History of South Sudan

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Location of South Sudan
Flags of the SPLA and South Sudan

The history of South Sudan is the history of the youngest state in Africa and the earth, which begins in the narrower sense with the declaration of independence of South Sudan on July 9, 2011. But it also includes the history of the dissolution of the new state from Sudan , the southern part of which it was for 54 years, its over 100-year history as part of first the Turkish-Egyptian and later the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and the history of the peoples living there before the respective colonial rule.

The Shilluk Kingdom and the Fur Sultanate in Modern Times

Delimitation of the history of South Sudan

Until recently, South Sudan was never a unified state or even a religiously or culturally unified area. Much clearer than its treatment as a unit is its definition as it is differentiated from the surrounding metropolitan areas, in particular from Northern Sudan, with which it was more or less connected for 150 years. South Sudan is therefore the area to the right and left of the Nile that was not influenced by the culture and civilization of ancient Egypt in antiquity . In the early Middle Ages , its northern border roughly corresponded to the border of the area of ​​influence of Alwa , the southernmost of the Christian empires of northern Sudan / Nubia, and since the early modern period, southern Sudan has formed the border of the Islamization of Northeast Africa spreading from the north . Towards the east, there is a similar definition of its extent in delimitation: in this case from the Christian empires of the highlands of Ethiopia (such as the Aksumite Empire or later the Empire of Abyssinia ). The southern border of South Sudan roughly corresponds to the northern border of the state ideas of the kingdoms of the African Great Lakes . Only towards the west was the border of the South Sudan region indefinable in this sense until the colonial era; it was only with the colonial conquest that a border between the British and French colonial empires emerged here.

Early history

The Nilotic peoples of the Dinka , Nuer and Shilluk are said to have been the first of the population that exists here today to immigrate to South Sudan in the 10th century AD . In the 16th century the Azande followed , who established the most powerful state here for a long time. While northern Sudan was Islamized early on , the majority of the population of South Sudan remained clinging to their traditional religions.

Turkish-Egyptian Sudan: Slave Hunts and Conquest by the North

Sudan under Turkish-Egyptian, later Anglo-Egyptian rule.

From 1821 began the conquest of Northern Sudan by Muhammad Ali Pasha's Egypt, which was formally still part of the Ottoman Empire . The hunt for black slaves in what is now South Sudan was intensified from 1840 onwards. An idea of ​​the extent of the horror that the slave hunt carried out with private armies meant for the population of South Sudan is conveyed by the term that is customary among the Dinka for these decades: the time of “spoiling the world”, i.e. the “destruction of the world” ". During this phase, the foundations for the hostility of the people of the South towards North Sudan were laid.

The actual Egyptian conquest of South Sudan did not take place until the 1870s, formally concluded with the establishment of the province of Equatoria in 1871, which extended as far as the African Great Lakes . At the same time, however, from 1875 onwards Egypt came under the influence of major European powers, particularly Great Britain, due to its national bankruptcy . Europeans were deployed in the occupied territories as officials and even governors-general with the aim of preventing the slave trade in the south. In the 1870s, Arab slave traders devastated the Bahr al-Ghazal region in particular with slave hunts . In 1877 the United Kingdom and Egypt signed an agreement to gradually abolish slavery, which sparked a slave traders revolt in 1878. The uprising was put down in 1880, but the slave trade was not actually abolished.

In the 1880s and 1890s, the entire Turkish-Egyptian Sudan was captured by the Islamic, anti-colonial Mahdi movement , which naturally had its roots and its main influence in the Islamic north. South Sudan was the southernmost branch of the Mahdist rule, but the Omdurman caliphate , which included the Mahdist national territory, ended on the northern border of South Sudan, which was largely left to its own devices - apart from the actions of the slave hunters, as it was in the caliphate the slave trade was allowed again. With the Battle of Omdurman in 1898 the Turkish-Egyptian Sudan ended as a colonial power of South Sudan. British colonial rule took its place.

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: The division deepens

The three southern provinces of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan roughly encompass today's South Sudan

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was the name of the condominium of Great Britain and Egypt over Sudan , which existed from 1899 until Sudan's independence in 1956 . The condominium was formally a joint rule of Egypt and Great Britain over Sudan, de facto the British influence was from the beginning greater than the Egyptian and with the British protectorate over Egypt in 1914 the "Anglo-Egyptian" area of ​​rule became obviously British colonial rule.

Formally, the north and south of this area formed a unit. In fact, the British administered the three southernmost of the condominium's 13 provinces separately from the rest of the country. These three provinces of Bahr al-Ghazal , Upper Nile and Equatoria largely corresponded to what is now South Sudan. In order to prevent the slave trade, the British pursued the policy of "restricted districts", which hindered travel between north and south, and pushed back the influence of Arab traders in the south. In addition, they concentrated their efforts to develop (“development”, of course, in the well-understood British colonial interest) of their colony on the north of the country, while South Sudan was largely given the status of a “nature museum” in the words of a Sudanese diplomat. The roots of the completely different degree of development of the two parts of the country when Sudan became independent in 1957 can be found here. The separation of the parts of the country also put a stop to the Islamization of the south, even though the colonial government did not encourage the spread of Christianity in the south. It even considered Islamic societies to be easier to govern than tribal societies in terms of indirect rule . At the beginning of the 20th century, however, French, Italian and American missionaries streamed into South Sudan, which, however, remained mostly traditional religions until modern times. And finally, different official languages ​​were used in the two parts of the country: Arabic in the north, English in South Sudan.

Republic of Sudan

Given these prerequisites, it was obvious that the original plans for the decolonization of Sudan provided for the independence of two countries: North and South Sudan, or a connection between the less developed South Sudan and the neighboring British colony of British East Africa . In 1947, however, there was a complete about- face at the so-called Juba Conference , after which the independent state of Sudan should also include the three southern provinces. At the same time it was decided to lift all previous restrictions on traffic between north and south and Arabic was also introduced as the official language in the south. A cause on the British side for the sudden shift away from an independent or united with Uganda South Sudan can be suspected in the rebel activities at that time in British Kenya and Uganda. It is also conceivable that the US used its influence to win the sympathies of the future, north-dominated government in the Cold War .

The minutes of the Juba Conference make clear the feeling of superiority of the representatives of the North over the few representatives of the South. For example, one participant in the conference compared the peoples of the North and the South, equating those of the North with “old soldiers”, but those of the South with “recruits”. Others pointed to the lack of experience of the South with any form of self-government and denied the population there the right to send representatives to the National Assembly. After all, the South Sudanese were hardly involved in the administration and government of the future Sudan.

1st Civil War 1955–1972

In August 1955, before independence, there was a mutiny of the local colonial troops of the Sudan Defense Force at the locations in Torit , Juba , Yei and Maridi . The immediate causes of the mutiny were a trial of a member of the Sudanese National Assembly from the south and a suspected forged telegram instructing administrative officials from the north to suppress people from southern Sudan. The mutineers killed several hundred people from the north, including government officials, officers and traders, but had no military chance. The mutiny was suppressed and the mutineers who had fled started from a hopeless situation with armed resistance against the colonial rulers and, after Sudan's independence, also against the troops of the north. The mutiny was the hour of birth of the 1st Civil War of South Sudan against the North.

After a military coup in Sudan in 1958/59, the new government took massive action against the resistance in the south, burning villages and killing or torturing suspects. As early as 1963, the government of the north is said to have exploited ethnic differences within South Sudan with a policy of “ split and rule ” and, for example, armed the Murle people with weapons against their traditional enemies, the Dinka and Nuer. From 1963 the until then only sporadic military resistance of the South Sudanese intensified, led by an organization that called itself Anya-Nya after a poisonous brew .

A civil government set up in 1964 tried to reach an agreement by negotiation, but failed. The democratization of the country bypassed the south: due to the civil war situation in the south, its citizens were not involved in the parliamentary elections in Sudan in 1965 .

From 1971 Jafar Muhammad an-Numairi, who had ruled since another military coup in 1969, sought a negotiated solution again. In February 1972, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia's capital, a ceasefire agreement was actually signed between the state government and the rebels of the south, led by Joseph Lagu . The first war of civil war in Sudan had killed around 500,000 to 700,000 people, hundreds of thousands of people in South Sudan lived hidden in the jungle or in refugee camps. The war ended with the autonomy of South Sudan.

Between the wars

The autonomy of South Sudan covered the three provinces of Al Istiwai, Bahr al Ghazal and Upper Nile. The autonomous south had a regional president who was to be appointed by the president of Sudan on the recommendation of an elected parliament of the southern provinces. The regional president put together his cabinet , with which he regulated all matters relating to South Sudan, with the exception of, for example, matters of defense, finance and currency, economic planning and other areas reserved for the state government. Former Anya-Nya fighters were integrated into a 12,000-strong southern force of the Sudanese army , half of which consisted of people from the north and the south. Although Arabic remained the official language of Sudan, English was recognized as the main language of the South, used both in administration and taught in schools.

In the mid-1970s, oil was discovered in the south . The Numairi government, which is dominated by the north, decided to pipeline this oil to the north and not process it further in the south. The large-scale Jonglei Canal project , which was intended to channel water from the south to the north, also created tensions between the north and the south. In addition, Numairi pursued an increasingly Islamist policy from the late 1970s and in 1983 introduced Sharia law for the whole of Sudan. The autonomy of the south was largely withdrawn, the three southern provinces were redistributed and discriminatory measures were taken against state employees who belonged to the Dinka people. In economic terms, the South was refused the agreed share of the proceeds from the sale of the oil.

2nd Civil War 1983-2005

When army units in the south refused to give orders to go north in May 1983 and fled to Ethiopia, this triggered the Second Civil War. In the same year, the Sudanese People's Liberation Army was founded as the military arm of the Sudanese People's Liberation Movement , which from now on should carry the fight against the north and develop into the decisive political force in South Sudan. The head of the SPLA was John Garang , a former colonel in the Sudanese armed forces, who had been sent south by the Sudanese government to investigate the mutiny, but who switched sides there. With around 30,000 soldiers, he controlled all of South Sudan in 1989 with the exception of a few garrison towns. The parliamentary elections in Sudan in 1986 took place again largely without the participation of the South, as this was largely not under government control. The war was waged with the utmost cruelty, the recruitment of child soldiers and massacres of the civilian population. Hunger was used as a weapon in this war, and humanitarian aid for the civilian population was repeatedly politically handicapped or used by the conflicting parties for their own purposes.

John Garang in a crowd

The international community successfully exerted pressure on Sudan to negotiate the South Sudan inquiry. In 1989, however, these efforts were undermined by another coup that brought President Umar al-Bashir to power. Al-Bashir hindered the supply of the starving population of the south by humanitarian organizations ( Operation Lifeline Sudan ) , which had just been resumed . South Sudan's autonomy was lifted. Ancient ethnic conflicts within the South were fueled by both sides during the war and rioting between ethnic groups resulted in hundreds of deaths. At the beginning of the 1990s, the SPLA was in control of almost the entire south, but saw itself weakened by the loss of Ethiopia as an ally and various rebellions, some of which also ran along ethnic lines of conflict. When the so-called Nasir faction broke away from Garang in 1991, this group was supported by the Nuer (Garang was Dinka) and there were bloody riots between the two ethnic groups. The SPLA officers Riek Machar and later Kerubino Keanyin Bol and Lam Akol split off with their units. Up until reunification in 1993, the struggle between the factions claimed more lives than the struggle against the troops of the north. In 1998, a famine, again instrumentalized by the warring parties, raged in South Sudan. In 2004 around 50,000 to 120,000 members of the Shilluk people were allegedly evicted by militias loyal to the government.

Despite the cruelty of the clashes with the north, John Garang had never advocated the goal of an independent state in South Sudan, but instead called for real autonomy for the south. From 1995 he successfully tried to present himself as a democratic alternative for the whole of Sudan through an alliance with the northern Sudanese party, the National Democratic Alliance . In 2003/2004 there were repeated peace talks in Kenya's capital Nairobi , mainly due to pressure from the USA , which finally culminated in the Naivasha Peace Agreement in 2005 .

Autonomous South Sudan

Peace dance in Kapoeta on the Naivasha Agreement as part of USAID's public relations aid

The peace agreement guaranteed South Sudan extensive autonomy. It stipulated:

  • The autonomous South Sudan has its own president (John Garang) and its own parliament.
  • The SPLA joins a "Government of National Unity of Sudan" and receives 28% of the ministries, while the National Congress Party of President al-Bashir receives 52%.
  • The same key applies to the parliamentary seats, the remaining seats go to smaller parties.
  • John Garang becomes Vice President of All Sudan.
  • The values ​​produced in the south such as tax revenue and income from oil production are divided equally between the two parties.
  • After a transition period of six years, a referendum is to take place in 2011 , in which the people of South Sudan will decide between autonomy within the Sudanese state or independence.
  • The Sudanese army withdraws from South Sudan within 30 months, the SPLA from certain areas of the north such as the Nuba Mountains , the Abyei region and Southern Blue Nile (the southern part of today's state an-Nil al-azraq ).
  • An army of 24,000 men is formed, made up equally of former SPLA members and members of the Sudanese army.
  • The South Sudan Defense Forces, the pro-northern militia, should either be integrated into the SPLA or the entire army or disarmed within a year.

John Garang continued to campaign for an autonomous South Sudan and pursued a successful policy to present himself as a democratic alternative in the north. He campaigned for a “new Sudan” that should offer equal opportunities to all “disenfranchised”, whether in the north or in the south, and all who opposed the political, economic and social dominance of the Arab-Islamic north. His organization was gradually gaining a foothold in the north as well, and observers predicted that he had good chances for the 2010 presidential election in Sudan . He succeeded in keeping the demand for independence popular among the rest of the SPLA leadership in check. His death in a helicopter crash in July 2005 changed the situation to the detriment of the idea of ​​autonomy, towards the demand for the independence of South Sudan. This was also due to the fact that the SPLA ministers soon discovered that the ruling party gave them little influence despite being ministerial.

His successor at the head of the SPLA or the party-converted SPLM ("Movement", instead of "Army", "Army") and President of the autonomous South Sudan was Salva Kiir .

Internal conflicts and unresolved border issues

  • indisputably part of South Sudan
  • indisputably part of Northern Sudan
  • disputed region of Abyei
  • Nuba Mountains and an-Nil al-Azraq
  • Darfur conflict region
  • Conflict region in East Sudan

    • Even after the peace agreement, South Sudan was shaken by internal, ethnically motivated conflicts. In an attack by Dinka and Nuer on Murle villages in 2009, 700 members of this tribe are said to have been killed. According to the same source, hundreds of people were raped by SPLA soldiers during an attack on the border kingdom of the Shilluk in the summer of 2010 and more than 10,000 Shilluk were displaced. Even after 2005, the Sudanese military government is said to have supplied the nomadic Misseryie in the Abyei region - who sided with the north in the civil war - with weapons, thus fueling the conflict with the local Dinka - who had fought mainly for the south in the civil war. In 2008 this conflict resulted in violent clashes.

    The Naivasha Agreement left the question of the boundaries of the future territory of South Sudan open at various points. This mainly affected the regions of Abyei, the Nuba Mountains and the Southern Blue Nile, which were declared to be Transitional Area , whose affiliation was to be decided later. A referendum was planned for the Abyei region, in which the population should express their opinion about belonging to the north or south. For the Nuba Mountains and parts of the state of An-Nil al-azraq (Blue Nile), which geographically clearly lie in Northern Sudan, but are culturally close to the South and where therefore parts of the population had fought on the side of the South in the civil war, referendums ( Popular Consultations ) provided.

    Election marathon 2010

    Salva Kiir Mayardit, President-elect of the Autonomous South Sudan since 2010

    In 2010, several ballots took place in South Sudan at the same time, which were supposed to democratically legitimize the future state:

    There was only one case of a military conflict over election results. In the gubernatorial elections, the former SPLA commander George Athor Deng in the state of Junqali (or Jonglei) stood for election as an independent candidate and lost. Deng accused the SPLM of electoral fraud and started a guerrilla war against the leadership of the autonomous South Sudan.

    The 2011 independence referendum

    Queue in front of a polling station in Juba , January 9, 2011

    Contrary to various pessimistic predictions, the independence referendum in South Sudan from January 9 to 15, 2011 was carried out according to plan and largely peacefully and was also officially recognized by Sudan's President Umar al-Bashir . The official result was an overwhelming yes to independence from over 99% of the votes cast. A result this close to 100% may cast doubt on the reliability of the figures, but any manipulation of the result does not change the fact that the spin-off would have found an overwhelming majority in any case. The questioning of the population of the Abyei region about whether they want to belong to the north or to the south of Sudan was not carried out as planned at the same time as the independence referendum, which has made this question the greatest potential for conflict between north and south.

    Transition Phase to Independence: The Abyei Conflict

    At the beginning of March 2011, the Abyei region saw the first heavy fighting between units from the North and the South since the independence referendum. The fighting claimed around 100 lives and 25,000 people fled. The planned surveys in the Blue Nile and the Nuba Mountains also did not take place.

    In February 2011, the above-mentioned conflict between Georg Athor Deng's insurgent troops and the SPLA seemed to have already been resolved and reintegration of the rebel group into the SPLA was possible at several locations that were intended for the disarmament and subsequent takeover of Deng's troops into the SPLA , led to armed clashes between Deng and SPLA units that resulted in hundreds of deaths. The high number of automatic weapons in South Sudan as a legacy of the civil war continues to lead to armed conflicts even after the referendum.

    On May 22, 2011, the troops of the north captured the most important city in the Abyei region. A few days earlier, a convoy of northern Sudanese soldiers , also accompanied by UN soldiers, was attacked, allegedly by southern Sudanese units . Before Abyei was occupied by northern Sudanese troops, both sides had agreed, through UN mediation, to vacate the disputed region.

    Independent South Sudan

    South Sudan's declaration of independence took place on July 9, 2011. The territory of independent South Sudan has not yet been clearly defined due to the conflicts described above.

    Article 14 of the 2011 interim constitution stipulates that women and men are equal before the law. This affirmed the women's right to vote . Article 16 provides that at least 25% women should sit in the legislature. However, as custom and traditions in South Sudan are an essential source of law and are predominantly patriarchal, women are still discriminated against.

    On July 14, 2011, South Sudan was admitted to the United Nations and on July 27, 2011, it joined the African Union .

    Refugees in Doro Camp, 2012

    Around 45,000 people had fled to refugee camps from the crisis areas that still existed in the north of the country by 2013, with humanitarian aid provided by the United Nations World Food Program and other aid organizations, security improvements by the United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan ( UNMISS).

    Civil war 2013 to 2018

    An armed conflict over the political leadership of the country had been taking place in South Sudan since mid-December 2013, the starting point of the unrest being the impending disarmament of members of the Nuer clan in the presidential guard around former Vice President Riek Machar , who was dismissed by President Salva Kiir Mayardit in July would have. Additional ethnic conflicts also in the civilian population were feared because the two opponents belong to different ethnic groups. On December 19, 2013, the refugee camp in Akobo in Jonglei Province was overrun by 2,000 rebels. Fighting broke out again in the provincial capital, Bor . The United Nations put the total death toll at several thousand within a week.

    The UN Security Council decided to increase the number of UNMISS blue helmets. Thousands more people died in further fighting; More than half a million civilians were on the run in mid-January 2014, according to UN figures 716,000 people within South Sudan and 156,800 in neighboring countries.

    A US Marine accompanies US citizens on their evacuation (January 13, 2014)

    On January 23, 2014, both sides agreed on a provisional ceasefire and further negotiations on a peace treaty. An initial success in negotiations was achieved. Nevertheless, the conflict continued after a ceasefire, with Nuer rebels occupying the oil town of Malakal . Amnesty International reported in May 2014 massive human rights violations with atrocities during the riots. Following a mediation mission by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, negotiators agreed on May 5th a ceasefire that was to apply from May 7th.

    On May 9, 2014, peace negotiations took place again, with the first direct talks between Kiir and Machar since the beginning of the civil war. A peace treaty was signed. According to UN estimates, five million people now need humanitarian aid in May 2014. Nevertheless, famine was feared. The UN made preparations for short-term emergency aid.

    In March 2016, a UN representative announced that more than 50,000 people had been killed in the civil war and 2.2 million displaced by then.

    In February 2017, the UN declared an official famine in South Sudan, according to which more than 100,000 people are at risk of starvation and around 4.9 million people, i.e. more than 40 percent of the population, are dependent on food support. The fragile security situation in the country in particular was named as the cause of the crisis, as the widespread and persistent violence prevents continuous agriculture.

    On June 27, 2018, the conflicting parties in Khartoum agreed a ceasefire. On September 12, 2018, they signed a peace treaty in Addis Ababa.

    See also

    Web links

    Commons : History of South Sudan  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files
     Wikinews: South Sudan: Famine looms after failed ceasefire (August 13, 2014)  - News

    Individual evidence

    1. ↑ THE TURKIYAH, 1821-1885.
    2. ↑ a b Mark Bixler: Historic day ahead after decades of war. from: cnn.com , accessed February 26, 2011.
    3. ↑ Le Monde Diplomatique: A Brief History of South Sudan, February 2011
    4. ↑ a b Britain's Southern Policy Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Sudan: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. Retrieved March 3, 2011
    5. ^ A b The South and the Unity of Sudan Helen Chapin Metz, ed.Sudan: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. Retrieved March 3, 2011
    6. ↑ Daniel Gerber: Fifteen dollars for a life. Brunnen-Verlag, Basel 2005, ISBN 3-7655-3843-4 , pp. 70f. quoted from Wikipedia article Civil War in South Sudan
    7. ↑ JUBA CONFERENCE 1947. accessed on February 26, 2011.
    8. ↑ Edgar O'Ballance: The Secret War in the Sudan: 1955-1972. Faber and Faber, London 1977, ISBN 0-571-10768-0 , p. 41 quoted from en: First Sudanese Civil War
    9. ↑ a b Sudan: Transcending tribe , from May Ying Welsh, accessed March 3, 2011
    10. ↑ The Abbud Military Government, 1958–1964 Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Sudan: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. Retrieved March 3, 2011
    11. ↑ Jok Madut Jok: Sudan - Race, Religion, And Violence, 2007, quoted after the Civil War in South Sudan
    12. ^ Sudan (First Sudanese Civil War). University of Hamburg ( Memento from August 21, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
    13. ↑ a b The Southern Problem Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Sudan: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. Retrieved March 3, 2011
    14. ↑ Le Monde Diplomatique: A Brief History of South Sudan, February 2011
    15. ↑ Abdel Salam Sidahmed: Politics and Islam in Contemporary Sudan. Curzon Press, Richmond 1997, p. 158. Quoted after the Civil War in South Sudan
    16. ^ Sudan after the Naivasha Peace Agreement , Denias M. Tull 2005, accessed on March 4, 2011
    17. ↑ Le Monde Diplomatique : Between Wau and Blue Nile, by Marc Lavergne, February 2011
    18. ↑ Le Monde Diplomatique : A Brief History of South Sudan, by Gérard Prunier, February 2011
    19. ↑ taz article from March 11, 2011: "The dispute over Abyei is becoming a question of prestige
    20. ↑ Johannes Dieterich: Two religious worlds in South Sudan. In: Frankfurter Rundschau . January 9, 2011, accessed January 11, 2011 .
    21. ^ The Nuba Mountains - straddling the north-south divide , in: IRIN News, November 12, 2009
    22. ^ A b South Sudan army clashes with renegade General Athor kills 92. Archived from the original on July 14, 2012 ; accessed on February 11, 2015 .
    23. ↑ Andrea Böhm: Three encounters and one separation - Did South Sudan fail before it became a state ?, in Internationale Politik, March / April 2011, No. 2, 66th year.
    24. ↑ taz article from March 11, 2011: "The dispute over Abyei is becoming a question of prestige
    25. ↑ Fighting over the oil-rich region of Abyei Northern Sudan takes over controversial city ( Memento from August 25, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
    26. ↑ a b Jane Kani Edward: Conflict, customary law, gender, and women's rights. In: Amir Idris (ed.): South Sudan. Post-independence dilemmas. Routledge London, New York, 2018, ISBN 978-1-138-06063-0 , pp. 57-73, p. 60.
    27. ↑ Jane Kani Edward: Conflict, customary law, gender, and women's rights. In: Amir Idris (ed.): South Sudan. Post-independence dilemmas. Routledge London, New York, 2018, ISBN 978-1-138-06063-0 , pp. 57-73, p. 57.
    28. ^ UN welcomes South Sudan as 193rd Member State , in: UN News Center, July 14, 2011.
    29. ↑ African Union Welcomes South Sudan as the 54th Member State of the Union ( Memento from August 12, 2011 in the Internet Archive ), AU media release, July 28, 2011.
    30. ↑ Hilde F. Johnson: ( (PDF) ) UNMISS situation report and press conference , December 24, 2013 (English). Retrieved December 25, 2013.
    31. ↑ South Sudan is sinking into violence , in: heute.de , December 20, 2013. Retrieved December 25, 2013.
    32. ↑ As South Sudan conflict worsens, Ban Proposes reinforcing UN peacekeepers , United Nations News Centre23. December 2013 (English) Original quote from Ban Ki-moon : “Whatever their differences may be, they cannot justify the violence that has engulfed their young nation”. Retrieved December 25, 2013.
    33. ^ United Nations sends 5500 more blue helmets. Retrieved February 11, 2015 .
    34. ↑ UN want to send 5500 more blue helmet soldiers. Retrieved February 11, 2015 .
    35. ↑ Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2132 (2013), Security Council Increases United Nations Mission's Military Presence in South Sudan , United Nations Security Council , December 24, 2013. Retrieved December 25, 2013.
    36. ↑ Note: See also the detailed article en: 2013 South Sudanese political crisis in the English language Wikipedia with further sources on the unrest from December 2013.
    37. ↑ Dominic Johnson : Second round of civil war - The Nuer rebels around Ex-Vice President Riek Machar have gone on the offensive again and have conquered the oil city of Malakal. In: the daily newspaper , February 20, 2014, accessed March 9, 2014.
    38. ^ South Sudan: Government and rebels agree on peace treaty. Retrieved February 11, 2015 .
    39. ↑ Weapons in South Sudan should be silent ( memento from January 24, 2014 in the Internet Archive ), tagesschau.de , January 23, 2014, accessed on January 24, 2014.
    40. ↑ Rivals agree on peace treaty for South Sudan , dw.de, accessed on May 15, 2014.
    41. ↑ At least 50,000 dead in civil war in South Sudan
    42. ↑ Humanitarian crisis in South Sudan. n-tv, February 20, 2017, accessed October 10, 2017 .
    43. ^ Famine hits parts of South Sudan. FAO, February 20, 2017, accessed October 10, 2017 .
    44. ^ Warlords are driving South Sudan into famine. Spiegel Online, February 21, 2017, accessed October 10, 2017 .
    45. ↑ Thilo Thielke: A little peace . Ed .: FAZ. 2nd July 2018.