Gerd Althoff

Peter Grewer. Portrait of Gerd Althoff, historian

• Gerd Althoff

Gerd Althoff (born July 9, 1943 in Hamburg ) is a German historian who researches the history of the early and high Middle Ages .

He held professorships for medieval history at the universities of Münster (1986–1990), Gießen (1990–1995) and Bonn (1995–1997) and from 1997 to 2011 again in Münster. Hardly any other historian researched the Ottonian period as intensively as Althoff. A particularly fruitful collaboration arose with his colleague from Münster, Hagen Keller . With their work, Althoff and Keller made a decisive contribution to Münster's reputation in international mediaeval studies . Althoff's research on the functioning of medieval statehood, on the forms of public communication, group ties and conflict resolution in the Middle Ages have had a considerable influence on German and international medieval studies since the 1980s and led to a reassessment of early and high medieval royal rule.

Life

Gerd Althoff was born in Hamburg in 1943 and grew up in the Münsterland . In 1963 he passed the Abitur at the local high school in Ibbenbüren and studied history and German in Münster and Heidelberg from 1965 to 1970 . The preoccupation with history was caused by its lifeworld background in the 68s and in dealing with the generation of fathers and their recent past. Althoff began his scientific career in Münster in the project "People and Communities", which Karl Schmid headed in the Collaborative Research Center 7 "Medieval Research". His first scientific publication dealt with a Prüm monk list in the Liber Aureus ("golden book") and appeared in 1973 in the Early Medieval Studies . A year later he received his doctorate in Münster with Schmid with a thesis on the necrology of the Westphalian women's convent Borghorst .

For the next six years he worked as a research assistant at the University of Freiburg im Breisgau , where he completed his habilitation in 1981 with the thesis “Noble and royal families in the mirror of their memorial tradition”. In 1986, Althoff was appointed to a professorship for medieval history at the University of Münster as the successor to Peter Johanek . In 1990 he switched to the chair for Medieval and Modern History in Giessen as the successor to Carlrichard Brühl . From 1991 to 1995, Althoff was co-initiator and supervisor of the graduate school “Medieval and Modern Statehood”. At the University of Giessen he was Managing Director of the Historical Institute in 1992 and Dean of the History Department in 1993/94 . In 1995 Althoff succeeded Rudolf Schieffer as professor for Medieval and Modern History at the University of Bonn . There he gave his inaugural lecture on outrage, tears and contrition in December 1995 . 'Emotions' in Medieval Public Communication. In 1996 he was managing director of the historical seminar in Bonn. In the 1997 summer semester, he returned to Münster as the successor of Joachim Wollasch to the professorship for Medieval History. Althoff held his inaugural lecture on the importance of symbolic communication for understanding the Middle Ages. In 1998/99 he was managing director of the historical seminar at the University of Münster. In 2011 he was retired there. In his farewell lecture, Althoff spoke about "The high medieval monarchy". His academic students include the current professors Claudia Garnier , Hermann Kamp , Steffen Krieb and Christiane Witthöft . Wolfram Drews was his successor in Münster in 2011 . Althoff was visiting professor at the University of California, Berkeley (1995), the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS) in Paris (1998) and the Lomonossow University in Moscow (2011). At the exhibitions “Golden Splendor. Medieval Treasure Art in Westphalia ”in Münster and“ Spectacle of Power ”in Magdeburg, he was significantly involved. Althoff worked as a senior professor at the University of Münster from November 1, 2015 to October 31, 2016 .

In 2005 Althoff received the research award of the University of Münster, endowed with 30,000 euros. Althoff took on numerous scientific organizational activities there. In 1997 he became director of the Institute for Early Medieval Research in Münster. Althoff was editor for many years (2001–2011) and is co-editor (1998–2001; since 2012) of the Early Medieval Studies . From 1988 to 1991 he was also the project manager of the Collaborative Research Center 231 (SFB) “Carriers, fields, forms of pragmatic writing in the Middle Ages” and in 1997 became the supervisor of the graduate program “Writing Culture and Society in the Middle Ages”. From 1991 to 1998 he was an expert reviewer for the German Research Foundation (DFG) and from 1997 to 2003 he was co-initiator and spokesman for the SFB “Symbolic Communication and Social Value Systems from the Middle Ages to the French Revolution”, in which he himself carried out the sub-project “Conflict and Peace Rituals in the Late Middle Ages “Directed. From 2007 to 2011 Althoff was the spokesman for the Cluster of Excellence “Religion and Politics in the Cultures of Pre-Modernism”. He is a member of the Medieval Working Group of the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel (since 1999), the Association for Constitutional History , the Constance Working Group for Medieval History (since 1993) and a full member of the Historical Commission for Westphalia (since 2003). In July 2008, on the occasion of his 65th birthday, an international colloquium (“Rules of the Game, Habits and Conventions in the Middle Ages”) was dedicated to him in Münster. The contributions were published in a festschrift in 2010.

Research priorities

His research focuses on the functioning of medieval statehood, conflict management and settlement in the Middle Ages, the forms and framework conditions of public communication (so-called symbolic communication) and group ties. His numerous essays on these main research areas since the 1980s have been published by the Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft in two edited volumes (1997: Rules of Politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in Peace and Feud and 2003: Staged Rule. Historiography and Political Action in the Middle Ages ). His numerous studies on the Ottonian and Salier times as well as the depictions of Relatives, Friends and Faithful and The Power of Rituals became standard works . A particularly fruitful exchange took place with his Münster colleague Hagen Keller on the subjects of Ottonian historiography, group behavior and statehood. In 1985, Althoff and Keller wrote a double biography of the first two Ottonian rulers, Heinrich I and Otto the Great . They were able to work out that Heinrich consolidated his rule with the help of friendship alliances (amicitiae) . Deviating from the older view, Althoff and Keller interpreted Heinrich's renunciation of anointing no longer as an anti-church move, but as a renunciation of essential prerogatives of the monarchy in order to consolidate the royal rule over the nobility . The anachronistic interpretation model of a strong and powerful royal power against the stubborn nobility was overcome. For Althoff and Keller, Heinrich I and Otto I were no longer symbols of Germany's early power and greatness, but rather distant representatives of an archaic society. Althoff put in 1996 to the Ottonen Otto III. and in 2006 a biography of the Salier Heinrich IV . Both biographies are considered standard works. In 2006, Althoff initiated a spring meeting of the Konstanz working group on the island of Reichenau to mark the 900th year of Heinrich IV's death. The speakers - including Tilman Struve , Rudolf Schieffer , Steffen Patzold , Claudia Zey , Matthias Becher and Stefan Weinfurter - included the many allegations against Heinrich the focus of the discussion. Together with Keller, Althoff is the author of the volume at the time of the late Carolingians and Ottonians of the 2008 edition of the “ Gebhardt ”, the fundamental handbook on German history. Your declared goal with the third volume of the new “Gebhardt” is a “fundamental revision of the traditional image of history”, ie the “denationalization of the image of the Ottonian empire”. Althoff had already provided an overview of the Ottonians eight years earlier.

In 2011, Althoff and Christel Meier presented a presentation on irony in the Middle Ages. With their research on this topic, they made a “fresh start for future research”. In 2013, as part of the Cluster of Excellence “Religion and Politics in the Cultures of Pre-Modernism and Modernity”, Althoff published the study Blessed are those who practice persecution against popes and violence in the high Middle Ages. According to Althoff's research, the popes developed their own theories to justify violence in order to justify claims to priority in the world. The question of obedience came to the fore as a new guiding category. Disobedience was viewed as a heresy that could be violated. The response to this book was largely positive because of its relevance to the current situation, the approach to the history of ideas and the source-based argumentation structure.

On the basis of his research on the political rules of the game, rituals and symbolic communication, Althoff presented in 2016 a systematic presentation of the political advice given to the medieval king and the role of sovereign advisers. Until then, research on the Middle Ages had paid little attention to the advice given to the medieval king by members of his rulership. According to Althoff, the consultation opened up a form of participation that set limits to the arbitrary rulers. As a result of the practice of counseling in German history from the 9th to the 12th centuries, Althoff noted a development from the “managed consensus-building” under Charlemagne to an “increased importance of the participation of the church and the nobility”.

Group ties

Name entries of King Heinrich I and his family from 929 in the Reichenau fraternity book. In the second column on the right under Heinricus rex is his wife Mathild [a] reg [ina], then her eldest son Otto I, already with the title of king (Otto rex).

The starting point of Althoff's work is the research of Gerd Tellenbach and his students in Freiburg, the so-called "Freiburg Working Group ". In the 1950s, Tellenbach recognized that entries in the fraternization and memorial books of the early Middle Ages were made in groups. Due to the memorial tradition (memorial books, necrology and death annals) important sources for the history of the nobility and for family research could be made available for the period from the 8th to 10th centuries. Personal name research developed into one of the largest projects in medieval studies. The students of Tellenbach, Karl Schmid and Joachim Wollasch , continued this research. In 1981/1982, Althoff and his teacher Karl Schmid examined the name entries in the Reichenau monastery memorial book and compared them with those of the St. Gallen , Fulda and Remiremont women's monasteries in Lorraine as part of the research project he led “Group formation and group awareness in the Middle Ages” . Members of the ruling classes had increasingly entered the names of their relatives and friends in the prayer aid of several monasteries. Such associations were aimed at peaceful family cohesion and mutual support among group members. The entries in the Reichenau Memorial Book, laid out in 825, increased significantly from 929 onwards and suddenly fell off again with the death of the East Franconian-German King Heinrich in 936. The grouped name entries were also found in a similar form in the memorial books of St. Gallen and Remiremont and in the annals of the dead of the Fulda monastery. Althoff established a connection between the intensification of prayer commemoration and the alliances that Heinrich made with the great. Henry I tried to consolidate his royal rule through Amicitia alliances with the dukes in the 10th century. His son Otto I gave up these mutually binding alliances (pacta mutua) with the greats of his empire and thus created conflicts. These insights found their way into the biography of Henry I and Otto the Great, published in 1985. The statements about concluded friendship alliances and oaths brought a considerable gain in knowledge and have prevailed in research on Henry I.

In an article published in 1983, Althoff identified a monk by the name of Widukind, who is listed as "Dominator Widukind" in the fraternization book of the Bodensee monastery on the Reichenau , as the Saxon Duke Widukind, baptized in 785 . Charlemagne had therefore banished Widukind as a monk on the island of Reichenau. This assumption is controversial in research. Althoff also worked on major edition projects for the Memorial Sources. Together with Joachim Wollasch, he presented the edition of the books of the dead from Merseburg , Magdeburg and Lüneburg . Althoff bundled the work on the edition of the books of the dead in 1984 in his habilitation thesis Noble and Royal Families in the mirror of their memorial tradition . On the basis of the Saxon necrologies that were carried out in the Ottonian and Billungian monasteries (Lüneburg and Merseburg), he was able to identify the family and friendly alliances that these noble and royal families maintained among themselves. In the necrology of St. Michael in Lüneburg and the Merseburg Book of the Dead , Althoff identified three popes, 190 archbishops and bishops, 92 abbots and abbesses, 51 kings and queens, 47 dukes and members of ducal families, 182 counts and countesses. The informative value of the memorial tradition was carefully questioned by Johannes Fried and completely rejected by Hartmut Hoffmann , whereupon Althoff and Wollasch responded to Hoffmann with a reply.

Althoff published the results of research on group formation and group consciousness in the 10th century in 1990 (relatives, friends and loyal friends) and 1992 (Amicitiae and Pacta) in studies. He was able to show that ties of a kinship and friendship-cooperative nature were more important among the nobles than ties to the ruler. The duties to the king were withdrawn. The bonds were further strengthened by an oath (coniuratio) . With these insights, the image drawn by Otto Brunner and Theodor Mayer of an association of persons based on loyalty and allegiance to a Führer, drawn by Otto Brunner and Theodor Mayer under the influence of National Socialism , was considered outdated . Althoff was also able to relate the waves of inscriptions in the monastery's memorial books during the time of Henry I to the measures taken to ward off the Hungarians. In older research, Heinrich, who was often portrayed as remote from the church, also used religious and spiritual means to defend himself against the Hungarians. Registrations are not limited to Saxony or Franconia. Althoff's insights are very important for the question of the structure of the empire in the 10th century. The findings from the evaluation of the memorial sources brought a completely new understanding of the ties and contacts between the nobility, church and king. Up until then, these insights had been unknown to older, constitutionally oriented research. The findings from the memorial sources also made statements from Ottonian historiography from the 10th century easier to understand, or new questions were asked of the historiographical sources. With these findings, a new reading of the Ottonian tradition began and new aspects came to the fore.

Since 1980 Althoff expanded his questions beyond group ties. The study published in 1982 on the question of the organization of Saxon coniurationes in the Ottonian period is regarded as an essential article . There Althoff was able to show that the participants in the Liudolfingian uprising in 953/54 belonged to the highest aristocratic circles and were connected to the royal family. These aristocratic groups were organized in a brotherhood or guild and had a common commemoration of the dead and ritual meals (convivia) as the starting point for armed actions against the king. The findings of this study were decisive for further research on conflict behavior, the use of violence and the rituals of submission. Essays on the peacemaking character of the meal, the forms of political consultation, "celebration and alliance" and the terms " grace " or "satisfaction" continued the research on the political behavior of groups. They were inspired by questions of conflict research.

Conflict management

The older research was particularly focused on the royal dishes. From this perspective, conflicts were primarily settled through court judgments. In 1927 Heinrich Mitteis researched the "legal norms" with which the "political trials" were conducted before the royal court of the 10th to 12th centuries. American Medievalists in particular have recognized since the 1970s that conflicts can only be adequately assessed with social science and cultural-historical issues and less with legal-historical approaches. They understood conflicts as changes in a network of social relationships. Accordingly, conflicts were no longer examined on a legal level, but on a social level. In the case of cultural-historical approaches, rituals, gestures and ceremonies came to the fore. In addition, the importance of writing for conflict management was questioned.

Since the 1980s, Althoff has been researching medieval conflict management and conflict resolution in German-speaking medieval studies. He followed the Anglo-Saxon view that amicable and extrajudicial management and settlement of conflicts are of great importance and that gestures, rituals and ceremonies play an important role. However, he developed his questions in connection with medieval statehood. Althoff and Keller emphasize the impossibility of describing the Ottonian empire with the categories of modern statehood, since Ottonian rule managed at least largely without written form, without institutions, without regulated responsibilities and instances, and not least without a monopoly of force . Even more clearly than in the Carolingian era , the king's recognition and strength were based on personal foundations in the 10th century. The basis of the royal rule was the consensus established in the encounter with the great . Public stagings, symbolic communication and chains of ritualized actions were often effective for the management and settlement of conflicts. From the special importance of personal ties and symbolic forms of communication, Althoff developed the pointed thesis of the Ottonian "rule without a state" in contrast to the "Carolingian statehood". Althoff's studies were intended to provide an answer to the question of how rule could function in a time without written norms. According to his research, conflicts cannot be explained with modern ways of thinking based on state institutions or laws. Rather, unwritten “rules of the game” of political behavior emerged in the disputes of the 10th and 11th centuries, which were hardly less binding than written laws in modern states. An important starting point is the lecture “Royal rule and conflict behavior in the 10th and 11th centuries”, which Althoff held in the section of the German Historians' Day in 1988 in Bamberg , which he helped to plan . The lectures there were published in 1989 in the Early Medieval Studies .

Christ puts the martyr's crown on Wenceslas . The depiction shows Emma , who commissioned the manuscript, in Proskynesis . She embraces and kisses Wenceslas foot. Gumpold of Mantua, Vita of St. Wenzel (Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek, Cod. Guelf. 11.2 Aug. 4 °, fol. 18v, 10th / 11th century).

Althoff examined the functioning of royal rule without state institutions using the behavior of king and nobility in conflict situations. In conflicts between the king and the great , both the causes of conflicts and the forms in which they were conducted and resolved become clear. Conflicts reveal the possibilities and limits of medieval royal rule. In contrast to Anglo-American research, Althoff did not investigate conflicts on the basis of court documents in high medieval France, Iceland or England, but mainly in the Ottonian-Salic Empire on the basis of historiographical sources . Althoff justified the concentration on historiographical texts with the fact that “these provide the most and the most detailed information about ritual activities in the centuries examined”. Althoff was able to work out a model of conflict settlement from the sources: one of the competitors, after efforts by mediators, declared himself ready to submit to the other. This took place in a public ritual of the deditio . The person who performed the deditio had to throw himself at the king's feet by symbolic acts of self-humiliation ( barefoot , robes of repentance or tears) and left to him to do whatever he wanted with him. For this satisfaction performance (satisfactio) him amnesty and the resumption in the herrscherliche was Huld made binding in view. The king picked his opponent off the ground and forgave him with a kiss or a hug. After a short symbolic imprisonment, he was given back his previous dignities ( feuds and offices). This enabled the winner to demonstrate his gentleness on display. These ritual forms of conflict settlement were not spontaneous acts, but were discussed beforehand in confidence by mediators and firmly agreed. The deditio was the staged result of negotiations. The mediators, mostly influential people, were not bound by instructions from the king during their negotiations and thus limited the possibilities for royal power to be exercised in the early and high Middle Ages. They paved the way for the conflicting parties through proposals to a mutually acceptable solution. But if, for example, the king violated the agreements made, the mediator went over to the other side. Althoff interpreted Tassilo's submission to Bavaria in 788 as the earliest example of the deditio . In the time of Louis the Pious , the "fully developed ritual" of the deditio is tangible. As a rule, the deditio could not be repeated at will. If an opponent reopened the conflict after finding leniency and forgiveness, then he had to expect the severest punishment. In addition, Althoff stated that the ritual of the deditio was reserved for the nobility, “yes, a privilege of the high nobility”. Criticism of these statements was expressed in the French-language Medieval Studies by Jean-Marie Moeglin . According to Moeglin, the ritual of submission was not an aristocratic privilege, but spread across all classes.

The king's opponents from the ruling class or his own family could hope for extensive protection in the 10th century. Althoff also presented several studies on conflict management in the 12th and 13th centuries. According to Althoff's research, the political structure of the Ottonian-Salian period differed from the order established by the Carolingians in the late 8th and 9th centuries in the Franconian Empire and from the rule of the Staufer period in the 12th and 13th centuries. The methods of punishment ( blinding , mutilation , admission to a monastery) from the Carolingian era largely disappeared from the empire. Althoff was able to identify the first breaches in these "rules of the game of medieval conflict management" in the late Tonic period with Heinrich II . Henry II was not as willing to clementia (leniency) as the Ottonian rulers apparently were towards their enemies. Althoff attributes the critical escalation of the conflicts in the late Salier period under Heinrich IV and Heinrich V to "the break with the old habits of conflict settlement". He justified this by saying "because the kings themselves tried to break the rules which in fact set narrow limits to their ability to punish opponents". In the Staufer period, the ruling virtue of leniency, known from Ottonian times, was no longer in the foreground, but the rigor iustitiae (strictness of justice) became the yardstick for evaluating rulers' actions.

Althoff had initially worked out his "rules of the game for conflict management" on conflicts between the king and his greats. In further investigations he recognized additional examples in the conflicts between the great, in the disputes between king and pope and between rulers and cities in northern Italy. From his point of view, these are therefore “generally applicable rules in conflict situations”. In view of the often amicable settlement of conflicts by mediators, according to Althoff, the view of the “gun-clinking and feuding Middle Ages” must be relativized.

Rituals, signs and symbols

Althoff has been working out the importance of rituals for the rulership of the Middle Ages since the 1980s. For Althoff, "the rituals, gestures and rules of the game which in their sum [...] make up the medieval statehood" create the cohesion of the empire. At the same time, Janet L. Nelson also emphasized the importance of rituals and symbols for politics in Anglo-Saxon research . Althoff designed conferences on communication, rituals and the representation of power. In March 1994, he and Ernst Schubert held a conference of the Constance working group on the island of Reichenau on the subject of "Representation of power in Ottonian Saxony". At the conference, historians and art historians presented their research results on the Ottonian heartlands in Saxony as well as on the forms and functions of the representation of rule in the Ottonian period. In October 1996 and March 1997, the Konstanz working group held meetings on “Forms and Functions of Public Communication in the Middle Ages”, which shed light on the functioning of the political system in the Middle Ages. Since Althoff's research, the symbolic behaviors are no longer interpreted as anecdotal adornment in the sources, but as important statements about the functioning of medieval royal rule ( symbolic communication ). This approach to historical ritual research is also related to the increased reception of new cultural anthropological approaches in historical studies in recent decades .

In 2003, Althoff bundled his decades of research in the comprehensive work Die Macht der Rituale. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages . Rituals are "chains of actions, gestures and also words [...] that are bound to patterns, repeat them and thus achieve a recognition effect". However, the investigation was limited to the Frankish or Roman-German kingdom. Althoff was aware of "how preliminary and in need of supplementation" his results are. He saw his research as an "interim balance [...] of long-term efforts to adequately describe and understand the functioning of medieval systems of rule".

The early Middle Ages treated Althoff just barely. For the Merovingian period he assumed a very limited meaning of rituals; he spoke of "humble beginnings", since "the power of kings [...] had hardly been curtailed by the power of ritual procedures". Althoff rated the meeting of Pope Stephen II and King Pippin in Ponthion in 754 as "a milestone in the development of Franconian ritual culture". At the end of the 9th and 10th centuries he noticed a greater “need for rituals”. This led to a "spread of ritual behavior patterns" in the 10th and 11th centuries. The 10th and 11th centuries were also the focus of the book. Althoff observed that the ritual of royal self-humiliation introduced by Henry IV had come to a "rather abrupt end" when he went to Canossa (1077). Althoff gave the events in Canossa decisive importance; He stated that "the effect of the events in Canossa was lasting and not least manifested itself in a reorganization of ritual behavior patterns, can hardly be doubted". He saw the reasons for this in the fact that the king's voluntary self-humiliation could symbolically illustrate subordination to the popes; But due to the numerous accusations against the king of not keeping agreements, ritual statements lost their binding force. Althoff made a turning point in the 13th century. He knew about the "continuing, even growing importance [...] with which power relations in the late Middle Ages and in the early modern times were brought to the fore in ritual forms". The late Middle Ages he treated on grounds of workability only in the context of a brief outlook. In his monograph he set “three objectives of proof”. (1) He was particularly interested in “proving that rituals of rulership were 'made' in the Middle Ages”. Rituals were planned through precise negotiations and agreements and then staged in public (“made rituals”). (2) Rituals changed in the course of history when the power or rank relationships changed (“historicity of rituals”). (3) Rituals exercised power themselves. They made differences in rank visible to the public and could have a stabilizing effect (“power of rituals”). Althoff's book was viewed critically in a detailed review in the historical journal . Hanna Vollrath criticized that Althoff would like to "explain general changes from a specific ritual event".

His numerous researches on the "rules of the game" and rituals were often incorporated into his biography Otto III, published in 1996. The individual then took a back seat. Althoff expressed himself skeptical about being able to grasp medieval rulers in their individuality. With his biography he rather wanted to provide "a source-oriented description of the framework conditions of royal rule using the example of Otto III." This approach was received critically in the professional world. Rudolf Schieffer stated that Althoff had Otto III. subjected to a radical "weight loss cure". Michael Borgolte criticized that, according to Althoff's statements, the Ottonian rulers were “caught up in norms and rituals”, and with this view they lose their personality. Franz-Reiner Erkens made a similar criticism .

The ritual research was criticized among others by Philippe Buc . He spoke out against the adoption of social scientific and anthropological theories of the 20th century for the interpretation of early medieval source narratives. He saw rituals as deliberate constructions with an uncontrollable reality content. Buc called for the respective context of the source and the intentions of the author to be taken more into account. The modern ritual concept is insufficient to understand early medieval sources.

Ottonian historiography

Another focus of Althoff is the source value of Ottonian historiography. Similar to Johannes Fried , Althoff used Ottonian historiography to deal with the deforming influence of orality on writing. According to Fried, these deformations are so strong that the events on which the sources' statements are based are “never identical with the actual story”. The Saxon history of Widukind von Corvey , the most important Ottonian historian, is for Fried an "error-saturated construct". In contrast to Fried, Althoff assigns Ottonian historiography a particularly high source value. He thinks Widukind is trustworthy. The history of Saxony has a special reason for dedication: Widukind dedicated his work to Mathilde , the daughter of Otto the Great. The 12- or 13-year-old girl was the only member of the imperial family north of the Alps in 968. In this situation, Widukind's work was suitable "to make the young Emperor's daughter Mathilde politically capable". Mathilde could see from the text which men she had to deal with, what history the leading families had and what conflicts they had fought with the Ottonians. This didactic function also explains the weighting of the work and the omissions (summary of the Italian policy in one chapter, no mention of missionary policy in the east and the processes involved in the establishment of the Archdiocese of Magdeburg). Althoff's conclusion is therefore: “The key witness is trustworthy.” In Ottonian historiography, according to Althoff, the freedom of change was narrowly limited as soon as it came to matters in which the powerful had a current interest. Any modifications were therefore not possible. Of course, the expectations of those in power also led to whitewashing and idealizations. Althoff asked about the reasons for writing and the intentions to write historiographical works and provided evidence of "a connection between current problems of the present and the intentions of authors to depict them". It was often times of crisis that led spiritual institutions to compose hagiography and historiography. The numerous anecdotes, dreams and visions, which are often mentioned by Ottonian historians, have an argumentative core with which criticism of the powerful has been exercised. In the history of the monasteries Quedlinburg and Gandersheim , Althoff showed that the two spiritual institutions openly expressed criticism of the rulers when the ruler did not take care of the monastery's interests. Althoff was also able to confirm the basic accents of Ottonian historiography from new research findings, such as those of memorial tradition and conflict research.

Controversy with Johannes Fried

Johannes Fried in 2009.

In addition to the controversy about the source value of Ottonian historiography, Althoff's 1995 review of Fried's presentation Der Weg in die Geschichte (1994) in the Historisches Zeitschrift sparked a dispute over the imagination in the work of the historian. Althoff questioned the scientific nature of the reviewed book. He criticized Fried's “tendency to over-pointed valuation” and found the style to be “extremely suggestive”. Fried does not make it clear where the speculation began and what "imaginative decoration" is. Another weighty objection arises from Fried's tendency to infer from “facts on motives”. Fried also tends to make statements that are not covered by any sources. Due to the lack of verifiability, especially in times with few sources, Fried violates a basic condition of scientific research. Fried rejected this criticism in the same issue of the historical journal . According to his reply, Althoff tore “quotations out of context” and added statements to him that he did not make in his book. Althoff himself only brings hypotheses and no reliable results. He only allows his own interpretations to apply ("Althoffiana") and does not accept any other points of view. Criticism of Fried's book from other historians can hardly be heard. Peter Moraw , Franz-Reiner Erkens and Arnold Esch supported Fried's presentation. Hanna Vollrath praised the book as "writing history in the best sense". Michael Borgolte assessed it as a “work of modern and postmodern historiography at the same time” and as “ the representative work of medieval history of our time”.

Althoff also openly rejected Fried's remarks about the king's uprising of the Piast Bolesław I in the Gnesen Act . In 1989, Fried put forward the thesis that in Gniezno there had been a royal uprising that was limited to the secular act. Althoff replied in his biography of Otto III, published in 1996, that Bolesław was in Gniezno in a particularly honorable way as an amicus as part of an alliance of friendship with Otto III. been awarded. The traditional acts - handing over gifts and demonstrating unity through a feast lasting several days - were common in early medieval amicitiae . Another dispute arose from Fried's reinterpretation (2008) of the Canossa events ; it was also carried out in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung . Althoff contradicted Fried's interpretation of a peace treaty between Henry IV and Gregory VII in Canossa . Fried's view is based "on misunderstandings and selective choice of tradition". Fried's reinterpretation also met with criticism from other historians. Thereupon he presented his views again in more detail as a "polemic" and took a position against Althoff. His opponent Althoff quoted Fried with no name, only THEN -author. In 2014 Althoff again contradicted Fried's acceptance of a political peace alliance in Canossa. Althoff collected evidence of a new understanding of the office of Pope Gregory VII. According to the new validity claims, the king was obliged to obey him absolutely. In the event of disobedience, he was to be excluded as a heretic from the community of believers. According to Althoff, this policy of the Pope towards the king and the princes precludes a temporary political peace alliance with Heinrich, deceiving the princes.

Scientific aftermath

With his analysis of the conflicts within the ruling associations, his observations on the political weight of social ties in the High Middle Ages, his research into rituals and his explanations about the importance of consultation as a political process, Althoff played an essential part in the re-evaluation of the high medieval monarchy, which was carried out in research started in the 1980s. According to David A. Warner (2001), rituals and ceremonies belong to the “mainstream of virtually every area of ​​historical scholarship” (German: main direction in almost all areas of historical studies). According to a handbook by Hans-Werner Goetz (2003), early medieval kingship was primarily characterized by rituals and the representation of power. In the last few years a whole series of works has been created that investigated processions , rulers' entries and encounters, burial ceremonies and other ritualized processes of action.

Althoff's concept of the rules of the game was not only taken up across disciplines in German medieval research, it is also used and discussed in Anglo-Saxon and French medieval studies. Articles by Althoff found their way into standard American works. His monographs relatives, friends and faithful. On the political significance of group ties in the early Middle Ages (2004) and Otto III. (2010) have been translated into English. His research was well received in medieval literature. They intensified the dialogue between literary historians and historians about historical sources and literary texts from the Middle Ages. His research on rituals and symbols, conflict management and rules of the game also formed the starting point for numerous studies in medieval literature. On the other hand, Althoff's views on the relativization of the meaning of law, court and judgment met with some violent opposition from legal historians .

Althoff's students kept the thematic focus on medieval representation of power, symbolic communication and conflicts. His remarks were used to interpret conflicts of later centuries. Monika Suchan (1997) examined the investiture dispute using Althoff's "rules of the game" . Throughout the Middle Ages, Hermann Kamp researched the role of mediators in conflict resolution. Steffen Krieb (2000) dealt with the settlement of conflicts in the 1198 "German" controversy for the throne . Claudia Garnier chose to focus on political networking in the late Middle Ages as well as conflict resolution and arbitration. She examined the effects of the growing literacy on the rules of the game. Written contracts have increased since the 12th century. However, the script did not replace the symbolic actions, but added details that could not be expressed symbolically. Garnier also looked at the history of the political plea. In doing so, she took into account both the “rules of the game” and the role of requests in political communication between rulers and rulers. Christiane Witthöft received her doctorate in 2002 on forms of symbolic communication in the historiography and literature of the late Middle Ages . Theo Broekmann (2005) researched the use of rituals to resolve conflicts between king and nobility in the Kingdom of Sicily. He was able to show that the obligation of a king north of the Alps to the Christian virtues of rulership of clementia (mildness) and misericordia (mercy) played no role in dealing with defeated rebels in Sicily. Rather, in the Staufer period, due to Norman traditions in conflict management, severity, harshness and a sense of justice came to the fore.

Fonts (selection)

Monographs

• The Borghorst Necrolog. Edition and investigation (= Westphalian memorial books and necrologies. Volume 1). Aschendorff, Münster 1978, ISBN 3-402-05998-3 .
• Noble and royal families in the mirror of their memorial tradition. Studies on the commemoration of the dead of the Billunger and Ottonians (= Münster medieval writings. Volume 47). Fink, Munich 1984, ISBN 3-7705-2267-2 ( digitized version ).
• with Hagen Keller : Heinrich I and Otto the Great. A new beginning on the Carolingian heritage (= personality and history. Biographical series. Vol. 122–125). Muster-Schmidt, Göttingen et al. 1985, ISBN 3-7881-0122-9 .
• Relatives, friends and faithful. On the political significance of group ties in the early Middle Ages. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1990, ISBN 3-534-04125-9 .
• Amicitiae and Pacta. Alliance, unification, politics and prayer commemoration in the beginning of the 10th century (= Monumenta Germaniae historica. Volume 37). Hahn, Hannover 1992, ISBN 3-7752-5437-4 .
• Otto III. (= Design of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance ). Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1996, ISBN 3-534-11274-1 .
• Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1997, ISBN 3-89678-038-7 .
• The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. 2nd edition with a new foreword. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2013, ISBN 978-3-534-25081-3 .
• Staged rule. Historiography and Political Action in the Middle Ages. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2003, ISBN 3-534-17247-7 .
• Heinrich IV. (= Figures of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance ). 3rd, unchanged edition, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2012, ISBN 978-3-534-24895-7 .
• with Hagen Keller: The time of the late Carolingians and Ottonians: crises and consolidations 888-1024. (= Gebhardt. Handbook of German History. Volume 3). 10th, completely revised edition. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-608-60003-2 .
• with Christel Meier : Irony in the Middle Ages. Hermeneutics - Poetry - Politics. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2011, ISBN 978-3-534-21624-6 .
• “Blessed are the persecutors”. Popes and violence in the High Middle Ages. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2013, ISBN 978-3-534-24711-0 .
• The Ottonians. Royal rule without a state. 3rd revised edition. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart et al. 2013, ISBN 978-3-17-022443-8 .
• Control of power. Forms and rules of political advice in the Middle Ages. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2016, ISBN 3-534-26784-2 .

Editorships

• with Joachim Wollasch : The books of the dead from Merseburg, Magdeburg and Lüneburg (= Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Antiquitates. Volume 4, Libri memoriales et Necrologia, Nova Series. Volume 2). Hahn, Hannover 1983, ISBN 3-7752-5142-1 .
• The Germans and their Middle Ages. Topics and functions of modern historical images from the Middle Ages. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1992, ISBN 3-534-10997-X .
• with Ernst Schubert: Representation of power in Ottonian Saxony (= lectures and research. Volume 46). Thorbecke, Sigmaringen 1999, ISBN 3-7995-6646-5 ( digitized version ).
• Heinrich IV. (= Lectures and research. Volume 69). Thorbecke, Ostfildern 2009, ISBN 3-7995-6869-7 ( digitized version ).

literature

• Patrick Bahners : The cunning one. To the medievalist Gerd Althoff on his sixtieth birthday . In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , July 9, 2003, No. 156, p. 33.
• Hanna Vollrath : Do rituals have power? Notes on the book by Gerd Althoff: Die Macht der Rituale. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 284 (2007), pp. 385-400.
• Jürgen Kaube: Gerd Althoff. When rulers want to cry. Who interrogates the witnesses separately: fact and fiction in the history of the Middle Ages. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , July 8, 2013, No. 155, p. 32.
• Gerd Althoff. In: Jürgen Petersohn (Ed.): The Constance Working Group for Medieval History. The members and their work. A bio-bibliographical documentation (= publications of the Konstanz working group for medieval history on the occasion of its fiftieth anniversary 1951–2001. Volume 2). Thorbecke, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-7995-6906-5 , pp. 21-27 ( online ).
• Althoff, Gerd . In: Kürschner's German Scholars Calendar. Bio-bibliographical directory of contemporary German-speaking scientists. Volume 1: A-G. 25th edition. de Gruyter, Berlin et al. 2013, ISBN 978-3-11-027421-9 , p. 46f.
• Hermann Kamp, Claudia Garnier (ed.): The rules of the game for the mighty. Medieval politics between habits and conventions. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2010, ISBN 978-3-534-23014-3 .

Web links

• Literature by and about Gerd Althoff in the catalog of the German National Library
• Althoff, Gerd .  Publications in the bibliographic database of the Regesta Imperii .
• Website of Gerd Althoff at the University of Münster
• Press release upm - Media Service of the University of Münster: Internationally respected connoisseur of the Middle Ages Prof. Dr. Gerd Althoff is celebrating his 70th birthday

Remarks

1. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The high medieval monarchy. Accents of an unfinished reassessment. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 45 (2011), pp. 77–98, here: p. 82. Barbara Stambolis: Life with and in history. German historian born in 1943. Essen 2010, esp. P. 143ff.
2. ↑ Gerd Althoff: A Prümer monk list in the 'Liber Aureus'. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 7 (1973), pp. 234-265.
3. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The Necrolog from Borghorst. Edition and investigation. Munster 1978.
4. ^ Gerd Althoff: Noble and royal families in the mirror of their memorial tradition. Studies on the commemoration of the dead of the Billunger and Ottonians. Munich 1984.
5. ↑ A version of this inaugural lecture with extensive references to literature and sources was published under the title: Gerd Althoff: Outrage, Tränen, Zerknirschung. Emotions in Public Communication in the Middle Ages. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 30 (1996), pp. 60-79.
6. ↑ A version of this inaugural lecture provided with extensive literature and sources was published under the title: Gerd Althoff: On the meaning of symbolic communication for the understanding of the Middle Ages. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 31 (1997), pp. 370-389.
7. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The high medieval monarchy. Accents of an unfinished reassessment. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 45 (2011), pp. 77–98.
8. ↑ Christel Meier : 50 Years of Early Medieval Studies. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 50 (2016), pp. 1–13, here: pp. 12f.
9. ^ Gerd Althoff, Ludwig Siep: Symbolic communication and social value systems from the Middle Ages to the French Revolution. The new Münster Collaborative Research Center 496. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 34 (2000), pp. 393-412.
10. ↑ Claudia Garnier, Hermann Kamp (ed.): Rules of the game for the mighty. Medieval politics between habits and conventions. Darmstadt 2010.
11. ↑ Hagen Keller: Group ties, rules of the game, rituals. In: Claudia Garnier, Hermann Kamp (Ed.): Rules of the game for the mighty. Medieval politics between custom and convention. Darmstadt 2010, pp. 19–31, here: p. 29, note 22.
12. ↑ Gerd Althoff, Hagen Keller: Heinrich I and Otto the Great. New beginning on the Carolingian legacy . Vol. 1–2, Göttingen et al. 1985. Cf. Thomas Zotz : Amicitia and Discordia. On a new publication on the relationship between royalty and nobility in the early Ottonian period. In: Francia 16 (1989), pp 169-175 ( online ).
13. ↑ See the review by Franz Staab In: Historische Zeitschrift 249 (1989), pp. 158f.
14. ↑ Gerd Althoff, Hagen Keller: Heinrich I and Otto the Great. New beginning on the Carolingian legacy. Vol. 1–2, Göttingen et al. 1985, p. 14.
15. ↑ Gerd Althoff (Ed.): Heinrich IV. Ostfildern 2009.
16. ↑ Gerd Althoff, Hagen Keller: The time of the late Carolingians and the Ottonians. Crises and Consolidations 888–1024. Stuttgart 2008, p. 27. Cf. the review by Egon Boshof in: Das Historisch-Politische Buch (2008), p. 373f.
17. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The Ottonians. Royal rule without a state. Stuttgart et al. 2000.
18. ↑ Gerd Althoff, Christel Meier: Irony in the Middle Ages. Hermeneutics - Poetry - Politics. Darmstadt 2011, p. 17. Cf. the review by Georg Scheibelreiter in: Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters 68 (2012), p. 855 f. ( online ).
19. ↑ Gerd Althoff: "Blessed are those who practice persecution". Popes and violence in the High Middle Ages. Stuttgart 2013.
20. ^ Claudia Zey: The Investiture Controversy - Newer Perspectives of Research. In: Thomas Kohl (ed.): Conflict and change around 1100. Europe in the age of feudal society and investiture dispute. Berlin / Boston 2020, pp. 13–31, here: p. 20. Reviews of Althoff's book by Ernst-Dieter Hehl in: Historische Zeitschrift 303 (2016), pp. 847–851; Rudolf Schieffer in: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages 69 (2013), p. 755 ( online ); Martin Ohst in: H-Soz-Kult , August 28, 2013, ( online ); Bernd Schneidmüller in: DAMALS 07, 2013 ( online ); Peter Dinzelbacher in: Journal for Historical Research 41 (2014), 473–475 ( online ); Claire de Cazanove in: Revue de l'IFHA ( online ).
21. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Control of Power. Forms and rules of political advice in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2016, p. 15.
22. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Control of Power. Forms and rules of political advice in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2016, p. 15.
23. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Control of Power. Forms and rules of political advice in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2016, p. 34.
24. ^ Karl Schmid: The Freiburg working group '. Gerd Tellenbach on his 70th birthday. In: Journal for the history of the Upper Rhine , Vol. 122 (1974), pp. 331–347.
25. ^ Hans-Werner Goetz : Modern Medieval Studies. Status and perspectives of medieval research. Darmstadt 1999, pp. 158-159.
26. ↑ Gerd Althoff, Hagen Keller: Heinrich I and Otto the Great. New beginning on the Carolingian legacy. Vol. 1–2, Göttingen et al. 1985. Cf. also Gerd Althoff: Relatives, Friends and Getreue. On the political significance of group ties in the early Middle Ages. Darmstadt 1990, p. 112. Gerd Althoff: Die Ottonen. Royal rule without a state. Stuttgart et al. 2000, pp. 69ff.
27. ^ Wolfgang Giese : Heinrich I. founder of the Ottonian rule. Darmstadt 2008, p. 31f.
28. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The Saxon Duke Widukind as a monk on the Reichenau. A contribution to the criticism of the Widukind myth. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 17 (1983), pp. 251-279 ( online ).
29. ^ To Althoff critical Eckhard Freise: The Sachsenmission of Charlemagne and the beginnings of the diocese of Minden. In: On Weser and Wiehen. Contributions to the history and culture of a landscape. Festschrift for Wilhelm Brepohl. Minden 1983, pp. 57-100, here: p. 81 ( online ). More detailed Eckhard Freise : Widukind in Attigny. In: 1200 years of Widukind's baptism. Paderborn 1985, pp. 12-45, here: pp. 35ff. ( online ).
30. ↑ The monastery community of Fulda in the early Middle Ages with the participation of Gerd Althoff, Eckhard Freise, Dieter Geuenich, Franz-Josef Jakobi, Hermann Kamp, Otto Gerhard Oexle, Mechthild Sandmann, Joachim Wollasch, Siegfried Zörkendörfer, ed. v. Karl Schmid. 3 volumes, Munich 1978; Gerd Althoff, Joachim Wollasch: The books of the dead of Merseburg, Magdeburg and Lüneburg. Munich 1983.
31. ^ Hans-Werner Goetz: Modern Medieval Studies. Status and perspectives of medieval research. Darmstadt 1999, p. 161. Gerd Althoff: Memoria, writing, symbolic communication. To reevaluate the 10th century. In: Christoph Dartmann, Thomas Scharff, Christoph Friedrich Weber (eds.): Between pragmatics and performance. Dimensions of medieval writing culture. Turnhout 2011, pp. 85–101, here: p. 94.
32. ^ Gerd Althoff: Noble and royal families in the mirror of their memorial tradition. Studies on the commemoration of the dead of the Billunger and Ottonians. Munich 1984, pp. 289-427.
33. ↑ On the debate about the method: Johannes Fried: On the method of Nekrologausbildung: Comments on a new book. In: Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins , Vol. 135 (1987), pp. 87-99. Gerd Althoff: “Insurmountable difficulties?” A reply. In: Journal for the history of the Upper Rhine , Vol. 135 (1987), pp. 100-103. Hartmut Hoffmann: Notes on the Libri Memoriales. In: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages , Vol. 53 (1997), pp. 415–459. Gerd Althoff, Joachim Wollasch: Will the Libri Memoriales remain silent? A reply to H. Hoffmann. In: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages , Vol. 56 (2000) pp. 33–53.
34. ^ Gerd Althoff: Relatives, friends and faithful. On the political significance of group ties in the early Middle Ages. Darmstadt 1990; Gerd Althoff: Amicitiae and Pacta. Alliance, unification, politics and prayer commemoration in the early 10th century. Hanover 1992.
35. ↑ With numerous references Gerd Althoff: Relatives, friends and faithful. On the political significance of group ties in the early Middle Ages. Darmstadt 1990.
36. ^ Theodor Mayer: The formation of the foundations of the modern German state in the high Middle Ages. In: Hellmut Kämpf (Ed.): Rule and State in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 1956, pp. 284-331.
37. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Amicitiae and Pacta. Alliance, unification, politics and prayer commemoration in the early 10th century. Hanover 1992, p. 69ff.
38. ↑ See the assessment by Ernst-Dieter Hehl in: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 261 (1995), pp. 187–188.
39. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Memoria, writing, symbolic communication. To reevaluate the 10th century. In: Christoph Dartmann, Thomas Scharff, Christoph Friedrich Weber (eds.): Between pragmatics and performance. Dimensions of medieval writing culture. Turnhout 2011, pp. 85-101, here: 91ff.
40. ↑ Hagen Keller: Group ties, rules of the game, rituals. In: Claudia Garnier, Hermann Kamp (Hrsg.): Rules of the game of the mighty: Medieval politics between habit and convention. Darmstadt 2010, pp. 19–31, here: p. 22.
41. ↑ See the review by Wilfried Hartmann in the German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages, Vol. 39, pp. 661–662.
42. ↑ Gerd Althoff: On the question of the organization of Saxon coniurationes in the Ottonian period. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 16, 1982, pp. 129-142. Hagen Keller's assessment: group ties, rules of the game, rituals. In: Claudia Garnier, Hermann Kamp (Ed.): Rules of the game for the mighty. Medieval politics between custom and convention. Darmstadt 2010, pp. 19–31, here: p. 22.
43. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Grace. Considerations on a central concept of the medieval system of rule. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 25 (1991), pp. 259-282; again in: Gerd Althoff: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997, pp. 199-228; Gerd Althoff: The peace, alliance and community-creating character of the meal in the early Middle Ages. In: Irmgard Bitsch, Trude Ehlert, Xenja von Ertzdorff (eds.): Eating and drinking in the Middle Ages and modern times. Sigmaringen 1987, pp. 13-25; Gerd Althoff: Colloquium familiare - colloquium secretum - colloquium publicum. Advice on political life in the early Middle Ages. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 24 (1990), pp. 145-167; again in: Gerd Althoff, Rules of the Game of Politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in Peace and Feud, Darmstadt 1997, pp. 157–184; Gerd Althoff: Celebration and alliance. In: Detlef Altenburg, Jörg Jarnut , Hans-Hugo Steinhoff (eds.): Festivals and celebrations in the Middle Ages. Paderborn Symposium of the Medievalist Association. Sigmaringen 1991, pp. 29-38. Gerd Althoff: Satisfactio. On the peculiarity of amicable conflict resolution in the Middle Ages. In: Joachim Heinzle (Hrsg.): Modernes Mittelalter. New pictures of a popular era. Frankfurt am Main 1994, pp. 247-265.
44. ↑ For older and younger Anglo-American research see Steffen Patzold: Conflicts in the Monastery. Studies of disputes in monastic communities of the Ottonian-Salic Empire. Husum 2000. pp. 25-27; Steffen Patzold: Conflicts as a topic in modern medieval studies. In: Hans-Werner Goetz: Modern Medieval Studies. Status and perspectives of medieval research. Darmstadt 1999, pp. 198-205.
45. ↑ Steffen Patzold: Conflicts as a Topic in Modern Medieval Studies. In: Hans-Werner Goetz: Modern Medieval Studies. Status and perspectives of medieval research. Darmstadt 1999, pp. 198–205, here: p. 202.
46. ↑ Gerd Althoff: State servants and heads of the state. Prince responsibility between imperial interests and self-interest. In: Ders .: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997, p. 126–153, here: p. 126f. Hagen Keller: On the character of the 'statehood' between the Carolingian reform of the empire and the establishment of rule in the High Middle Ages. In: Ottonian royal rule. Organization and legitimation of royal power. Darmstadt 2002, pp. 11–21, here: p. 11. (First publication in: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 23 (1989), pp. 248–264.)
47. ↑ Pointing the way: Gerd Althoff: On the importance of symbolic communication for understanding the Middle Ages. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 31 (1997), pp. 370-389, here especially 383-386.
48. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The Ottonians. Royal rule without a state. 2nd, extended edition, Stuttgart et al. 2005. Criticism: Harald Zimmermann: Review: Gerd Althoff, Die Ottonen. In: Journal of the Savigny Foundation for Legal History, German Department , Vol. 118 (2001), pp. 490–491. August Nitschke, Karolinger and Ottonen , opposes an overemphasis on this contrast . From “Carolingian statehood” to “royal rule without a state”? In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 273 (2001), pp. 1–29.
49. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Unwritten laws. How does rule work without written norms? In: Gerd Althoff: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 1997, pp. 282-304.
50. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Introduction. In: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997, pp. 1–17, here: pp. 2f.
51. ^ Gerd Althoff: Royal rule and conflict resolution in the 10th and 11th centuries. In: Ders .: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997, pp. 21–56 (First published in: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 23 (1989), pp. 265–290.) Hagen Keller: Group ties , rules of the game, rituals. In: Claudia Garnier, Hermann Kamp (Ed.): Rules of the game for the mighty. Medieval politics between custom and convention. Darmstadt 2010, pp. 19–31, here: p. 26.
52. ^ Gerd Althoff: Royal rule and conflict resolution in the 10th and 11th centuries. In: Ders., Rules of the Game in Politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997, pp. 21–56, here: p. 21. (First publication in: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 23 (1989), pp. 265-290.)
53. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 187.
54. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, esp. 76–83 with concrete examples
55. ^ Gerd Althoff: The privilege of the deditio. Forms of amicable ending of conflict in medieval aristocratic society. In: Ders .: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997, pp. 99-125, esp .: pp. 100f. (First published in: Otto Gerhard Oexle (Hrsg.): Nobilitas. Festschrift for Karl Ferdinand Werner on his 70th birthday. Göttingen 1997, pp. 27–52.)
56. ^ Gerd Althoff: Colloquium familiare - Colloquium secretum - Colloquium publicum. Advice on political life in the early Middle Ages. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 24 (1990) pp. 145-167.
57. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The high medieval monarchy. Accents of an unfinished reassessment. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 45 (2011), pp. 77–98, here: p. 88.
58. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, pp. 53-57.
59. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The privilege of the 'Deditio'. Forms of amicable ending of conflict in medieval aristocratic society. In: Otto Gerhard Oexle, Werner Paravicini (Ed.): Nobilitas. Function and representation of the nobility in ancient Europe. Göttingen 1997, pp. 27-52, here: p. 43.
60. ^ Gerd Althoff: Otto III. Darmstadt 1996, p. 112f .; Gerd Althoff: Otto III. and Henry II in conflicts. In: Bernd Schneidmüller, Stefan Weinfurter (Ed.): Otto III. and Heinrich II. A turning point. Sigmaringen 1997, pp. 77-94, here: p. 80.
61. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The privilege of the 'Deditio'. Forms of amicable ending of conflict in medieval aristocratic society. In: Otto Gerhard Oexle, Werner Paravicini (Ed.): Nobilitas. Function and representation of the nobility in ancient Europe. Göttingen 1997, pp. 27-52.
62. ↑ Jean-Marie Moeglin: Rituels et ›Constitutional History‹ au Moyen Âge. A propos du livre de Gerd Althoff, rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. In: Francia , Vol. 25 (1998), pp. 245-250, here: p. 247 ( online ). Summarizing Moeglin's criticism: Steffen Patzold: Conflicts in the monastery. Studies of disputes in monastic communities of the Ottonian-Salic Empire. Husum 2000, p. 38f.
63. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The historiography mastered. The fall of Henry the Lion as portrayed by Arnold von Lübeck. In: Bernd Schneidmüller (Ed.): The Guelphs and their Brunswick court in the high Middle Ages. Wiesbaden 1995, pp. 163-182; also in: Staged rule. Historiography and Political Action in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, pp. 190-210; Gerd Althoff: Heinrich the lion in conflicts. On the technology of peace mediation in the 12th century. In: Jochen Luckhardt , Franz Niehoff (Hrsg.): Heinrich the lion and his time. Rule and representation of the Guelphs 1125–1235. Catalog of the exhibition Braunschweig 1995, vol. 2: Essays, Munich 1995, pp. 123–128; Gerd Althoff: Welf VI. and its relatives in the 12th century conflicts. In: Rainer Jehl (Ed.): Welf VI. Scientific colloquium on the 800th year of death from October 5 to 8, 1991 in the Swabian education center Irsee. Sigmaringen 1994, pp. 75-89; Gerd Althoff: Conflict behavior and legal awareness. The Guelphs in the 12th century. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 26 (1992), pp. 331-352; again in: Gerd Althoff: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997, pp. 57-84. Gerd Althoff: Rudolf von Habsburg and Ottokar von Böhmen. Forms of conflict resolution and settlement in the 13th century. In: Ders .: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997, pp. 85-98.
64. ^ Gerd Althoff: Otto III. and Henry II in conflicts. In: Bernd Schneidmüller, Stefan Weinfurter (Ed.): Otto III. and Heinrich II. A turning point. Sigmaringen 1997, pp. 77-94, here: p. 80.
65. ↑ Gerd Althoff: From conflict to crisis. Practices of conflict management and resolution in the late Sali period. In: Bernd Schneidmüller, Stefan Weinfurter (Eds.): Salic Empire and New Europe. The time of Heinrich IV and Heinrich V Darmstadt 2007, pp. 27–45, here: p. 44.
66. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 154; Gerd Althoff: Royal rule and conflict resolution in the 10th century and 11th century. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 23 (1989), pp. 265-290, here: p. 288.
67. ^ Gerd Althoff: Relatives, friends and faithful. On the political significance of group ties in the early Middle Ages. Darmstadt 1990, p. 202. See also Steffen Patzold: Conflicts in the monastery. Studies of disputes in monastic communities of the Ottonian-Salic Empire. Husum 2000, p. 37.
68. ^ Gerd Althoff: Satisfactio. On the peculiarity of amicable conflict resolution in the Middle Ages. In: Joachim Heinzle (Hrsg.): Modernes Mittelalter. New pictures of a popular era. Frankfurt am Main 1994, pp. 247-265, here: p. 248. Gerd Althoff: Rules for the use of force in the Middle Ages. In: Rolf Peter Sieferle, Helga Breuninger (ed.): Cultures of violence. Ritualization and symbolization of violence in history. Frankfurt am Main et al. 1998, pp. 154-170.
69. ^ Gerd Althoff: Relatives, friends and faithful. On the political significance of group ties in the early Middle Ages. Darmstadt 1990, p. 226; Gerd Althoff: Grace. Considerations on a central concept of the medieval system of rule. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 25 (1991), pp. 259-282, here: p. 280; again in: Gerd Althoff: Rules of the game of politics in the Middle Ages. Communication in peace and feud. Darmstadt 1997, pp. 199-228.
70. ↑ Janet L. Nelson: Politics and Ritual in Early Medieval Europe. London et al. 1986.
71. ↑ A general overview of ritual research is offered by Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger: Rituale. Frankfurt am Main 2013.
72. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 13f.
73. ^ Roman Deutinger : Review in: German Archives for Research into the Middle Ages , Vol. 60 (2004), p. 846.
74. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 187. Roman Deutinger: Review in: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages , Vol. 60 (2004), p. 846.
75. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 7. Cf. also Roman Deutinger: Review in: German Archive for Research of the Middle Ages , Vol. 60 (2004), p. 846 ( digitized version ).
76. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 32f.
77. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 42.
78. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 68.
79. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 108.
80. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 133.
81. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 136.
82. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 170.
83. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, pp. 170-186.
84. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The power of rituals. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, p. 10, 188ff. See the reviews of Althoff's book by Uwe Israel: in: sehepunkte 3 (2003), No. 12 [15. December 2003], online ; Roman Deutinger: Review in: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages , Vol. 60 (2004), p. 846. Also: Hanna Vollrath: Do rituals have power? Notes on the book by Gerd Althoff: Die Macht der Rituale. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 284 (2007), pp. 385-400.
85. ↑ Hanna Vollrath: Do rituals have power? Notes on the book by Gerd Althoff: Die Macht der Rituale. Symbolism and rule in the Middle Ages. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 284 (2007), pp. 385–400, here: p. 392.
86. ^ Gerd Althoff: Otto III. Darmstadt 1996, p. 33.
87. ↑ Michael Borgolte : Biography without subject, or how one can become a victim of the zeitgeist through source-fixated work. In: Göttingische Gelehre Werbung, Vol. 249 (1997), pp. 128-141; Franz-Reiner Erkens : Mirabilia mundi. A critical attempt on a methodological problem and a new interpretation of Otto III's rule. In: Archiv für Kulturgeschichte , Vol. 79 (1997), pp. 485–498.
88. ↑ Rudolf Schieffer: Skinny in a starry coat. Gerd Althoff lets Otto III. shrink. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, April 2, 1996, No. 79, p. L19.
89. ↑ Michael Borgolte: Biography without subject, or how one can become a victim of the zeitgeist through source-fixated work. In: Göttingische Gelehre Werbung, Vol. 249 (1997), pp. 128–141, here: p. 139.
90. ^ Franz-Reiner Erkens: Mirabilia mundi. A critical attempt on a methodological problem and a new interpretation of Otto III's rule. In: Archiv für Kulturgeschichte , Vol. 79 (1997), pp. 485–498, here: p. 489.
91. ^ Philippe Buc: The dangers of ritual. Between early medieval texts and social scientific theory. Princeton 2001, pp. 19, 58, 95, 122–124, 260. See the detailed review by Verena Postel in: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 279 (2004), pp. 147–150.
92. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Deformations through oral tradition. Stories about Archbishop Hatto of Mainz. In: Hagen Keller (Ed.): Iconologia sacra. Myth, Visual Art and Poetry in the Religious and Social History of Ancient Europe. Festschrift for Karl Hauck on his 75th birthday. Berlin 1994, pp. 438-450.
93. ↑ Johannes Fried: The Ascension of Henry I as King. Memory, Orality and Formation of Tradition in the 10th Century . In: Michael Borgolte (Ed.): Medieval research after the turn . Munich 1995, pp. 267-318, here: p. 277.
94. ↑ Johannes Fried: The Ascension of Henry I as King. Memory, Orality and Formation of Tradition in the 10th Century . In: Michael Borgolte (Ed.): Medieval research after the turn . Munich 1995, pp. 267-318, here: p. 303.
95. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Widukind von Corvey. Key witness and challenge. In: Gerd Althoff: Staged rule. Historiography and Political Action in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, pp. 78-104, here: p. 101 (first published in: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 27, 1993, pp. 253-272).
96. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Widukind von Corvey. Key witness and challenge. In: Gerd Althoff: Staged rule. Historiography and Political Action in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, pp. 78-104, here: p. 104 (first published in: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 27, 1993, pp. 253-272).
97. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Historiography in an oral society. In: Ders .: Staged rule. Historiography and Political Action in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, pp. 105–125 (first published in: Bernd Schneidmüller, Stefan Weinfurter (Eds.): Ottonische Neuanfänge. Symposium on the exhibition "Otto der Große, Magdeburg und Europa". Mainz 2001, pp. 151–169.)
98. ^ Gerd Althoff: Causa scribendi and intention to represent. Queen Mathilde's biographies and other examples. In: Michael Borgolte, Herrad Spilling (ed.): Litterae Medii Aevi. Festschrift for Johanne Autenrieth on her 65th birthday. Sigmaringen 1988, pp. 117-133, here: p. 126; also in: Staged rule. Historiography and Political Action in the Middle Ages, Darmstadt 2003, pp. 52–77. Hans-Werner Goetz: Modern Medieval Studies. Status and perspectives of medieval research. Darmstadt 1999, p. 166.
99. ^ Gerd Althoff: Genealogical and other fictions in medieval historiography. In: Forgeries in the Middle Ages. International Congress of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Munich, from September 16 to 19, 1986 (Writings of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, 33/1), Hanover 1988, pp. 417-441, here: p. 434; also in: Staged rule. Historiography and Political Action in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, pp. 25-51.
100. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The argumentative memory. Accusation and strategies of justification in the historiography of the 10th and 11th centuries. In: Ders .: Staged rule. Historiography and Political Action in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, pp. 126–149, here: pp. 148f. (First published in: Christel Meier, Volker Honemann, Hagen Keller, Rudolf Suntrup (Eds.): Pragmatic Dimensions of Medieval Written Culture. Files from the Münster International Colloquium from May 26th to 29th, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 63–76).
101. ^ Gerd Althoff: Gandersheim and Quedlinburg. Ottonian convents as centers of power and tradition. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 25 (1991), pp. 123-144. ( online ).
102. ↑ See for example: Gerd Althoff: King Konrad I in the Ottonian Memoria. In: Hans-Werner Goetz (Ed.): Konrad I. On the way to the “German Reich”? Bochum 2006, p. 317–328, here: p. 326. The assessment by Wolfgang Giese : Heinrich I. Founder of Ottonian rule. Darmstadt 2008, p. 33.
103. ↑ Gerd Althoff: From facts to motifs. Johannes Fried's description of the origins of Germany. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 260 (1995), pp. 107-117.
104. ↑ Gerd Althoff: From facts to motifs. Johannes Fried's description of the origins of Germany. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 260 (1995), pp. 107–117, here: p. 111.
105. ↑ Gerd Althoff: From facts to motifs. Johannes Fried's description of the origins of Germany. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 260 (1995), pp. 107–117, here: p. 113.
106. ↑ Gerd Althoff: From facts to motifs. Johannes Fried's description of the origins of Germany. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 260 (1995), pp. 107–117, here: p. 115.
107. ↑ Johannes Fried: About the writing of historical works and reviews. A reply. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 260 (1995), pp. 119-130.
108. ↑ Johannes Fried: About the writing of historical works and reviews. A reply. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 260 (1995), pp. 119-130, here: pp. 122, 124.
109. ↑ Johannes Fried: About the writing of historical works and reviews. A reply. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 260 (1995), pp. 119-130, here: pp. 126f.
110. ↑ Johannes Fried: About the writing of historical works and reviews. A reply. In: Historische Zeitschrift , Vol. 260 (1995), pp. 119–130, here: p. 129.
111. ↑ Friedrich Prinz : National history without people. In: Die Zeit , No. 27 of July 1, 1994, p. 62. ( online ).
112. ↑ Lothar Kolmer: How Historians Argue: Some Notes on the Fried-Althoff Controversy. In: Gerhard Ammerer , Christian Rohr, Alfred Stefan Weiss (eds.): Tradition and change. Contributions to church, social and cultural history. Festschrift for Heinz Dopsch. Munich 2001, pp. 80–96, here: p. 95.
113. ^ Hanna Vollrath: History and history writing. For the discussion about the book "The Path in History" by Johannes Fried. In: Zeitschrift für Geschichtswwissenschaft , Vol. 43 (1995), pp. 451–459, here: p. 459.
114. ^ The quotations Michael Borgolte: Medieval research and postmodernism. Aspects of a Challenge. In: Zeitschrift für Geschichtswwissenschaft , Vol. 43 (1995), pp. 615–627, here pp. 625 and 627.
115. ↑ Johannes Fried: Otto III. and Boleslaw. The dedication image of the Aachen Gospel, the "Act of Gniezno" and the early Polish and Hungarian royalty. An image analysis and its historical consequences. Wiesbaden 1989, pp. 123-125.
116. ^ Gerd Althoff: Otto III. Darmstadt 1996, pp. 144ff.
117. ↑ Gerd Althoff, Hagen Keller: Late Antiquity to the End of the Middle Ages. The time of the late Carolingians and Ottonians. Crises and Consolidations 888–1024. (= Gebhardt. Handbuch der deutschen Geschichte , Volume 3), 10th, completely revised edition), Stuttgart 2008, p. 315.
118. ↑ Johannes Fried: The Pact of Canossa. Steps to Reality through Memory Analysis. In: Wilfried Hartmann, Klaus Herbers (Hrsg.): The fascination of the papal history. New approaches to the early and high Middle Ages. Cologne et al. 2008, pp. 133–197.
119. ↑ Johannes Fried: We should go to Canossa and forget the legend. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , January 28, 2009, No. 23, p. N4. See Gerd Althoff's reply: Wrong memory instead of classic method. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , February 28, 2009, No. 50, p. 38. Gerd Althoff: No going to Canossa? In: Damals 41/5 (2009), pp. 59–61 ( online ).
120. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Wrong memory instead of classic method. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , February 28, 2009, No. 50, p. 38.
121. ↑ Steffen Patzold : Gregors brain. On more recent perspectives on research during the Salier period. In: Geschichte für heute 4 (2011), pp. 5–19; Stefan Weinfurter : Canossa. In: Christoph Markschies, Hubert Wolf (Hrsg.): Memories of Christianity. Munich 2010, pp. 221–246.
122. ^ Johannes Fried: Canossa. Unmasking a legend. A polemic. Berlin 2012.
123. ^ Review by Hans-Werner Goetz: Johannes Fried: Canossa. Unmasking a legend. A polemic. Berlin 2012. In: sehepunkte 13 (2013), No. 1 [15. January 2013] ( online ).
124. ^ Gerd Althoff: Gregory VII's understanding of office and the new thesis of the peace pact in Canossa. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 48, 2014, pp. 261–276.
125. ↑ Summaries Gerd Althoff: The high medieval monarchy. Accents of an unfinished reassessment. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 45 (2011), pp. 77–98. Gerd Althoff: Memoria, written form, symbolic communication. To reevaluate the 10th century. In: Christoph Dartmann, Thomas Scharff, Christoph Friedrich Weber (eds.): Between pragmatics and performance. Dimensions of medieval writing culture. Turnhout 2011, pp. 85-101.
126. ^ David A. Warner: Ritual and Memory in the Ottonian Reich: The Ceremony of Adventus. In: Speculum , Vol. 76 (2001), pp. 255-283, here: p. 255.
127. ^ Hans-Werner Goetz: Europe in the early Middle Ages. 500-1050. Stuttgart 2003, p. 136.
128. ↑ Cf. for example Achim Thomas Hack: The reception ceremony at medieval Pope-Emperor meetings. Cologne 1999. Gerrit Jasper Schenk: Ceremonial and Politics. Entering rulers in the late medieval empire. Cologne 2003.
129. ^ For example, in Geoffrey Koziol: The Dangers of Polemic. Is Ritual Still an Interesting Topic of Historical Study? In: Early Medieval Europe , Vol., 11 (2002), pp. 367-388, here: pp. 377-383; Julia Barrow : Playing by the rules. Conflict management in tenth- and eleventh-century Germany. In: Early medieval Europe Vol. 11 (2002), pp. 389-396.
130. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Ira Regis'. Prologema to a History of Royal Anger. In: Barbara H. Rosenwein (Ed.): Anger's Past. The Social Uses of an Emotion in the Middle Ages. Ithaca et al. 1998, pp. 59-74. Cf. also Patrick Geary: A little science from yesterday: The influence of German-language medieval studies in America. In: Peter Moraw , Rudolf Schieffer (Ed.): The German-speaking Medieval Studies in the 20th Century. Ostfildern 2005, pp. 381–392, here: p. 390 ( online ).
131. ^ Gerd Althoff: Family, Friends, and Followers. Political and Social Bonds in Early Medieval Europe. Cambridge 2004; Gerd Althoff: Otto III. trans. Phyllis Jestice, Pennsylvania State university Press, 2003.
132. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Do the poets play with the rules of society? In: Nigel F. Palmer, Hans-Jochen Schiewer (ed.): Medieval literature and art in the field of tension between court and monastery. Results of the Berlin conference from October 9 to 11, 1997. Tübingen 1999, pp. 53–71; also in: Gerd Althoff: Staged rule. Historiography and Political Action in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2003, pp. 251-273. Compare with: Horst Wenzel: Visibility and Invisibility. On the theatrical character of the rules of the game. In: Claudia Garnier, Hermann Kamp (Ed.) Rules of the game for the mighty. Darmstadt 2010, pp. 205–227, here: p. 205.
133. ↑ Monika Unzeit-Herzog: Artus Mediator. On conflict resolution in Wolfram's 'Parzival' Book XIV. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 32 (1998) pp. 196–217. Jan-Dirk Müller: Rules of the game for doom. The world of the Nibelungenlied. Tübingen 1998. Corinna Dörrich: Poetics of the ritual. Construction and function of political action in medieval literature. Darmstadt 2002.
134. ↑ Hermann Kamp: The power of the rules of the game in the Middle Ages. An introduction. In: Hermann Kamp, Claudia Garnier (Hrsg.): The rules of the game for the mighty. Medieval politics between habits and conventions. Darmstadt 2010, p. 1–18, here: p. 8. Cf. for example: Jürgen Weitzel: Review: Gerd Althoff, rules of play of politics in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 1997; Gerd Althoff, Hans-Werner Goetz, Ernst Schubert, people in the shadow of the cathedral. News from the Middle Ages, Darmstadt 1998. In: Journal of the Savigny Foundation for Legal History, German Department , Vol. 117 (2000), pp. 689–702; Jürgen Weitzel: "Relative Law" and "Imperfect Legal Validity" in the Western Middle Ages. Attempt of a comparative synthesis to the "medieval legal concept". In: Albrecht Cordes, Bernd Kannowski (ed.): Legal terms in the Middle Ages. Frankfurt am Main 2002, pp. 43-62.
135. ↑ Monika Suchan: Kings rule in dispute. Conflict settlement in the reign of Henry IV between violence, conversation and writing. Stuttgart 1997.
136. ^ Hermann Kamp: Peacemaker and mediator in the Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2001; Hermann Kamp: Mediator in the conflicts of the high Middle Ages. In: La giustizia nell 'alto medioevo II. Secoli IX-XI. , 2 vols. (Settimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull'alto medioevo XLIV), Spoleto 1997, vol. 2, pp. 675-714.
137. ↑ Steffen Krieb: Mediation and Reconciliation. Conflict settlement in the German throne dispute 1198–1208. Cologne 2000.
138. ↑ Claudia Garnier: Amicus amicis - inimicus inimicis. Political friendship and princely networks in the 13th century. Stuttgart 2000; Claudia Garnier: Signs and Writing. Symbolic acts and literary fixation using the example of peace agreements of the 13th century. In: Frühmittelalterliche Studien , Vol. 32 (1998), pp. 263-287. Cf. also: Gerd Althoff: Functioning of royal rule in the high Middle Ages. In: History in Science and Education , Vol. 63 (2012), H. 9/10, S. 536-550, here: S. 549.
139. ↑ Claudia Garnier: The culture of the request. Rule and communication in the medieval empire. Darmstadt 2008.
140. ^ Christiane Witthöft: ritual and text. Forms of symbolic communication in the historiography and literature of the late Middle Ages. Darmstadt 2004.
141. ^ Theo Broekmann: Rigor iustitiae. Rule, law and terror in the Norman-Staufer south (1050–1250). Darmstadt 2005.

This article was added to the list of excellent articles on May 22, 2014 in this version .