Lesser Spotted Eagle

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Lesser Spotted Eagle
Lesser Spotted Eagle (Clanga pomarina) in the Polish Lasy Janowskie Landscape Protection Park

Lesser Spotted Eagle ( Clanga pomarina ) in the Polish Lasy Janowskie Landscape Protection Park

Systematics
Class : Birds (aves)
Order : Birds of prey (Accipitriformes)
Family : Hawk species (Accipitridae)
Subfamily : Aquilinae
Genre : Clanga
Type : Lesser Spotted Eagle
Scientific name
Clanga pomarina
( Brehm , 1831)

The lesser spotted eagle ( Clanga pomarina , syn .: Aquila pomarina ), also called Pomeranian eagle out of date, is a species of bird from the hawk family (Accipitridae). This comparatively small member of the subfamily Aquilinae has a relatively small distribution area in the west of the Palearctic ; the western area boundary runs through eastern Germany. The epithet pomarina refers to the origin of the holotype from the former Prussian province of Pomerania . The species inhabits near-natural forests with adjacent extensively used areas and feeds primarily on small vertebrates , but also on insects and other invertebrates as well as carrion .

The species is best known for its special breeding biology, cainism . Usually two eggs are laid; however, the first hatched young always kills the younger sibling, so that except in rare exceptional cases only one young bird flies out.

The lesser spotted eagle is a migratory bird , it winters in southern Africa. The world population is not endangered , but the German population is declining and, according to the Red List, is threatened with extinction.

description

Flight image of the lesser spotted eagle
Illustration from “ Natural History of the Birds of Central Europe ”, 1905 or earlier

Lesser spotted eagles are among the smallest members of the Aquilinae subfamily. They reach a body length of 55 to 67 cm and a wingspan of 1.46 to 1.68 m and are therefore still significantly larger than, for example, a common buzzard . The sexual dimorphism is quite pronounced in terms of size and weight, males reach an average of about 85% of the size of the females. Males weigh 1.0 to 1.4 kg and have a wing length of 446 to 478 mm, females reach a weight of 1.3 to 2.2 kg and a wing length of 493 to 508 mm. As with all representatives of the genus Clanga and the closely related genus Aquila , the tips of the hand wings are strongly fingered and the legs are feathered down to the toes. In flight, the wings appear relatively short and noticeably wide, the tail is clearly rounded at the outer edges.

Adult birds are generally brown in color. The trunk, the head as well as the upper wing and the lower wing coverts are warm light brown, partly light yellowish brown. In the flying bird in particular, they form a clear contrast to the single-colored, dark gray-brown flight and control feathers . The bases of the inner hand wings are whitish and form a not very conspicuous white field on the upper wing, the upper tail-coverts are broadly bordered white. The iris is orange-yellow, the wax skin and toes are yellow. The base of the beak is gray compared to the otherwise black beak.

In juvenile plumage , the head, torso and elytra are overall darker than in the adult birds. The large hand and arm covers are edged in white and form a bright band on the upper wing that is clearly visible in the flying bird. Often the middle elytra are also marginally white. The rocker arms and the control springs show a dense dark transverse banding; the inner hand wings, the arm wings and the control springs are also bordered in white. Young spotted eagles show a rusty yellow diffuse spot on the neck. The iris is brown. The young birds are colored after three years.

Vocalizations

The excitement call, which is often heard until the young birds hatch, is a powerful "tjück", which is also represented as "jück" or "jüb" and usually sounds two or three times in a row. During courtship flight, the male calls "wiiik", the call resembles a long whistle. The calls of the young birds are largely similar to those of the adults at around 20 days old.

distribution

Distribution areas of the lesser spotted eagle:
  • Breeding areas
  • migration
  • Wintering areas

    • The Lesser Spotted Eagle has a relatively small, highly fragmented range in the west of the Palearctic . In the north of the species area the western limit of distribution runs through northeast Germany, to the east the occurrence extends into western Russia , the exact eastern limit of distribution is not yet known. In the south are the westernmost, isolated occurrences in Slovenia and Croatia ; further to the east follows a relatively closed distribution area that extends from Greece and the east of the Balkans via Turkey to the Caspian Depression in northern Iran . In the north, the distribution extends to the Russian Baltic coast, in the south to central Greece, to the south of Turkey and to the north of Iran mentioned above.

    In Germany, the eastern half of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania and an approximately 3600 km² area in northeast Brandenburg (districts Barnim , Uckermark and Oberhavel ) are populated, an isolated western outpost was located in the Hakel and Steckby-Lödderitzer Forest in Saxony-Anhalt until 2011 . The spotted eagle has therefore been extinct in Saxony-Anhalt since 2012.

    Systematics

    Until a few years ago, a second subspecies Aquila pomarina hastata , restricted only to the Indian subcontinent , was described for the spotted eagle in addition to the nominate form . This subspecies was delimited in 2002 due to morphological , anatomical and breeding biological characteristics as well as behavioral characteristics as a separate species Aquila hastata (more recently Clanga hastata ), which was given the German common name Gangesadler in 2009 . Molecular genetic studies have confirmed this species status, according to which the Ganges eagle is the sister taxon of the species pair Lesser Spotted Eagle and Greater Spotted Eagle . The spotted eagle is therefore more closely related to the greater spotted eagle than to the Ganges eagle.

    A further molecular genetic investigation showed that the lesser spotted eagle and the greater spotted eagle are not reproductively completely isolated from each other, although the gene flow apparently only takes place in the direction of the lesser spotted eagle. About 8% of the phenotypic spotted eagles examined showed haplotypes of the spotted eagle in the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) that was only passed on through the maternal line . Investigations of the cell nucleus DNA showed, however, that the spotted eagle with greater spotted eagle haplotypes in the mtDNA are genetically between the samples of individuals of both species in which the haplotypes of the mtDNA matched the phenotypes. This suggests that these spotted eagles with spotted eagle mtDNA are either direct descendants of a mixed pair of female greater spotted eagles and male spotted eagles (F1 hybrids) or descendants of a female hybrid with a male spotted eagle.

    The results suggest that mixed pairs consist predominantly of female spotted eagles and male spotted eagles and that the hybrid females in turn breed with male spotted eagles. The first assumption agrees with the observations of mixed pairs available so far; the second assumption is plausible, as this is the only way to guarantee the size difference between the couple partners. The relatively high percentage of spotted eagles with spotted eagle hyplotypes ultimately indicates that at least individual spotted eagles regularly form mixed pairs with spotted eagles far west of the closed distribution area of ​​the species. That this is actually the case was confirmed, among other things, by the discovery of a mixed pair in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania in 2003; further east, individual mixed pairs have been known since the early 1990s.

    habitat

    Lesser spotted eagles inhabit natural forests with adjacent open, nutrient-rich areas. In the north of the distribution area (Germany, Poland , Baltic States , Russia), extensively used, moist lowlands are populated with deciduous and mixed forests and adjacent wet meadows and moors. From around Slovakia and Hungary and further south, however, the focus of the occurrence lies in the loosely planted deciduous forest and interspersed with meadows, mostly dry hills and mountains. So z. B. in Romania populated altitudes between 300 m and 1600 m, also in Bulgaria the species occurs up to 1400 m. In the area of ​​the southern limit of distribution in the forest of Dadia in northeastern Greece, the spotted eagle lives almost exclusively in dry pine forests at altitudes between 100 and 300 m, deciduous forests are avoided there.

    Use of space and settlement density

    In Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania and Latvia from 1994 to 1997 investigations into the size of the action area during the breeding season were carried out with the help of ground telemetry transmitters. Males in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania had an action area of ​​on average 27.1 km² (22.2–33.9 km²), the action areas of males in Latvia were on average 11.4 km² (6.7–15.5 km²) considerably smaller. The difference was primarily attributed to the larger proportion of nutrient-rich habitats (especially grassland ) in the nesting area of ​​the Latvian districts.

    In the case of four males in Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania provided with GPS satellite transmitters in the years 2004–2006 , the action areas during the breeding season were between 32.8 and 54.4 km²; however, these birds were not broadcasted until mid-July, so that the action areas were probably not fully recorded. In the case of a fifth male, which was examined from the end of June in 2005 and from the beginning of May in 2006, the area of ​​activity was 93.8 km² in 2005 and 172.3 km² in 2006.

    The settlement density of the lesser spotted eagle fluctuates considerably depending on the landscape. In Poland, large-scale investigations revealed settlement densities between 1.5 and 10.8 breeding pairs (BP) per 100 km², the highest value was found in the Białowieża National Park . The known settlement density values ​​from other parts of the distribution area lie within this value range.

    Way of hunting and food

    The lesser spotted eagle essentially uses three methods to hunt ground-dwelling animals: hunting on foot, hunted from high seat, and search flight. Lesser spotted eagles are known for their foot-hunt, and they mainly run on meadows or harvested fields like the white stork over longer distances. Low waiting areas, for example haystacks, fence posts or trees, are used for high seat hunting. The search flight takes place at low altitude, the eagle circling over suitable areas and often stands against the wind in the air (see photo at the top (taxobox)).

    The diet of the lesser spotted eagle includes a wide range of bottom-dwelling vertebrates up to the size of young brown hares, as well as invertebrates and carrion . A determination of the actual food composition is very difficult due to the very different traceability of the individual prey taxa. A comparison of different studies on nutrition is also problematic because of the often very different examination methods.

    The nestlings are apparently only fed with vertebrates, and depending on the region, small mammals, amphibians or reptiles can make up the majority of the prey. In a couple in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania that were continuously observed with a video system at the nest, over 90% of the food brought to the nest consisted of small mammals, the remaining prey consisted of amphibians, lizards and songbirds . In nest controls in northern Belarus , on the other hand, amphibians were found to be the most common prey group with 62.0%, the two most common species were the common frog with 39.0% and the moor frog with 17.5% of all prey. Mammals were represented with a total of 29.1%, birds with 5.6% and reptiles with 3.3% in the prey spectrum.

    In the already relatively dry uplands in northern Hungary with adjoining agricultural land of all prey animals were in collections of prey remains at Horst small mammals with 79.7% determined as the dominant vertebrate group, 50.0% of prey were there voles, second followed hamster with 16.4%. Birds made up 20.3% of the prey, the most common were pheasants with 4.7% and skylarks with 2.3% of all prey. On the other hand, there were amphibians (only real frogs ) represented in the prey spectrum with only 1.6%, reptiles were completely absent.

    In a study in the largely dry forest of Dadia in Greece, only vaults were examined. The main prey there were reptiles, which were found in 80.2% of all vaults, otherwise only mammals and insects could be detected. The most common prey animal was the grass snake (detected in 41.6% of all vaults), followed by the lizard snake (in 20.8% of all vaults) and lizards of the genus Lacerta (in 19.8% of all vaults). Direct observations, however, also revealed numerous frogs as prey, which are apparently hardly detectable in the crust. The food spectrum in the winter quarters is apparently as broad as in the breeding area, although the species here apparently uses the often rapidly changing food supply of termites , grasshoppers and bloodbeak weavers very intensively. In February 1997 , in the Kruger National Park in South Africa , around 1000 lesser spotted eagles were seen plundering nests in a 16 km² colony of the bloodbeak weaver.

    Reproduction

    Courtship and nest building

    Spotted eagle's clutch of two. The nest hollow with spruce branches designed

    The courtship usually begins immediately after arriving at the breeding site. The male shows persistent wave flights, whereby it moves downwards at the highest point of a "wave" with attached wings, in order to then ascend again with the gained momentum to the next wave. In addition, it shows a flutter flight in which it flaps the wings, which are held roughly horizontally, up and down quickly. Copulations usually take place in connection with these courtship flights in a free seat guard near the eyrie.

    The nests (clumps) are erected on trees in the forest and mostly in its edge zone and mostly built by yourself; nests of other bird species are rarely built over. The selected tree species depends on the available offer. The nests can have very different sizes depending on the natural conditions and age; a study in Lithuania found nest diameters between 60 and 126 cm (mean 88.5 cm) and nest heights between 15 and 120 cm (mean 60.4 cm). The nest hollow is laid out with green branches.

    Clutch and rearing of young birds

    Egg,     Museum Wiesbaden collection

    In Central Europe, eggs are seldom laid as early as the end of April, but mostly from the beginning to mid-May. The clutches usually consist of two eggs, more rarely just one and very rarely three eggs. For example, in Lithuania in 37 clutches 8 times 1 egg, 28 times 2 eggs (76%) and 1 time 3 eggs were found, in Hungary in 72 clutches 20 times 1 egg, 51 times 2 eggs (71%) and 1 time 3 eggs. The eggs are spotted brown or purple on a white background. They weigh 72–87 g; Eggs collected in what was then Germany before 1921 measured an average of 62.9 × 50.7 mm.

    Preparation with two nestlings ( downy chicks ) in the Berlin Museum of Natural History

    The first egg is hatched and the laying interval is 3 to 4 days. The breeding period is 38 to 41 days, with predominantly the female breeding. If two chicks hatch, the second chick is killed by the first hatched chick with a beak, so that, except in rare exceptional cases, only one young bird ever flies out. The act of killing is innate and takes place regardless of the nutritional status of the young birds; this behavior is therefore referred to as “compulsory cainism ”. In a brood in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania that was constantly monitored by video system , the attacks of the first chick already hatched on the day the second chick hatched and ended after 2.5 days with their death. The dead young bird was fed the following day.

    The young birds fly out from late July to mid-August. Until their departure in mid-September, they are fed by their parents and only hunt independently in exceptional cases.

    Sexual maturity and age

    Lesser spotted eagles are colored in the third year of life and then presumably sexually mature. Nothing is known about the average age of the lesser spotted eagle; the maximum age proven by ringing is 26 years.

    hikes

    Lesser spotted eagles migrate long distances , they overwinter in southern Africa . The species stays in the breeding area from about mid-April to mid-September, i.e. for about 5 months. Lesser spotted eagles, as thermal sailors , are pronounced narrow-front pullers , the Mediterranean is flown around in the east. The migratory activity is therefore concentrated on the known focal points of bird migration in Southeast Europe and the Middle East. Almost the entire population passes through Israel on the way to Africa in autumn .

    Autumn migration

    Most of the European population moves southeast across the Bosporus ; between 1966 and 1972 a maximum of 18,900 migrants were counted there per autumn. The next train then runs along the eastern Mediterranean coast via eastern Turkey , Syria , Lebanon and Israel to Africa. Some of the Eastern European spotted eagles also migrate south along the east coast of the Black Sea , then through eastern Turkey and also via Syria, Lebanon and Israel to Africa.

    In Kefar Kassem, north of Tel Aviv , an average of 104,000 migrants were recorded in autumn from 1982 to 1987; in the “Northern Valleys” further north, an average of 71,500 migrants were counted per autumn from 1988 to 1990. At Kefar Kassem, the train doesn't start until the end of August or mid-September at the earliest. The main mass moves between September 20 and October 5, the median of the move is between September 26 and 30. The train ends in mid-October.

    The further migration through Africa could only be clarified by satellite telemetry from the mid-1990s . In 1994, four adult males were caught in Germany and Slovakia and provided with satellite transmitters. They left the breeding grounds between September 1st and 21st and crossed the Bosporus and Israel between September 14th and October 9th. South of Suez , all birds flew almost straight south to Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania , where they arrived in late October. From there the birds migrated in various southern directions to their winter quarters. Since 2014, the journey of several spotted eagles can be followed live on the Internet.

    Winter quarters

    The lesser spotted eagle winters in southern Africa from central Tanzania south to north-east South Africa . The majority of the population stays in a core area during the winter, which includes the countries Zimbabwe , Zambia , Mozambique , northern Namibia and the above-mentioned north-east South Africa.

    The winter habitats consist primarily of moist, open or sparsely forested savannas . As far as is known, spotted eagles follow the rain fronts there, each of which ensures a good supply of food. Lesser spotted eagles therefore also roam large areas in their winter quarters. The winter area of ​​a German spotted eagle provided with a satellite transmitter comprised an area of ​​approx. 25,000 km² in Zambia, a Slovak eagle examined over several years searched for other areas in the countries of Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa every winter and covered distances of in two winters back at least 2269 km or 1919 km.

    Spring migration

    The withdrawal from winter quarters is known so far only of three animals equipped with satellite transmitters, these began to migrate home on February 26th, February 28th as well as March 2nd and February 19th (the last two dates concerned the same individual in consecutive years) . Two of these eagles returned to the breeding site on April 22nd in Slovakia and April 19th in Germany.

    In Israel, the spring migration is hardly registered, as the main migration runs east and north of the known observation points. Between 40 and 74 homecomers were registered in Eilat in 1983, 1985 and 1986. The homecoming there began with individual individuals in mid-February, peaked in late March to early April and was finished by May 10th. In the Central European breeding areas, the birds arrive at the breeding site as early as the end of March, but mostly in the first half of April, so the arrival dates of the two above-mentioned eagles were comparatively late.

    Existence and endangerment

    Relatively reliable estimates of the size of the world population were only possible at the end of the 1980s, when the number of autumn migrants over Israel was recorded in full for the first time. In the period that followed, the breeding population was revised upwards, in some cases considerably, in a number of countries. Meyburg estimated the world population to be around 20,000 breeding pairs (BP) based on around 75,000 individuals migrating through Israel in the mid-1990s, Mebs and Schmidt came to around 15,000 BP for the beginning of the 21st century. The relatively large difference is mainly due to the very different assessments of the population of individual poorly investigated countries, Meyburg estimates the population of Turkey at around 3000 BP; Mebs and Schmidt give only 80 to 120 BP for this country. According to Mebs and Schmidt, Belarus has the largest stocks with 3200 to 3800 BP, Romania with 2500-2800 BP, Latvia with 2000 to 2800 BP and Poland with 1700-1900 BP; Compared to Meyburg's estimates, the population figures for the Baltic states in particular were roughly doubled again due to more recent studies. According to the IUCN, the world population is considered to be not at risk (“least concern”).

    The Committee Against Bird Murder e. V. assumes that around 5000 spotted eagles are killed by poachers in Lebanon every year.

    At the western edge of the area in Germany, however, the distribution and population have declined sharply since at least 1800, the western limit of distribution has shifted significantly to the east. Around 1800 the populated area in what is now Germany covered an area of ​​83,000 km² and included parts of Schleswig-Holstein and Lower Saxony (see section Distribution ). In 2004, the populated area in Germany covered an area of ​​around 10,000 km². The main reason for the sharp decline was severe human persecution. Despite the lack of persecution in Germany, the population continues to decline today, the main cause of which is the destruction of the habitat due to the intensification of agriculture and forestry. In 2013, 91 pairs were breeding in Germany. Of these, 68 were in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, where there were also a further 19 pairs of territories, and 23 in Brandenburg. The species has not been breeding in Saxony-Anhalt since 2012. In 2003 about 130 pairs were still breeding in Germany. In the Red List of Germany, the species is now in category 1 (critically endangered).

    The spotted eagle is a species in Appendix I of the EU Birds Directive (79/409 / EEC or 2009/147 / EC) for which bird protection areas are to be designated.

    swell

    Individual evidence

    1. ↑ a b Meyburg, BU, Boesman, P., Marks, JS & Kirwan, GM (2017). Lesser Spotted Eagle (Clanga pomarina). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, DA & de Juana, E. (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive . Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (accessed under [1] on January 16, 2017).
    2. ↑ Viktor Wember: The names of the birds in Europe - meaning of the German and scientific names , Aula Verlag, Wiebelsheim 2007, ISBN 3-89104-709-6
    3. ↑ Christoph Grüneberg, Hans-Günther Bauer, Heiko Haupt, Ommo Hüppop, Torsten Ryslavy, Peter Südbeck: Red List of Germany's Breeding Birds , 5 version . In: German Council for Bird Protection (Hrsg.): Reports on bird protection . tape 52 , November 30, 2015.
    4. ^ J. Ferguson-Lees, DA Christie: Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London 2001, ISBN 0-7136-8026-1 : p. 727
    5. ^ D. Forsman: The Raptors of Europe and the Middle East - A Handbook of Field Identification . T & AD Poyser, London 1999: pp. 316-331
    6. ^ W. Scheller: Lesser Spotted Eagle - Aquila pomarina . In: W. Eichstädt, W. Scheller, D. Sellin, W. Starke, KD Stegemann: Atlas of the breeding birds in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Verlag Steffen, Friedland 2006, ISBN 3-937669-66-3 : pp. 126-127
    7. ↑ a b B.-U. Meyburg, T. Langgemach, K. Graszynski & J. Böhner (2004): The Situation of the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina in Germany: The need for an Action Plan and active Conservation. In: RD Chancellor & B.-U. Meyburg (eds.): Raptors Worldwide. Budapest: WWGBP & MME, 2004: pp. 601–613 full text as pdf
    8. ↑ SJ Parry, WS Clark, V. Prakash: On the taxonomic status of the Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata. Ibis 144, No. 4, 2002: pp. 665-675. doi : 10.1046 / j.1474-919X.2002.00109.x .
    9. ↑ J. Ferguson-Lees, DA Christie: The birds of prey of the world (German by Volker Dierschke and Jochen Dierschke). Franckh-Kosmos-Verlags-GmbH & Co. KG. Stuttgart, 2009. ISBN 978-3-440-11509-1 , p. 248
    10. ↑ Ülo Väli: Mitochondrial DNA sequences support species status for the Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata . Bull. BOC 126, Heft 3, 2006: pp. 238–242 full text as pdf ( Memento from September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
    11. ↑ Andreas J. Helbig, Ingrid Seibold, Annett Kocum, Dorit Liebers, Jessica Irwin, Ugis Bergmanis, Bernd U. Meyburg, Wolfgang Scheller, Michael Stubbe and Staffan Bensch: Genetic differentiation and hybridization between greater and lesser spotted eagles (Accipitriformes: Aquila clanga , A. pomarina) . Journal of Ornithology, Volume 146, Issue 3, 2005: pp. 226-234.
    12. ^ A b C. G. Vlachos & NK Papageorgiou: Breeding biology and feeding of the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina in Dadia Forest, North-Eastern Greece. In: Meyburg, B.-U. & Chancellor, RD (eds): Eagle Studies. WWGBP, Berlin, London, Paris 1996, ISBN 3-9801961-1-9 : pp. 337-347.
    13. ^ W. Scheller, U. Bergmanis, B.-U. Meyburg, B. Furkert, A. Knack & S. Röper: Space-time behavior of the lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina). Acta ornithoecologica 4.2-4, 2001: pp. 75-236.
    14. ↑ B.-U. Meyburg, C. Meyburg, J. Matthes & H. Matthes: GPS satellite telemetry in the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina: Action space and territorial behavior in the breeding area. Vogelwelt 127, 2006: pp. 127-144.
    15. ↑ M. Rodziewicz: The Status, Range and Breeding Success of the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina) in Poland. In: Meyburg, B.-U. & Chancellor, RD (eds): Eagle Studies. WWGBP, Berlin, London, Paris 1996, ISBN 3-9801961-1-9 : pp. 291-295.
    16. ^ T. Mebs and D. Schmidt: The birds of prey in Europe, North Africa and the Middle East . Franckh-Kosmos, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-440-09585-1 : p. 189
    17. ↑ a b W. Scheller & B.-U. Meyburg: Investigations on the breeding biology and food ecology of the lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina using a remote-controlled video camera: On the technology and some results. In: Meyburg, B.-U. & Chancellor, RD (eds): Eagle Studies. WWGBP, Berlin, London, Paris 1996, ISBN 3-9801961-1-9 : 245-256.
    18. ^ V. Ivanovsky: Notes on the breeding biology of Spotted Eagles Aquila clanga and A. pomarina in Byelorussia. In: Meyburg, B.-U. & Chancellor, RD (eds): Eagle Studies. WWGBP, Berlin, London, Paris 1996, ISBN 3-9801961-1-9 : 297-299.
    19. ↑ a b L. Haraszthy, J. Bagyura & T. Szitta: On the biology of the lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina in Hungary. In: Meyburg, B.-U. & Chancellor, RD (eds): Eagle Studies. WWGBP, Berlin, London, Paris 1996, ISBN 3-9801961-1-9 : 305-312.
    20. ^ A. Kemp: Concentration of non-breeding Lesser Spotted Eagles Aquila pomarina at abundant food: a breeding colony of Red-billed Quelea Quelea quelea in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Acta ornithoecologica 4, 2001: pp. 325-329.
    21. ↑ a b E. Drobelis: On the Biology of the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina in Lithuania. In: Meyburg, B.-U. & Chancellor, RD (eds): Eagle Studies. WWGBP, Berlin, London, Paris 1996, ISBN 3-9801961-1-9 : pp. 283-284.
    22. ↑ UN Glutz v. Blotzheim and KM Bauer & E. Bezzel: Handbook of the birds of Central Europe . Vol. 4th, 2nd edition, Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1989: p. 589
    23. ↑ S. Danko, B.-U. Meyburg, T. Belka & D. Karaska: Individual identification of lesser spotted eagles Aquila pomarina: methods, previous experiences and results. In: Meyburg, B.-U. & Chancellor, RD (eds): Eagle Studies. WWGBP, Berlin, London, Paris 1996, ISBN 3-9801961-1-9 : pp. 209-243.
    24. ^ B. Acar, M. Beaman & RF Porter: Status and Migration of Birds of Prey in Turkey. In: RD Chancellor (Ed.): World Conference on Birds of Prey. Vienna, October 1-3, 1975. Report of Proceedings. International Council for Bird Preservation, Hampshire, 1977: pp. 182-187.
    25. ↑ a b E. Dovrat: The Kefar Kassem Raptor Migration Survey, Autumns 1977–1987: a brief summary. In: D. Yekutiel (Ed.): Raptors in Israel: Passage and wintering populations. Eilat, 1991: pp. 13-30
    26. ↑ A. Tsovel & D. Allon: Soaring bird migration survey in the Northern Valleys of Israel, Autumns 1988-1990. In: D. Yekutiel (Ed.): Raptors in Israel: Passage and wintering populations. Eilat, 1991: pp. 31-45
    27. ↑ a b B.-U. Meyburg, W. Scheller & C. Meyburg: Migration and wintering of the lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina: Satellite telemetric investigations . Journal for Ornithology 136, 1995: pp. 401-422
    28. ↑ NABU: Lesser Spotted Eagles on their journey. In: www.nabu.de. Retrieved March 19, 2015 .
    29. ↑ a b B.-U. Meyburg, C. Meyburg., T. Bělka, O. Šreibr & J. Vrana: Migration, wintering and breeding of a Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina) from Slovakia tracked by satellite. Journal of Ornithology 145, 2004: pp. 1-7.
    30. ^ H. Shirihai: Eilat - an intercontinental Highway for Migrating Raptors. In: International Birdwatching Center Eilat: Eilat: an Intercontinental Highway for Migrating Birds. Eilat, 1987: pp. 23-80.
    31. ↑ B.-U. Meyburg: The lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina: stock situation and current status of its research. In: Meyburg, B.-U. & Chancellor, RD (eds): Eagle Studies. WWGBP, Berlin, London, Paris 1996, ISBN 3-9801961-1-9 : pp. 377-387.
    32. ↑ T. Mebs & D. Schmidt: The birds of prey in Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Franckh-Kosmos, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-440-09585-1 : p. 188.
    33. ↑ http://www.nordbayern.de/region/nuernberg/nurnberg-emporung-nach-vogelmord-an-adler-dieter-1.8372616 .
    34. ↑ C. Sudfeldt, R. Dröschmeister, W. Frederking, K. Gedeon, B. Gerlach, C. Grüneberg, J. Karthäuser, T. Langgemach, B. Schuster, S. Trautmann, J. Wahl: Vögel in Deutschland - 2013 , DDA , LAG VSW, Münster 2013, p. 51.
    35. ↑ Directive of the Council of April 2, 1979 on the conservation of wild birds (79/409 / EEC). Retrieved August 5, 2020 .
    36. ↑ Directive 2009/147 / EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of November 30, 2009 on the conservation of wild birds (codified version). Retrieved August 5, 2020 .

    literature

    • J. Ferguson-Lees, DA Christie: Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London 2001, ISBN 0-7136-8026-1
    • D. Forsman: The Raptors of Europe and the Middle East - A Handbook of Field Identification . T & AD Poyser, London 1999, ISBN 0-85661-098-4
    • Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim , Kurt M. Bauer and E. Bezzel: Handbook of the birds of Central Europe. Volume 4th, 2nd edition, AULA-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1989, ISBN 3-89104-460-7 .
    • B.-U. Meyburg: The lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina: stock situation and current status of its research. In: Meyburg, B.-U. & Chancellor, RD (eds.): Eagle Studies. WWGBP, Berlin, London, Paris 1996, ISBN 3-9801961-1-9 : pp. 377-387.

    Web links

    Other web links

    Commons : Lesser Spotted Eagle ( Clanga pomarina )  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
    This article was added to the list of excellent articles on September 5, 2008 in this version .