Euphronios
Euphronios ( ancient Greek Εὐφρόνιος , * around 535 BC ; † after 470 BC ) was a Greek vase painter and potter who lived at the end of the 6th century and the beginning of the 5th century BC. In Athens . He was one of the most important vase painters of the early red-figure style and representative of the so-called pioneering group of red-figure vase painting . With his work he stands at the transition from the late archaic to the early classical period .
Previews
The discovery of the Greek vase painters
In contrast to sculptors , for example, there is no literary evidence of vase painters from ancient Greece. The rich literary tradition on subjects from the art field hardly mentions ceramics . The reconstruction of the artistic development of Euphronios and his life can only be made from the interpretation of his work.
The occupation with Greek ceramics began in modern times towards the end of the 18th century. Initially, people were particularly interested in their iconography . When the first signature of Euphronios was discovered in 1838, it was discovered that individual painters could be identified by name and, ideally, other works could be assigned to them. Thereupon a preoccupation with the signatures of the painters began. At the end of the 19th century, researchers put together the first stylistic compendia.
The archaeologist John D. Beazley (* 1885, † 1970) used the compendia as a starting point for his work. He began to systematically record thousands of black and red figure Attic vase paintings. He used the method of the art historian Giovanni Morelli , which he had presented for paintings. In three fundamental works on the Attic painters, Beazley was able to bring an order into the works of art that is largely up to date to this day. In these he listed all painters - known and anonymous ones by name - whereby he assumed that each painter creates individual works of art that can always be assigned unmistakably. Today every painter is known individually, even if you cannot assign a personal name to him.
The situation in Athens at the end of the 6th century
Euphronios must have been around 535 BC. BC, when art and culture were in full bloom under the tyrant Peisistratos in Athens . The Athenian potters of that time exported a large part of their production to Etruria . Primarily these were vases that were painted in the black-figure style .
The vase painting of the time received impulses from potters like Nikosthenes and Andokides . So the workshop of Andokides began around 530 BC. With the production of red-figure vases. In a process that was initially slow, the new technology replaced the old one. Euphronios was to become one of the most important representatives of early red-figure vase painting in Athens. With some other young painters of this time, he is counted in modern research as a pioneer group of red-figure painting.
Years of apprenticeship in the Kachrylion workshop
Probably around 520 BC. Euphronios began painting vases. His first master was probably Psiax , on which Euphronios - as well as other older masters - was to have a great influence in later times. Then he worked in the workshop of the potter Kachrylion , where he was under the direction of the painter Oltos .
In addition to their mythological themes, his works from this period show Euphronios' predilection for monumental scenes and everyday images in which he preferred to show muscles and sequences of movements. The latter point in particular brings him close to the Psiax, who painted in a similar way. Not least, both artists were characterized by their willingness to experiment. Euphronios was able to assign a bowl in London (E 41) and another from the Getty Museum (77.AE.20) from this period in addition to some fragments .
The most important find, however, was a sarpedon bowl signed by him. It was only when this appeared on the international art market that Euphronios could be assigned his early work, which in many respects resembles that of Oltos and was previously partially attributed to him. At the time it was unusual for him to sign his work. While it later became customary for painters to sign their most successful works, this was still rare with black-figure vases and in the early days of red-figure painting.
Euphronios must have shown his special talent early on. This can be seen in his artistic influence on other painters working in the Kachrylion workshop and even on his former teachers Psiax and Oltos. A complete mastery of the technical skills required for red-figure vase painting can already be seen in the early days. You can also see his own technical developments. In order to represent the human anatomy even more vividly and realistically, he introduced the use of the relief line and the use of the diluted clay slip . Depending on how it is applied, the clay slip takes on color values from light yellow to dark brown when fired, thus increasing the stylistic possibilities many times over.
Although Kachrylion only made drinking bowls in his workshop and Euphronios worked for him until his maturity, simple bowls were soon no longer enough for him. He also began to paint other vases, probably made by other potters. Two peliks are known from Villa Giulia , which he painted very early. Such medium-sized vases offered him much more space for his figure drawings. A psykter (now in Boston ) is also counted among his early work, as his painting style there is still strongly reminiscent of that of Olto: stiff folds of clothing, almond-shaped eyes, a small, protruding chin, and poorly differentiated hands and feet. Or maybe it was just a less careful piece of work from his later days.
The problem of classifying Euphronios' works reliably in one creative period can also be found in several other vessels. Although Euphronios' creative framework is secured today, there are some works for which it is difficult to determine the time. A chalice crater from the Berlin Antikensammlung , showing young men exercising in the palaestra , is often assigned to his more mature work because of the painted vessel. Despite the use of some advanced methods (more precise reproduction of the muscles, relief line), the crater must still be attributed to an earlier period, as some borrowings from black-figure painting can still be found. It is an ivy garland under the edge of the mouth, the relatively small image format and the stylistic proximity to Oltos.
Euphronios and Euxitheos: maturity phase and master years
Innovation and competition
Euphronios came around 510 BC, probably looking for a new image carrier for his compositions. In the workshop of the potter Euxitheos . Like Euphronios, he was open to new influences and developments and experimented with shapes and décor. Due to the constant stylistic development of the painter, researchers can safely assume the chronological order of the individual works.
On the front of a calyx krater (Louvre G 110) that has only survived in fragments, the battle of Heracles with the Nemean lion can be seen, a motif that Euphronios had already around 520 BC On a bowl. A comos scene is shown on the back . Participants of this dance event are sometimes shown by Euphronios in extreme physical positions. Below is a view of the back with arms leaning back, which was a bold achievement in the way it was portrayed. Probably because of this figure, he signed the work. This signature is unique because the artist used the formula Euphronios egraphsen tade - “Euphronios painted these things”. It is a characteristic example of the pioneering group of red-figure vase painting to highlight their individual contribution to the current development of art.
In some cases this goes so far that the artists themselves compete within their works. On an amphora in Munich today , Euthymides , also a painter from the pioneering group, claims that he created a picture “that Euphronios would never have been able to do”. These words express both respect for the skills of colleagues and rivals and competition with them. So it is not surprising that a somewhat younger painter, Smikros , probably a pupil of Euphronius, already created plagiarisms of Eupronios' works with his early works, some of which were very successful. In the J. Paul Getty Museum there is a psykter signed by Smikros, on which the latter depicted Euphronios as he woos the boy Leagros . For its part, the name Leagros can often be found on the works of Euphronios as a favorite inscription.
Hercules, Antaios and Sarpedon - the two masterpieces
The chalice crater, which shows Heracles and Antaios fighting, is considered a masterpiece . The anatomically precise reproduction of the muscles is particularly successful. The contrast between the barbaric Libyan giant Antaios and the civilized, well-groomed Greek hero is indicative of the evolving self-image of the Greeks. The work is given a special intensity by the fleeing women flanking the two fighters, who complete the picture with their statuesque character. A preliminary drawing was found during the restoration of the vase. It shows that Euphronios initially had problems reproducing the dislocated arm of the dying giant, which he overcame in the final version.
The highlight of Euphronios' work is generally around 515 BC. Sarpedon crater created in BC , also simply called Euphronios crater . As on the well-known bowl of his early work, Sarpedon forms the center of the picture here. His body is carried off the battlefield by Thanatos and Hypnos on the orders of his father Zeus . In the central background of the picture you can see Hermes , who is shown here in his capacity as a companion of the dead on their last journey. The ensemble is flanked by two Trojan warriors who apparently do not see what is going on and stare straight ahead. The figures are not only labeled by name, but also provided with explanatory texts. Through the use of thin-bodied slip, Euphronios manages to skillfully use the various possible colors and thus to give the scenery a special liveliness. But this crater is not only the highlight of the artist's work in visual terms. The combination of vase and painting also finds a new high point here. The shape of the chalice crater had been developed by the potter and painter Exekias during the black-figure painting . Euxitheos developed some innovations for the new red-figure painting. The bright picture space is strictly limited by the black painting of the handle, the base and the lower part of the vase. As usual for the work of Euphronios, the part of the picture is bordered by embellishments. The painting itself is ultimately a prime example of the painter's work: powerful, dynamic, detailed, anatomically correct and with a strong tendency towards pathos. The two artists must also have been aware of the good work they did together, since the signature of the potter and the painter can be found here. Since 1972, the crater, which is the only complete and unbroken work by the artist, has been in the New York Metropolitan Museum . In February 2006 the vase, which apparently came from the Etruscan necropolis of Cerveteri and was illegally acquired, was officially returned to Italy. After initially remaining on loan at the Metropolitan Museum, it was transferred to Italy in January 2008, where it is now on display in the Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia in Rome.
On the back of the Sarpedon crater there is a simpler arming scene that was obviously less carefully worked. Nor does it seem to be related to the Sarpedon scene. However, works by Euphronios are also known in which the front and back complement each other.
Everyday scenes
In addition to mythological scenes, Euphronios also painted some vessels with scenes from everyday life. The viewer witnesses a symposium on a cup crater in the Munich Collection of Antiquities . Four men lie on their Klinen and drink wine. One with the name Syko marked courtesan maintains the company with her flute playing and the host called Ekphantides true a song in honor of the god Apollo on. Almost like in the modern comic , the words pour out of his mouth. Such scenes are often found on the vases. On the one hand, because the vessels were not least created for these occasions, on the other hand, because painters like Euphronios also belonged to this group of Athenian citizens - or wanted to belong to them. It is unclear what the social status of the artist was during his time as a painter.
Also very well known is a signed Psykter from the Hermitage , on which four hetaera are depicted at a feast. One of the women is identified by the name Smikra - probably a humorous reference to the young painter Smikros.
In addition to the reveling scenes, there are also some palaces in which the artist could indulge his joy in movement, dynamism and muscle play. The only surviving work by Euphronios in black-figure technique, which was found only in fragments preserved on the Acropolis of Athens , falls into this context . On the remains of a Panathenaic amphora one can still see part of the head of Athena . As is customary with such depictions, the reverse is most likely depicting a sport that was practiced at the Panathenaia .
Late phase
The work of the last few years is partly characterized by assignment problems, which can have several reasons: The unsigned volute crater , which was found near Arezzo in the 18th century , is known. The larger part painted on the belly of the crater can easily be ascribed to Euphronios.
On top of the crater there is a fight scene with Heracles and Telamon in the center fighting the Amazons . Telamon gives a wounded Amazon in Scythian clothing the fatal blow. Heracles fights against the Amazon Teisipyle, who aims at him with a bow. In this late work, too, one recognizes Euphronios' search for new possibilities of expression. The scene has a particularly impressive dynamic, which evidently had seized the artist himself, who reproduced Telamon's leg in a rather twisted form. The assignment of the small-figure frieze that runs around the neck of the vessel and shows a train of comasts becomes problematic . Perhaps one of the Master's assistants - perhaps Smikros - was at work here.
The crater appears to have been a central work and to have influenced and inspired many other works. For example, on a neck amphora (Louvre G 107) there is an almost identical program of figures which, however, did not really correspond to the style of Euphronios in terms of drawing. Heracles bears an enigmatic inscription on it: It seems to belong to Smikros . Possibly one has to assume a collaboration between both artists here as well. The situation is different with an amphora (Leningrad 610), on which a similar scene as on the crater described above can be seen, only that Herakles is shown as an archer. Since connections to Euphronios can be made in this regard as well as in the type of figure drawing, Beazley ascribed the work - albeit after some hesitation - to Euphronios. The problem is that in this phase the style and skills of the Smikros were already close to those of his master due to the cooperation with his teacher and sometimes there are difficulties in keeping the work of the two apart.
The last works of the master (Louvre G 33; Louvre G 43) are marked by a strong simplification. The motifs are no longer as carefully composed as the earlier works, which probably has to do with the fact that Euphronios moved around 500 BC. Chr. Turned to a new occupation.
Euphronios as a potter
Around the year 500 BC Euphronios seems to have taken over a pottery workshop. It was not uncommon in the history of Greek pottery and vase painting to have artists devoted to both fields, and so other painters in the pioneering group such as Phintias and Euthymides have been both painters and potters. But the situation with Euphronios is unique in that one can see a break in him. At first he was only a painter, then only a potter.
In the years that followed, Euphronios mainly created bowls in his workshop. It is understandable that he had seized this opportunity, since the potters ( kerameis ) were the actual entrepreneurs and the painters were only workers employed by the potter. Thus the prospect of prosperity was far higher for the potter than for the painter. Some other hypotheses have also been discussed, such as that Euphronios had developed a real inclination to the pottery trade. This is quite possible, since he was a master of his trade as a potter and even more signed works by him as a potter than as a painter have come down to us. Another theory suggests that the painter's eyesight deteriorated, forcing him to do a simpler job. This hypothesis is supported by the discovery of the base of a consecration gift on the Acropolis. On the only fragmentary surviving inscription that bears the name of Euphronios, the word hygieia (health) can be found, which supports this theory. However, today it is assumed that it was really the prospect of better living conditions that made Euphronios go this way.
It is interesting, however, that he chose the bowl as the main product of his workshop. Because until then, the bowls were mostly designed by less talented painters and were probably not considered to be that important. Euphronios' selection of young painters in his workshop shows, however, that he very much placed great value on excellent work. This explains the employment of important mostly young painters such as Onesimos , Duris , Antiphon painters , Triptolemos painters or the Pistoxenos painter in his workshop.
The last pottery works are for Euphronios around 470 BC. Occupied. 21 of his pottery works known today are provided with his signature, as well as eleven of his paintings, which have survived today in around 50 vessels or fragments.
literature
- Euphronios the painter. An exhibition in the special exhibition hall of the Staatliche Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz Berlin-Dahlem, March 20–26. May 1991 . Fabbri, Milan 1991.
- Euphronios and his time. Colloquium in Berlin 19./20. April 1991 on the occasion of the exhibition Euphronios, the painter . Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Berlin 1992, ISBN 3-88609-129-5 .
- Ingeborg Scheibler : Greek pottery art . 2nd edition, CH Beck, Munich 1995, ISBN 3-406-39307-1 .
- Peter Watson, Cecilia Todeschini: The Medici Conspiracy. The trade in art treasures from the looting of Italian graves and museums . Parthas, Berlin 2006, ISBN 978-3-86601-905-8 .
Web links
- Works by Euphronius in the Louvre, Paris
- Works by Euphronius in the Getty Museum
- Links to works by Euphronius on the Internet
| personal data | |
|---|---|
| SURNAME | Euphronios |
| BRIEF DESCRIPTION | Greek vase painter and potter |
| DATE OF BIRTH | around 535 BC Chr. |
| DATE OF DEATH | after 470 BC Chr. |