Schihab dynasty

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The Schihab family (also Schehab ; French Chéhab ; Arabic شهاب Shihāb , DMG šihāb ; Plural: Arabic شهابيون Schihābiyūn , ALA-LC : Shihābiyūn ) is an old and influential family in Lebanon with connections all over the world. Especially the emirs of the 16th to 18th centuries. Century were important rulers in the Ottoman Empire in the region around the Lebanon Mountains .

The "Schihab Castle" in Hasbaja in Wadi al-Taim from the 12th century

family

The Shihab were the princes of Wadi al-Taim , who traced their family tree to the Banū Machzūm , a Koreishite clan . The family acquired by inheritance to rule the emirate Lebanon Mountain . In 1697 they inherited the Maʿan family , with whom they were connected by marriage. The Qaisi tribal association with the Druze feudal lords decided this change, which was formally approved by the Ottoman authorities. This gave the family the privilege of leasing taxes in the Mount Lebanon area. Under Emir Haidar Schihab, the Qaisi and the Schihab dynasty consolidated their power in Mount Lebanon and subjugated the rival Yamani Druze in the Battle of Ain Dara in 1711 . Their victory caused a mass emigration of small Druze tenants. Gradually these were replaced by Maronite and Melkite Christians. During the time of the Emir Yusuf Schihab , family members of the Schihab began to convert from Sunni Islam to the Maronite Church, including the Emir himself.

Yusuf's successor, Emir Bashir Schihab II , acted against local rivals as well as against the powerful governor of Sidon-Eyâlets in Acre . In the course of these conflicts, the feudal power of the Druze rulers broke up and the Maronite clergy developed into a second pillar of power in the emirate. Bashir allied himself with Mohamed Ali , the then ruler of the Eyâlets Egypt , when he occupied Ottoman Syria . However, he was deposed when the Egyptians were driven out by the Ottoman-European alliance in 1840, which could also rely on Maronite forces. His successor, Emir Bashir III. , ruled for two years, after which the emirate was dissolved and replaced by a double qaimaqamate . This divided Lebanon into Druze and Christian sectors. The Schihab family lost much of its influence.

Nevertheless, family members of the mixed Muslim-Christian family still hold high offices in Lebanon today, for example President Fuad Schihab and Prime Minister Chalid Schihab .

history

Origins

Flag of the Emirate of Schihab

The Banu Schihab were originally an Arab tribe from the Hejaz . The historian Mikhail Mishaqa wrote in the 19th century that the Banu Shihab were descendants of the Banu Machzum clan of the Quraish tribe, from Chālid ibn al-Walīd . The founder of the family is a soldier of the Raschidun army named Amir Harith , who died in 635 at the Damascus Gate " Bab Sharqi " in the battle for the conquest of Damascus . Sometime after the Islamic conquest of the Levant in the middle of the 7th century, the tribe settled in the Hauran south of Damascus . In 1172, during the reign of the Ejubid sultan Saladin , the Banu Shihab moved west into the plain of Wadi al-Taim, at the foot of Mount Hermon (Jabal ash-Sheikh).

Connection with the Maʿan

Soon after, the Schihab entered into an alliance with the Banu Maʿan , a Druze clan from the Schuf region in what is now Mount Lebanon . Both the Schihab and the Maʿan belonged to the tribal political faction of the Qais (قيس عيلان - in relation to the old conflict between Qais and Yaman ). When the Maʿan dynasty gained influence and acquired the rank of tax collectors and emirs in Mount Lebanon in the 16th century , the Shihab remained their closest allies in conflicts with other Druze clans. In 1629 Husain Schihab from Rascheiya married the daughter of the emir Mulhim Maʿan . In 1650 the Maʿan and Schihab defeated a mercenary army of the Druze sheikh Ali Alam ad-Din (Ali's troops were borrowed from the Ottoman government in Damascus, which wanted to take action against Fachr ad-Din Maʿan ).

In 1660 the Ottomans founded the Eyalet Sidon , which included Mount Lebanon and Wadi al-Taim, and under the command of the Grand Vizier Köprülü Mehmed Pasha they led an offensive against the Schihab of Wadi al-Taim and the Hamadé , a Shiite clan in the Keserwan district . When the Ottoman troops penetrated the Wadi al-Taim, the Shihab fled to the region around Keserwan in the north of Mount Lebanon and claimed protection from the Hamade clan. Köprülü Mehmed Pascha issued an order to Emir Ahmad Maʿan to extradite the Shihab emirs, but Emir Ahmad refused the order and instead fled to Keserwan, losing the right to lease taxes in the Lebanon mountain. The rural population of the defenseless regions suffered severely from the Ottoman troops who hunted down the leaders of the Shihab and Maʿan. The Shihab then fled even further north into Syria and sought protection in the Harim Mountains (Jebel Aʿla, جبال حارم) south of Aleppo until 1663. Four years later, the Maʿan and their coalition of Qaisi defeated the coalition of the Yamani (under the leadership of the Alam ad-Din family) near the port city of Beirut . This enabled Emir Ahmad Maʿan to regain control of the tax lease in Mount Lebanon, and the Shihab strengthened their alliance with the Maʿan when Musa Schihab married the daughter of Emir Ahmad Maʿan in 1674. In 1680, Emir Ahmad mediated a conflict between the Shihab and the Shiite Harfusch clan (آل حرفوش) from the Bekaa plain after the Harfusch had killed Faris Schihab in 1680 (Faris had shortly before expelled the Harfusch from Baalbek ), whereupon the Shihab closed had taken up arms.

In 1693, the Ottoman commanders started a large military expedition with 18,500 soldiers against Emir Ahmad when he refused to punish the Hamad sheikhs after they had attacked Bint Jubail and killed forty soldiers and the garrison commander Ahmad Qalawun , a descendant of the Mameluk - Sultan Qalawun . Emir Ahmad fled again, and his lands were confiscated and transferred to Musa Alam ad-Din , who also occupied the Maʿan Palace in Deir al-Qamar . The following year, Ahmad and his allies mobilized their men from Wadi al-Taim, captured the Chouf, and forced Musa Alam ad-Din to flee to Sidon . Emir Ahmad was reinstated in 1695.

Bashir I.

When Emir Ahmad Maʿan died in 1697 with no male heirs, the sheikhs of the Qaisi in Mount Lebanon, including the Jumblatt (جنبلاط), met in Simaqaniya and decided that Bashir Schihab I should succeed Ahmad in Mount Lebanon. Bashir was related to the Maʿan through his mother, who was a sister of Ahmad Maʿan and the wife of Bashir's father, Husain Shihab. Due to the influence of Husain Maʿan, the youngest son of Fachr ad-Din, a high-ranking official in the Ottoman imperial administration, the Ottoman authorities did not give Bashir the authority over tax leases on Mount Lebanon; Husain Maʿn renounced his inheritance claim to the emirate of Maʿan in the hope of a career as Ottoman ambassador to India . Therefore, according to Husain Maʿan's will, the Ottoman authorities appointed Haidar Schihab, the son of Musa Schihab and Ahmad Maʿan's daughter. Haidar's appointment was confirmed by the governor of Sidon, and the sheikhs of the Druze also agreed, but because Haidar was not yet of legal age, Bashir was given the powers of a ruling emir.

The change of the emirate from the Maʿan to the Schihab made the clan chiefs owners of large tax-lease areas, which included the Chouf, Gharb, Matn and Keserwan on Mount Lebanon. The tax lease, however, was not owned by the emir, but had to be officially re-approved every year by the Ottoman rulers, often in favor of new tax tenants, such as other emirs of the Shihab, but also in favor of rivals from the Alam ad-Din clan decided. The Druze Qaisi were motivated to appoint the Shihabs as tax farmers because the Shihabs from the Wadi al-Taim were not involved in the Chouf tribal clique , they demonstrated military strength and because they were related to the Maʿan by marriage. Other clans, such as the Druze Jumblatt and the Maronite Chazen, were subordinate tax farmers , so-called muqataʿdschis , who were obliged to the Ottoman government by the Shihab. A branch of the Schihab clan continued to rule in Wadi al-Taim, while the branch in Mount Lebanon was based in Deir al-Qamar. The Shihab emirs were also formally obliged to be a military allegiance to the Ottomans and had to raise troops upon request. The Shihab thereby achieved a status that secured them the highest social, fiscal, military, legal and political power in the Lebanon mountain.

In 1698, Emir Bashir granted protection to the sheikhs of the Hamad when they were being persecuted by the rulers and successfully mediated between the two sides. He also captured the rebel Muschrif ibn Ali al-Saghir , a sheikh of the Shiite Waʿil clan of Bishara in Jabal Amil , and handed him and his partisans over to the governor of Sidon, who had requested Emir Bashir's support in the matter. As a result, Bashir was officially commissioned to “safekeeping of Sidon Province”, in the area between the Safed region and Keserwan. At the turn of the 18th century, the new governor of Sidon, Arslan Mehmed Pasha , had good relations with Bashir, who had appointed a friend of the Qaisi clan, Umar al-Zaidani , to be the under -tax tenant of Safad . He also secured the loyalty of the Shiite clans Munkir and Saʿab for the side of the Qaisi. Emir Bashir was poisoned and died in 1705. The Maronite patriarch and historian Istifan al-Duwaihi accuses Emir Haidar, who came of age during this time, to be responsible for Emir Bashir's death.

Haidar

Emir Haidar's seizure of power brought almost immediate efforts on the part of the governor of Sidon, Bashir Pasha , to restrict the power of the Shihab in the province again. Bashir Pasha was a relative of Arlsan Mehmed Pasha . The governor immediately appointed Dhaher al-Omar , the son of Umar al-Zaidani , as tax tenant of Safad, and members of the clans of the Waʿil, Munkir and Saʿab as tax tenants of the sub-district of Jabal Amil. The latter two clans then switched sides and went over to the Waʿils and their pro-Yamani faction. The situation worsened for Emir Haidar when he was deposed on the orders of Bashir Pasha in 1709 and was replaced by his own former chief of staff and new enemy, the Druze Mahmoud Abi Harmusch from the Chouf. Emir Haidar and his Qaisi allies fled to the village of Ghazir in Keserwan, where they were given protection by the Maronite Hubaish clan, while Mount Lebanon was overrun by a Yamani coalition led by the Alam ad-Din clan. Emir Haidar fled even further north to Hermel when Abi Harmusch's troops searched for him in Ghazir and sacked the village.

In 1711 the Druze Qaisi clans mobilized to restore their supremacy in Mount Lebanon and invited Emir Haidar to return and lead their forces. Emir Haidar and the Abu'l Lama family formed in Ras el Matn and received support from the Jumblatt, Talhuq, Imad, Nakad and Abd al-Malik, while the Yamani faction, led by Abi Harmusch, positioned itself at Ain Dara . The Yamani had support from the governors of Damascus and Sidon, but before the governors' troops joined the Yamani and were ready to launch an initial attack on the Qaisi, Emir Haidar led the attack on Ain Dara. In the battle of Ain Dara that followed, the Yamani were razed, the Alam ad-Din sheiks killed, Abi Harmush captured, and the Ottoman governors withdrew their troops from Mount Lebanon. Emir Haidar's victory finally consolidated the political power of the Shihabs and the Yamani were eliminated as a rival force; they were even forced to leave Lebanon and move to Hauran .

Emir Haidar confirmed his Qaisi allies as tax tenants of the Mount Lebanon Tax District. His victory in Ain Dara also contributed to the immigration of Maronites to the area, as Druze emigrated and in return immigrants from the hinterland of Tripoli replaced the Druze Yamani. This increased the number of small Maronite tenants compared to the Druze landlords in the Lebanonberg. The Shihabs became the ruling force for the social and political configuration of Mount Lebanon as they were the most influential landlords and the main mediators between the local sheikhs and the Ottoman authorities. This arrangement was ultimately accepted by the Ottoman governors in Sidon, Tripoli and Damascus. In addition, the Shihab also exerted influence on the various rulers on site in the adjacent areas, for example on the clans of Jabal Amil (Shiites) and in the Bekaa plain, the Maronite-dominated area around Tripoli, as well as on the Ottoman administrators in the Port cities of Sidon, Beirut and Tripoli.

Mulhim

Emir Haidar died in 1732 and his eldest son, Mulhim, succeeded him. One of his early campaigns was a punitive expedition against the Waʿil clan of Jebel Amil. The Waʿil had colored the tails of their horses green to celebrate the death of Emir Haidar. Haidar's relations with the Waʿil had been bad, but Emir Mulhim took this as a grave insult. During the campaign, the Sheikh of the Waʿili, Nasif al-Nassar , was briefly captured. Emir Mulhim had the support of the Governor of Sidons.

In the 1740s new parties emerged within the Druze clans. One of these parties was led by the Jumblatt clan and therefore also known as the Jumblatti , while the Imad, Talhuq and Abd al-Malik clans belonged to the Yazbak faction led by the Imad. In this way, the Qaisi-Yamani rivalry lost its importance and the Jumblatti-Yazbaki rivalry arose. In 1748, on the orders of the governor of Damascus, Mulhim burned settlements of the Talhuq and Abd al-Malik clans as a punitive action against the Yazbaki who had taken in a refugee from the Eyalet Damascus. Mulhim later granted the Talhuq compensation. In 1749 he acquired the tax lease rights for Beirut after he had convinced the governor of Sidon to sell the tax lease. He used an attack by the Talhuq clan, in which the city was destroyed and the powerlessness of the deputy governor was demonstrated.

Power struggles

Mulhim fell ill and was forced to abdicate by his brothers in 1753. Mansur and Ahmad became emirs with the support of the Druze sheikhs. Mulhim retired to Beirut but, along with his son Qasim, endeavored to regain control of the emirate by using his ties to an Ottoman official. This project was unsuccessful and Mulhim died in 1759. In the following year Qasim was appointed emir by the governor of Sidon in place of Emir Mansur. Soon afterwards, however, the emirs Mansur and Ahmad bribed the governor and received back the Shihabi's tax lease. Relations between the brothers deteriorated as each of them claimed supremacy. Emir Ahmad enlisted the support of the Yazbaki Druze and was briefly able to expel Emir Mansur from the Shihabi headquarters in Deir al-Qamar. Emir Mansur, meanwhile, relied on the Jumblatti and the governor of Sidon, who mobilized his troops in Beirut to support Mansur. With his support, Mansur retook Deir al-Qamar and Emir Ahmad fled. Sheikh Ali Jumblatt and Sheikh Yazbak Imad reached a compromise between Ahmad and Mansur, and the former gave up his claim to the emirate and was allowed to live in Deir al-Qamar.

Another son of Emir Mulhim, Emir Yusuf , had supported Emir Ahmad in his struggle, whereupon his properties in Chouf were confiscated by Emir Mansur. Emir Yusuf, who had been brought up in a Maronite Catholic but publicly presented himself as a Sunni, obtained protection from Sheikh Ali Jumblatt in Moukhtara , and the latter sought a reconciliation between Emir Yusuf and his uncle. However, Emir Mansur refused Sheikh Ali's mediation. Sa'ad al-Churi, Emir Yusuf's mudabbir (administrator), got Sheikh Ali to give up his support for Emir Mansur, while Emir Yusuf secured the support of Uthman Pasha al-Kurdschi , the governor of Damascus. The latter instructed his son Mehmed Pasha al-Kurdschi, the governor of Tripoli, to transfer the tax leases from Jubail and Batrun to Emir Yusuf (1764). This gave Emir Yusuf a power base in the Tripoli hinterland. Under al-Churi's leadership and with Druze allies from the Chouf, Yusuf then led a campaign against the Hamad sheikhs and received additional support from the Maronite clans Dahdah, Karam and Dahir and Maronite and Sunni farmers who had been fighting the Hamade since 1759. Clan revolted. Yusuf defeated the Hamad sheikhs and took over their tax lease. This not only strengthened his conflict with Mansur, but also marked the beginning of the Shihabi's patronage over the Maronite bishops and monks, who were resentful of the influence of the Chazen clan and who had been patronized by the Hamade sheikhs original allies of the Shihab.

Yusuf

In 1770, Emir Mansur withdrew in favor of Emir Yusuf after the Druze sheikhs had urged him to resign. The handover took place in the village of Barouk , where the Shihabi emirs, Druze sheikhs and religious leaders met and petitioned the governors of Damascus and Sidon, in which they certified Emir Yusuf's assumption of office. Emir Mansur's resignation was also triggered by his alliance with Sheikh Dhaher al-Omar , the strong man of the Zaidani in the region of northern Palestine , and with Sheikh Nasif al-Nassar of Jabal Amil in their revolts against the Ottoman governors of Syria. Sheikh Zahir (Dhaher) and Ali Bey al-Kabir's troops from Egypt had conquered Damascus, but withdrew after Ali Bey's chief commander, Abu al-Dhahab , was bribed by the Ottomans. Because the Ottomans had defeated him, Emir Mansur had become a security factor for the Druze sheikhs against the Ottoman authorities, whereupon they decided to depose him. Emir Yusuf cultivated relations with Uthman Pasha and his sons in Tripoli and Sidon, and with their support he tried to challenge the power of the autonomous sheikhs Zahir and Nasif. However, in 1771, Emir Yusuf suffered a number of setbacks. His ally, Uthman Pascha, was defeated in the Battle of Lake Huleh (1771, Battle of Lake Hula) by the troops of Sheikh Dhaher. Then Emir Yusuf's great Druze army from Wadi al-Taim and Chouf was defeated by the cavalry of Sheikh Nasif near Nabatea . Druze war casualties in the battle numbered around 1,500, about as much as the loss the Yamani coalition had lost at Ain Dara. In addition, Dhaher and Nasif's troops captured the city of Sidon after Sheikh Ali Jumblatt withdrew. Emir Yusuf's troops were again wiped out when they tried to drive out Sheikhs Zahir and Nasif, but they benefited from support from the Russian fleet that bombed Emir Yusuf's camp.

Uthman Pasha, who wanted to prevent the capture of Beirut by Sheikh Zahir, appointed Ahmad Pasha el-Jazzar , who was previously in Yusuf's service, as the city's garrison commander. Emir Yusuf, the tax farmer of Beirut, agreed to the appointment and refused a bounty on el-Jazzar, which Abu al-Dhahab wanted to sell (al-Jazzar was wanted by the Mameluks of Eyalet Egypt). However, el-Jazzar began to operate independently soon after the fortifications of Beirut were secured, and Emir Yusuf turned to Sheikh Zahir, through the mediation of Emir Mansur, and requested Russian bombardment of Beirut to drive el-Jazzar out. Sheikh Zahir and the Russians followed Emir Yusuf's request after a large bribe was paid. After a four-month siege, el-Jazzar withdrew in 1772 and Yusuf punished his Yazbaki allies, the Sheikhs Abd al-Salam Imad and Husain Talhuq , in order to receive compensation for the bribe he had paid the Russians. The following year, Yusuf's brother, Emir Saiyid-Ahmad , took control of Qabb Ilyas and robbed a group of Damascus traders crossing the village in the process. Thereupon Emir Yusuf Qabb Ilyas conquered from his brother and received from the governor of Damascus, Mohammed Pascha al-Azm , also transferred the tax lease over the Beqaa plain.

In 1775, Sheikh Zahir was defeated and killed in a campaign by the Ottomans, after which el-Jazzar was installed as sheikh in Zahir's headquarters in Acre and soon after was appointed governor of Sidon. One of the main goals of el-Jazzar was to centralize power in Sidon Eyalet and gain control of the Shihabi emirate in Mount Lebanon. For this reason he initially successfully expelled Emir Yusuf from Beirut and took responsibility for the tax lease of the Schihabis from him. El-Jazzar gained advantages by promoting divisions within the Schihab clan, thus splitting the emirate into smaller units that he could more easily control and play off against one another. In 1778 he approved the sale of the tax lease of the Chouf to Emir Yusuf's brothers, the Emirs Saiyid-Ahmad and Effendi , after the two had secured the support of the Jumblatt and Nakad clans (Emir Yusuf's ally, Sheikh Ali Jumblatt died that year). Emir Yusuf then moved his base to Ghazir and mobilized the support of his Sunni allies, the Ra'ad and Mir'ibi clans of Akkar . El-Jazzar returned the tax lease to Yusuf after paying a large bribe, but his brothers demanded it again in 1780. They mobilized support from the Jumblatti and Yazbaki, but their attempt to kill Sa'ad al-Churi failed and Effendi himself became killed in the process. In addition, Emir Yusuf el-Jazzar paid for providing him with troops, bribed the Yazbaki to desert Saiyid-Ahmad, and was able to regain control of the Shihabi emirate.

Bashir II

Bashir Shihab II, 1789-1840

The most famous of the Shihab emirs was Emir Bashir Shihab II , who is comparable to Fachr ad-Dīn II . He had converted from Sunni Islam, the religion of his ancestors, to Christianity, making him the first Maronite ruler of the emirate. His abilities as a statesman were first tested in 1799 when Napoleon besieged Acre, a heavily fortified coastal city in Palestine about forty kilometers south of Tire . Both Napoleon and Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar , the governor of Sidon, requested help from Bashir, who however remained neutral and declined the requests. Unable to conquer Acre, Napoleon returned to Egypt and the death of el-Jazzar in 1804 eliminated Bashir's main adversary in the region. When Bashir II decided to break away from the Ottoman Empire, he allied himself with Mohamed Ali Pasha , the founder of modern Egypt. He assisted Mohamed Ali's son, Ibrahim Pasha , in another siege of Acre. This siege lasted seven months. The city fell on May 27, 1832. The Egyptian army then captured Damascus on June 14, 1832 with the support of Bashir's troops.

In 1840 the major European powers ( Great Britain , Austria , Prussia and Russia) signed the London Treaty with the Sublime Porte (July 15, 1840) in rejection of the pro-Egyptian policy of the French . According to the terms of the treaty, Mohamed Ali was asked to withdraw from Syria; when he refused this invitation, Ottoman and British troops landed on the Lebanese coast on September 10, 1840. Faced with these combined forces, Mohamed Ali withdrew on October 14, 1840; Bashir II capitulated to the British and went into exile. Bashir Shihab III. was then appointed head. On January 13, 1842, the Sultan Abdul Medschid Bashir III. and appointed Omar Pasha governor of Mount Lebanon. This event marked the end of the rule of the Shihabs.

legacy

Even today, the Schihabs are one of the most prominent families in Lebanon. The third president since the independence of Greater Lebanon , Fuad Schihab , was a member of this family ( Maronite- Christian descendant of the line of the Emir Hasan, brother of the Emir Bashir II), as was the Sunni Chalid Schihab . The Schihabs still bear the title of “Emir” today. A sideline of the family, which is descended directly from Bashir II, resides in Turkey and bears the Turkish surname Paksoy (due to the state Turkishization in the course of the family name law in 1934 under the state founder Mustafa Kemal Ataturk .) Today the Schihabi are partly Sunni Muslims, partly Maronite Catholics . The citadel in Hasbaja in southern Lebanon , built in the 11th century, is still private property of the Shihabi today; many family members live there.

List of emirs

Surname Domination Faith Remarks
Emir Bashir I 1697-1705 Sunni Son of Husain Shihab of Rascheiya and a daughter of Ahmad Maʿan. Regent for Emir Haidar.
Emir Haidar 1705-1732 Sunni Son of Musa Schihab of Hasbaja (d. 1693) and a daughter of Ahmad Maʿan.
Emir Mulhim 1732-1753 Sunni Elder son of Haidar.
Emir's Mansur and Ahmad 1753-1760 Sunnis Sons of Haidar.
Emir Qasim 1760 ? Son of Mulhim.
Emir Mansur 1760-1770 Sunni Second, sole reign.
Emir Yusuf 1770-1778 Maronite Son of Mulhim.
Emire Saiyid-Ahmad and Effendi 1778 ? Sons of Mulhim.
Emir Yusuf 1778-1789 Maronite Second reign.
Emir Bashir II. 1789-1794 Maronite Son of Umar, grandson of Haidar.
Emirs Husain and Sa'ad ad-Din 1794-1795 Maronites Youngest sons of Yusuf. In reality, power lay with the Maronite administrator Jirdji al-Baz .
Emir Bashir II. 1795-1799 Maronite Second reign.
Emire Husain and Sa'ad ad-Din 1799-1800 Maronites Second reign.
Emir Bashir II. 1800-1819 Maronite Third reign.
Emire Hasan and Salman 1819-1820 Sunnis Members of the Rascheiya branch of the Schihab family.
Emir Bashir II. 1820-1821 Maronite Fourth reign.
Emire Hasan and Salman 1821 Sunnis Second reign.
Emir Abbas 1821-1822 Sunni Son of As'ad, who was Haidar's paternal grandson.
Emir Bashir II. 1822-1840 Maronite Fifth reign.
Emir Bashir III. 1840-1842 ? Son of Qasim. Abolition of the Emirate of Mount Lebanon.

literature

  • Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters: Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. (= Facts on File Library of World History ). Facts On File, New York 2010, ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7 , p. 530.
  • Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin: The Druzes: A New Study of Their History, Faith, and Society . Brill, 1993, ISBN 90-04-09705-8 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  • William Harris: Lebanon: A History, 600-2011 . Oxford University Press, 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-518111-1 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  • Mikhail Mishaqa: Murder, Mayhem, Pillage, and Plunder: The History of the Lebanon in the 18th and 19th Centuries by Mikhayil Mishaqa (1800–1873) . Ed .: Wheeler McIntosh Thackston. State University of New York Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-712-3 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  • Ussama Makdisi: The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon. University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-520-92279-4 , p. 73

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b c Philipp K. Hitti: The Origins of the Druze People : With Extracts from their Sacred Writings. AMS Press 1928: 7th limited preview in Google Book search
  2. ↑ Mishaqa, ed. Thackston 1988: 23.
  3. ↑ a b c d Abu Izzeddin 1998: 201.
  4. ↑ a b c d e f Yaman = Qahtani (قَحْطَانِي), Harris 2012: 113.
  5. ↑ a b c d e Harris 2012: 109.
  6. ↑ a b c Shereen Khairallah: The Sisters of Men: Lebanese Women in History. Institute for Women Studies in the Arab World. 1996: 111 limited preview in Google Book search
  7. ^ Harris 2012: 109-110.
  8. ↑ a b c d e Harris 2012: 110.
  9. ^ Harris 2012: 111.
  10. ↑ a b Abu Izzeddin 1998: 202.
  11. ↑ Abu Izzeddin 1998: 201-202.
  12. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Harris: 114.
  13. ↑ a b c d e Harris 2012: 117.
  14. ↑ Harris 2012: 114-115.
  15. ↑ a b c d e f Harris 2012: 115.
  16. ↑ a b c d Harris: 116.
  17. ^ Harris: 117.
  18. ↑ a b Harris: 118.
  19. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Harris: 119.
  20. ↑ a b c d e Abu Izzeddin: 203.
  21. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Harris: 120.
  22. ↑ Abu Izzeddin: 203-204.
  23. ^ Harris: 121.
  24. ↑ a b c d e f g Harris: 122.
  25. ^ Harris: 122-123.
  26. ↑ a b c d e Harris: 123.
  27. ^ Matti Moosa: The Maronites in History in the Google book search: 283.
  28. ↑ a b c d Library of Congress - The Shihabs, 1697–1842
  29. ↑ Stéphane Malsagne: Fouad Chéhab (1902–1973). Une figure oubliée de l'histoire libanaise . Karthala Editions, 2011, ISBN 978-2-8111-3368-9 , pp. 45 (French, limited preview in Google Book search).
  30. ↑ The House of Ghassan and its Legal precedents ( Memento of December 11, 2015 in the Internet Archive )