors and 7400 soldiers. It was possible to penetrate the largely undefended harbor and destroy numerous ships lying there. The city itself was also captured and looted. The damage on the Spanish side is said to have been two million ducats. Some commanders wanted to take possession of the city, but could not get their way in the council of war. Therefore the fleet sailed off again. The fleet sailed to the Azores. Some islands were looted and temporarily occupied. The commanders hoped to intercept a Spanish treasure fleet. But this was able to save itself in a harbor. The ships returned to England. Financially, this expedition also turned out to be a failure. While Essex was celebrated as a conqueror, the Queen had him imprisoned because of the company's poor results and because she envied his popularity.

In the spring of 1597, a Spanish fleet attempted to sail to Ireland to land troops there. This undertaking was carried out so secretly that it went unnoticed by the English. Only a storm prevented success. The English and Dutch responded with a naval expedition to Spain. She was supposed to attack Coruña and Ferrol and then occupy an Azores island to intercept the treasure fleet. Since it was not possible to surprise the enemy, the fleet sailed to the Azores to intercept the silver fleet from there. The Spaniards took advantage of the absence of the English ships to take an English port to the west in order to use it as a base for their operations in Ireland and as a base against the returning English fleet. This also failed because of a strong storm.

In 1599 the Spanish pulled together a large fleet of sailing ships and galleys. However, contrary to what was initially planned, these were used against the Dutch. The English, on the other hand, had put together one of the strongest navies of the time, but this was not used. In the years 1600 and 1601, because of the first peace negotiations, the English fleet was essentially limited to monitoring the Spanish coast. There were also some large buccaneers. Surveillance could not prevent a Spanish fleet from bringing soldiers in support of the rebel Earl of Tyrone in 1601 . The Spanish were blocked by the English in Ireland and eventually forced to surrender. In 1602 the Anglo-Dutch blockade fleet was able to raise numerous enemy ships and also took booty on land. It was also possible to intercept a fleet of galleys heading for the Netherlands.

Peace treaty

Signing of the peace treaty in 1604. On the English side: Thomas Sackville, Charles Howard, Charles Blount, Henry Howard and Robert Cecil; on the Spanish side: Juan de Velasco, Juan de Tassis, Alessandro Robido, Charles de Ligne, Jean Richardot and Louis Verekyn.

Last but not least, the armed conflicts with England and the Netherlands on the one hand and falling income from the American colonies on the other led to another national bankruptcy in Spain in 1596. Philip II died in 1598 and his son and successor Philip III. wanted to end the long war against the background of the economic situation. On the English side, too, people were tired of war. The first negotiations between the two sides failed due to excessive demands from the British. Against the background of the impending death of Elizabeth I, no more English fleets ran out against Spain in 1603.

After his accession to the throne, James I saw the most urgent task to end the war with Spain. He announced an anti-piracy law as early as 1603. Negotiations for a peace agreement took place at Somerset House on the Strand in London. They lasted from May to August 1604. The breakthrough was achieved in July. Among other things, it was agreed to return looted goods or to pay compensation for them. Furthermore, Spain refrained from supporting the Counter-Reformation in England. In return, England agreed not to support the rebels in the Netherlands any further. English privateer actions were also banned. For this, the English Channel was opened to Spanish ships. The Spaniards had not succeeded in banning the English from trading in the West and East Indies. This now recognized the ownership of the populated areas. The English have taken the lack of such regulations as a permit for trade. The Spaniards, on the other hand, saw illicit trade as piracy. After that, the treaties had to be approved by the two governments. The contract was signed on August 28, 1604.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Friedrich Edelmayer : The Spanish Monarchy of the Catholic Kings and the Habsburgs (1474-1700). In: Peer Schmidt (ed.): Small history of Spain. Bonn 2005, p. 174f.
  2. ↑ Michael Maurer: A Little History of England. Bonn 2005, p. 136
  3. ↑ Josef Engel: From the late medieval republica christiana to the powerful Europe of modern times. In: Theodor Schieder (Ed.): The emergence of modern Europe. (Handbook of European History, Vol. 3). 4th edition. Stuttgart 1994, p. 251.
  4. ↑ Jürgen Klein: Elisabeth I and her time. Munich 2004, p. 141.
  5. ^ Ernst Schulin: England and Scotland from the end of the Hundred Years' War to the Cromwell Protectorate. In: Theodor Schieder (Ed.): The emergence of modern Europe. (Handbook of European History, Vol. 3). 4th edition. Stuttgart 1994, p. 926.
  6. ^ Friedrich Edelmayer: Philipp II. (1527–1598): The biography of a world ruler. Stuttgart 2009, p. 252.
  7. ^ Friedrich Edelmayer: The Spanish Monarchy of the Catholic Kings and the Habsburgs (1474-1700). In: Peer Schmidt (ed.): Small history of Spain. Bonn 2005, p. 175.
  8. ↑ Michael Maurer: A Little History of England. Bonn 2005, p. 137.
  9. ↑ Josef Engel: From the late medieval republica christiana to the powerful Europe of modern times. In: Theodor Schieder (Ed.): The emergence of modern Europe. (Handbook of European History, Vol. 3). 4th edition. Stuttgart 1994, p. 304.
  10. ^ Friedrich Edelmayer: Philipp II. (1527–1598): The biography of a world ruler. Stuttgart 2009, p. 252.
  11. ↑ Jürgen Klein: Elisabeth I and her time. Munich 2004, p. 142.
  12. ^ Friedrich Edelmayer: Philipp II. (1527–1598): The biography of a world ruler. Stuttgart 2009, p. 252.
  13. ^ Friedrich Edelmayer: The Spanish Monarchy of the Catholic Kings and the Habsburgs (1474-1700). In: Peer Schmidt (ed.): Small history of Spain. Bonn 2005, p. 175.
  14. ^ Rudolph Rittmeyer: Naval wars and naval warfare in their world-historical development. Berlin 1907, p. 113.
  15. ↑ Josef Engel: From the late medieval republica christiana to the powerful Europe of modern times. In: Theodor Schieder (Ed.): The emergence of modern Europe. (Handbook of European History, Vol. 3). 4th edition. Stuttgart 1994, pp. 142f.
  16. ↑ John Hampden (Ed.): Sir Francis Drake. Pirate in the service of the Queen. Munich 1971, p. 396f.
  17. ^ Friedrich Edelmayer: Philipp II. (1527–1598): The biography of a world ruler. Stuttgart 2009, p. 252.
  18. ↑ Michael Maurer: A Little History of England. Bonn 2005, p. 137f.
  19. ↑ John Hampden (Ed.): Sir Francis Drake. Pirate in the service of the Queen. Munich 1971, pp. 397-399.
  20. ↑ Jürgen Klein: Elisabeth I and her time. Munich 2004, p. 148.
  21. ↑ John Hampden (Ed.): Sir Francis Drake. Pirate in the service of the Queen. Munich 1971, pp. 400-406.
  22. ^ Friedrich Edelmayer: The Spanish Monarchy of the Catholic Kings and the Habsburgs (1474-1700). In: Peer Schmidt (ed.): Small history of Spain. Bonn 2005, p. 177
  23. ↑ Jürgen Klein: Elisabeth I and her time. Munich 2004, p. 158.
  24. ↑ John Hampden (Ed.): Sir Francis Drake. Pirate in the service of the Queen. Munich 1971, pp. 407-409.
  25. ^ AP van Vliet: The Influence of Dunkirk privateering on the North Sea (Herring) fishery during the years 1580-1660. In: The North Sea and Culture (1550-1800). Hilversum 1996, p. 155.
  26. ↑ Josef Engel: From the late medieval republica christiana to the powerful Europe of modern times. In: Theodor Schieder (Ed.): The emergence of modern Europe. (Handbook of European History, Vol. 3). 4th edition. Stuttgart 1994, pp. 304f.
  27. ^ Rudolph Rittmeyer: Naval wars and naval warfare in their world-historical development. Berlin 1907, p. 134
  28. ↑ John Hampden (Ed.): Sir Francis Drake. Pirate in the service of the Queen. Munich 1971, p. 412.
  29. ↑ John Hampden (Ed.): Sir Francis Drake. Pirate in the service of the Queen. Munich 1971, p. 412.
  30. ↑ on the attack on Cornwall: The Spanish Raid. ( Memento of the original from July 20, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 57 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.englandspastforeveryone.org.uk
  31. ↑ Horst Rabe: The Iberian States in the 16th and 17th centuries. In: Theodor Schieder (Ed.): The emergence of modern Europe. (Handbook of European History, Vol. 3). 4th edition. Stuttgart 1994, p. 605.
  32. ↑ John Hampden (Ed.): Sir Francis Drake. Pirate in the service of the Queen. Munich 1971, pp. 413-416.
  33. ↑ Horst Rabe: The Iberian States in the 16th and 17th centuries. In: Theodor Schieder (Ed.): The emergence of modern Europe. Handbook of European History Vol. 3. 4th edition. Stuttgart 1994, p. 606.
  34. ^ Conyers Read: The Tudors. (Reprint from 1938). Paderborn 2012, p. 198.
  35. ^ John A. Wagner, Susan Walters Schmid: Encyclopedia of Tudor England. Santa Barbara 2012, pp. 194f.
  36. ↑ Francis Smith: The Wars from Antiquity to the Present. Berlin u. a. 1911, p. 327.
  37. ^ Rudolph Rittmeyer: Naval wars and naval warfare in their world-historical development. Berlin 1907, p. 136 f.
  38. ↑ Jane Burbank, Frederick Cooper: Empires of World History. Frankfurt am Main 2012, p. 171.
  39. ↑ Michael Kempe: Pirates as Shaper of International Law? A look at early modern peace and armistice treaties. (Online version) ( Memento from September 25, 2013 in the Internet Archive )

literature

  • John Hampden (Ed.): Sir Francis Drake. Pirate in the service of the Queen. Reports, documents and testimonies of the sea hero and his contemporaries 1567–1596. Droemer Knaur, Munich / Zurich 1981, ISBN 3-426-03662-2 .
  • Georg von Altiz (Hrsg.): The wars from antiquity to the present. Bong, Berlin a. a. 1911, DNB 560648545 , p. 326f.
  • George C. Kohn: Dictionary of Wars. New York 2007, ISBN 978-0-8160-6577-6 , p. 23.
  • Theodor Schieder (ed.): The emergence of modern Europe. 4th edition. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-12-907550-X . (Handbook of European History, Vol. 3)
  • Friedrich Edelmayer: The Spanish monarchy of the Catholic kings and the Habsburgs (1474-1700). In: Peer Schmidt (ed.): Small history of Spain. Bonn 2004, ISBN 3-89331-652-3 , pp. 174-176.
  • Michael Maurer: A Little History of England. Bonn 2005, ISBN 3-89331-653-1 , pp. 135-139.