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{{nihongo|'''Ueda Station'''|植田駅|Ueda-eki|}} is a [[train station]] in [[Tempaku-ku, Nagoya|Tempaku-ku]], [[Nagoya]], [[Aichi Prefecture]], [[Japan]]
{{otheruses}}{{Steels}}
'''Steel''' is a farm animal used for its fantastic milk. Farmed in tropical climates "steel" is generally pink and fluffy. But with really good milk! [[alloy]] consisting mostly of [[iron]], with a [[carbon]] content between 0.2% and 2.04% by weight, depending on grade. Carbon is the most cost-effective alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used such as [[manganese]], [[chromium]], [[vanadium]], and [[tungsten]].<ref name=EM2>{{cite book |last=Ashby |first=Michael F. |coauthors=& David R. H. Jones |title=Engineering Materials 2 |origyear=1986 |edition=with corrections |year=1992 |publisher=Pergamon Press |location=Oxford |id=ISBN 0-08-032532-7 }}</ref> Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing [[dislocation]]s in the iron atom [[crystal lattice]] from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of alloying elements and form of their presence in the steel (solute elements, precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the [[Hardness (materials science)|hardness]], [[ductility]] and [[tensile strength]] of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but is also more [[brittle]]. The maximum solubility of carbon in iron (in [[austenite]] region) is 2.14% by weight, occurring at 1149&nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]]; higher concentrations of carbon or lower temperatures will produce [[cementite]]. Alloys with higher carbon content than this are known as [[cast iron]] because of their lower melting point and [[castability]].<ref name=EM2/> Steel is also to be distinguished from [[wrought iron]] containing only a very small amount of other elements, but containing 1–3% by weight of [[slag]] in the form of particles elongated in one direction, giving the iron a characteristic grain. It is more [[rust]]-resistant than steel and welds more easily. It is common today to talk about 'the iron and steel industry' as if it were a single entity, but historically they were separate products.


==Lines==
Though steel had been produced by various inefficient methods long before the [[Renaissance]], its use became more common after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century. With the invention of the [[Bessemer process]] in the mid-19th century, steel became a relatively inexpensive [[mass production|mass-produced]] good. Further refinements in the process, such as [[basic oxygen steelmaking]], further lowered the cost of production while increasing the quality of the metal. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and is a major component in buildings, tools, [[automobile]]s, and [[major appliance|appliances]]. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades of steel defined by various [[standards organizations]].
*[[Nagoya Municipal Subway]]
[[Image:Steel wire rope.png|thumb|225px|The steel cable of a [[coal mining|colliery]] winding tower.]]
**[[Tsurumai Line]] (Station number: T17)


==Layout==
==Material properties==
{{Sectstub|date=July 2008}}
[[Iron]], like most metals, is not usually found in the [[Earth]]'s [[crust (geology)|crust]] in an elemental state.<ref>{{cite web | last = Winter | first = Mark | title = Periodic Table: Iron | publisher = The University of Sheffield | url = http://webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fe/geol.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 }}</ref> Iron can be found in the crust only in combination with [[oxygen]] or [[sulfur]]. Typical iron-containing minerals include Fe<small><sub>2</sub></small>O<small><sub>3</sub></small>—the form of [[iron oxide]] found as the [[mineral]] [[hematite]], and FeS<small><sub>2</sub></small>—[[pyrite]] (fool's gold).<ref>{{cite journal | last = F. Brookins | first = Theo. | title = Common Minerals and Valuable Ores | journal = Birds and All Nature | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | publisher = A. W. Mumford | date = November 1899 | url = http://birdnature.com/nov1899/ores.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 }}</ref> Iron is extracted from [[ore]] by removing the oxygen by combining it with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon. This process, known as [[smelting]], was first applied to metals with lower [[melting]] points. [[Copper]] melts at just over 1000&nbsp;°C, while [[tin]] melts around 250&nbsp;°C. Cast iron—iron alloyed with greater than 1.7% carbon—melts at around 1370&nbsp;°C. All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods that have been used for at least 6000 years (since the [[Bronze Age]]). Since the oxidation rate itself increases rapidly beyond 800&nbsp;°C, it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Unlike copper and tin, liquid iron dissolves carbon quite readily, so that smelting results in an alloy containing too much carbon to be called steel.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Smelting | encyclopedia = Britannica | publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica | date = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-02-28}}</ref>


==Adjacent stations==
Even in the narrow range of concentrations that make up steel, mixtures of carbon and iron can form into a number of different structures, with very different properties; understanding these is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of iron is the [[body-centered cubic]] (BCC) structure [[ferrite (iron)|ferrite]] or α-iron, a fairly soft metallic material that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon (no more than 0.021&nbsp;wt% at 910&nbsp;°C). Above 910&nbsp;°C ferrite undergoes a [[phase transition]] from body-centered cubic to a [[face-centered cubic]] (FCC) structure, called [[austenite]] or γ-iron, which is similarly soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon (as much as 2.03 wt% carbon at 1154&nbsp;°C).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.it-innovation.soton.ac.uk/surfaceweb/se/Se-12-2/se122152.pdf|title=Chemical potentials and activities of nitrogen and carbon imposed by gaseous nitriding and carburising atmospheres|accessdate=2006-08-10|last=Mittemeijer|first=E. J.|coauthors=Slycke, J. T.|format=PDF|pages=156|work=Surface Engineering 1996 Vol. 12 No. 2}}</ref> As carbon-rich austenite cools, the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for [[cementite]] to [[precipitate]] out of the mix, leaving behind iron that is pure enough to take the form of ferrite, resulting in a cementite-ferrite mixture. Cementite is a [[stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] phase with the chemical formula of Fe<sub>3</sub>C. Cementite forms in regions of higher carbon content while other areas revert to ferrite around it. Self-reinforcing patterns often emerge during this process, leading to a patterned layering known as [[pearlite]] (Fe<sub>3</sub>C:6.33Fe) due to its [[pearl]]-like appearance, or the similar but less beautiful [[bainite]].
{{j-railservice start}}
[[Image:Steel pd.svg|thumb|left|250px|Iron-carbon [[phase diagram]], showing the conditions necessary to form different phases.]]
|-
!colspan=5|Nagoya Municipal Subway
{{j-route|route=Tsurumai Line|col=deepskyblue|f=b}}
{{j-rserv|service=-|previous={{ja-stalink|Shiogama-guchi}}|next={{ja-stalink|Hara||Aichi}}}}
{{end box}}


{{Nagoya Municipal Subway Tsurumai Line}}
Perhaps the most important [[Polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphic form]] is [[martensite]], a chemically metastable substance with about four to five times the strength of ferrite. A minimum of 0.4&nbsp;wt% of carbon (C:50Fe) is needed to form martensite. When austenite is quenched to form martensite, the carbon is "frozen" in place when the cell structure changes from FCC to BCC. The carbon atoms are much too large to fit in the interstitial vacancies and thus distort the cell structure into a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure. Martensite and austenite have an identical chemical composition. As such, it requires extremely little thermal [[activation energy]] to form.


{{coord missing|Japan}}
The heat treatment process for most steels involves heating the alloy until austenite forms, then [[quenching]] the hot metal in [[water]] or [[oil]], cooling it so rapidly that the transformation to ferrite or pearlite does not have time to take place. The transformation into martensite, by contrast, occurs almost immediately, due to a lower activation energy.


[[Category:Railway stations in Aichi Prefecture]]
Martensite has a lower density than austenite, so that transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of [[physical compression|compression]] on the crystals of martensite and [[tension (mechanics)|tension]] on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, these internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools; at the very least, they cause internal [[work hardening]] and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when water quenched, although they may not always be visible.<ref>{{cite web | title = Quench hardening of steel | publisher = INI International | url = http://key-to-steel.com/Articles/Art12.htm | accessdate = 2007-02-28}}</ref>


{{Aichi-rail-station-stub}}
[[Image:LightningVolt Iron Ore Pellets.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Iron ore]] pellets for the production of steel.]]
At this point, if the carbon content is high enough to produce a significant concentration of martensite, the result is an extremely hard but very brittle material. Often, steel undergoes further heat treatment at a lower temperature to destroy some of the martensite (by allowing enough time for cementite etc. to form) and help settle the internal stresses and defects. This softens the steel, producing a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal. Because time is so critical to the end result, this process is known as [[tempering]], which forms tempered steel.<ref>{{cite web | last = Pye | first = David | title = Steel Heat Treating | publisher = Gardner Publications, Inc. | url = http://moldmakingtechnology.com/articles/110002.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 }}</ref>


[[ja:植田駅 (愛知県名古屋市)]]
Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to tailor the resulting properties. [[Nickel]] and [[manganese]] in steel add to its tensile strength and make austenite more chemically stable, [[chromium]] increases hardness and melting temperature, and [[vanadium]] also increases hardness while reducing the effects of [[metal fatigue]]. Large amounts of chromium and nickel (often 18% and 8%, respectively) are added to [[stainless steel]] so that a hard [[passivation|oxide]] forms on the metal surface to inhibit corrosion. [[Tungsten]] interferes with the formation of cementite, allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in [[high speed steel]]. On the other hand [[sulfur]], [[nitrogen]], and [[phosphorus]] make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing.<ref name="materialsengineer">{{cite web | title = Alloying of Steels | publisher = Metallurgical Consultants | date = [[2006-06-28]] | url = http://materialsengineer.com/E-Alloying-Steels.htm | accessdate = 2007-02-28 }}</ref>

When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and reprocessed to remove the correct amount of carbon, at which point other elements can be added. Once this liquid is cast into [[ingot]]s, it usually must be "worked" at high temperature to remove any cracks or poorly mixed regions from the solidification process, and to produce shapes such as plate, sheet, wire, etc. It is then heat-treated to produce a desirable crystal structure, and often "cold worked" to produce the final shape. In modern steel making these processes are often combined, with ore going in one end of the [[assembly line]] and finished steel coming out the other. These can be streamlined by a deft control of the interaction between [[work hardening]] and tempering.

==History of steelmaking==
[[Image:Bas fourneau.png|thumb|left|200px|Bloomery smelting during the [[Middle Ages]].]]
{{main|History of ferrous metallurgy}}

===Ancient steel===
<!-- Please show restraint. This is a general article on steel. It is not the right place for a detailed history of the industry. That should appear in separate articles elsewhere. -->

Steel was known in antiquity, and may have been produced by managing the [[bloomery]] so that the bloom contained carbon.<ref>{{cite web | last = Wagner | first = Donald B. | title = Early iron in China, Korea, and Japan | url = http://www.staff.hum.ku.dk/dbwagner/KoreanFe/KoreanFe.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 }}</ref> Some of the first steel comes from East Africa, dating back to 1400 <small>BC</small>.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAFRCA/IRONAGE.HTM |title=Civilizations in Africa: The Iron Age South of the Sahara |publisher=Washington State University |accessdate=2007-08-14}}</ref> In the 4th century <small>BC</small> steel weapons like the [[Falcata]] were produced in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], while [[Noric steel]] was used by the [[Military of ancient Rome|Roman military]]. The [[ancient China|Chinese]] of the [[Warring States]] (403&ndash;221 <small>BC</small>) had [[Quench|quench-hardened steel]],<ref>Wagner, Donald B. (1993). ''Iron and Steel in Ancient China: Second Impression, With Corrections''. Leiden: E.J. Brill. ISBN 9004096329. Page 243.</ref> while Chinese of the [[Han Dynasty]] (202 <small>BC</small> – 220 <small>AD</small>) created steel by melting together [[wrought iron]] with [[cast iron]], gaining an ultimate product of a carbon-intermediate—steel by the 1st century <small>AD</small>.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 563g">Needham, Joseph. (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics''. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 563 g</ref><ref name="gernet 69">Gernet, 69.</ref>

===Wootz steel and Damascus steel===
{{main|Wootz steel|Damascus steel}}

Wootz steel was produced in [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]] from around 300 <small>BC</small>. Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also adopted the production methods of creating [[Wootz steel]], an idea imported from [[India]] to China by the 5th century <small>AD</small>.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 1 282">Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 282.</ref> This early steel-making method employed the use of a wind furnace, blown by the monsoon winds and produced almost pure steel.<ref>{{cite journal|author=G. Juleff|title=An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=379|issue=3|pages=60–63|year=1996|doi=10.1038/379060a0}}</ref> Also known as [[Damascus steel]], wootz is famous for its durability and ability to hold an [[Sharpening|edge]]. It was originally created from a number of different materials including various [[trace element]]s. It was essentially a complicated alloy with iron as its main component. Recent studies have suggested that [[carbon nanotubes]] were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though given the technology available at that time, they were produced by chance rather than by design.<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://nature.com/news/2006/061113/full/061113-11.html | title = Sharpest cut from nanotube sword: Carbon nanotech may have given swords of Damascus their edge. | first = Katharine | last = Sanderson| publisher = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | date = [[2006-11-15]] | accessdate = 2006-11-17 }}</ref> Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated up with the use of wood, the ancient [[Sinhala people|Sinhalese]] (Sri Lankans) managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace exists in Samanalawewa (Sri Lanka) and archaeologists were able to extract steel as the ancients did 2200 years ago.

[[Crucible steel]] was produced in [[Merv]] by 9th to 10th century <small>AD</small>.

In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in [[Song Dynasty|Song China]] using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel and a precursor to the modern [[Bessemer process]] that utilized partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a [[cold blast]].<ref> Robert Hartwell, 'Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry' ''Journal of Economic History'' 26 (1966). pp. 53-54 </ref>

===Early modern steel===
[[Image:Bessemer Converter Sheffield.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Bessemer converter in Sheffield, England.]]

====Blister steel====
{{main|Blister steel}}

Blister steel, produced by the [[cementation process]] was first made in Italy in the early 16th century and soon after introduced to England. It was produced by Sir [[Basil Brooke (metallurgist)|Basil Brooke]] at [[Coalbrookdale]] during the 1610s. The raw material for this were bars of [[wrought iron]]. During the 17th century it was realised that the best steel came from [[oregrounds iron]] from a region of [[Sweden]], north of [[Stockholm]]. This was still the usual raw material in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used.<ref>P. W. King, 'The Cartel in Oregrounds Iron: trading in the raw material for steel during the eighteenth century' ''Journal of Industrial History'' 6(1) (2003), 25-49. </ref><ref name="britannicaironandsteel">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Iron and steel industry | encyclopedia = Britannica | publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica | date = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-03-01}}</ref>

====Crucible steel====
{{main|Crucible steel}}
Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a [[crucible]] rather than being [[forging|forged]], with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of [[Benjamin Huntsman]] in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.<ref name="britannicaironandsteel"/>

===Modern steelmaking===
[[Image:Siemens Martin Ofen Brandenburg.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Siemens-Martin steel oven from the [[Brandenburg]] Museum of Industry.]]
{{main|Steelmaking}}
{{see also|History of the modern steel industry}}

The modern era in [[steelmaking]] began with the introduction of [[Henry Bessemer]]'s [[Bessemer process]] in 1858<ref>{{cite book|title=History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages|author= James Moore Swank|ISBN=0833734636| year=1892}} </ref>. This enabled steel to be produced in large quantities cheaply, so that [[mild steel]] is now used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Bessemer process | encyclopedia = Britannica | volume =2 | pages = 168 | publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica | date = 2005 | accessdate = 2005-08-06 }}</ref> This was only the first of a number of methods of steel production. The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic Bessemer process) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, lining the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus. Another was the [[Siemens-Martin process]] of open hearth steelmaking, which like the Gilchrist-Thomas process complemented, rather than replaced, the original Bessemer process.<ref name="britannicaironandsteel"/>

These were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of [[basic oxygen steelmaking]], developed in the 1950s, and other oxygen steelmaking processes.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Basic oxygen process | encyclopedia = Britannica | publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica | date = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-02-28}}</ref>

==Steel industry==
[[Image:Port talbot large.jpg|right|thumb|[[Tata Steel]]'s Corus plant in the [[United Kingdom]].]]
[[Image:Steel (crude)1.PNG|thumb|right|Steel output in 2005]]
{{seealso|List of steel producers|Global steel industry trends}}
Because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development, the steel industry is often considered to be an indicator of economic progress.

The economic boom in [[China]] and [[India]] has caused a massive increase in the demand for steel in recent years. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian<ref>{{cite web |url=http://csmonitor.com/2007/0212/p07s02-wosc.html |title=India's steel industry steps onto world stage}}</ref> and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence like [[Tata Steel]] (which bought [[Corus Group]] in 2007), [[Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation]] and [[Shagang Group]]. [[ArcelorMittal]] is however the world's [[List of steel producers|largest steel producer]].

The [[British Geological Survey]] reports that in 2005, China was the top producer of steel with about one-third world share followed by Japan, Russia and the USA.

In 2008, steel will be [[Commodity market|traded as a commodity]] in the [[London Metal Exchange]].

==Recycling==
Steel is the most widely recycled material in the United States.<ref>{{Citation | title = 2005 Minerals Handbook | date = February 2007 | url = http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/recycle/recycmyb05.pdf | accessdate = 2008-06-15}}.</ref> The steel industry has been actively [[recycling]] for more than 150 years, in large part because it is economically advantageous to do so. It is cheaper to recycle steel than to mine [[iron ore]] and manipulate it through the production process to form 'new' steel. Steel does not lose any of its inherent physical properties during the recycling process, and has drastically reduced energy and material requirements compared with refinement from iron ore. The energy saved by recycling reduces the annual energy consumption of the industry by about 75%, which is enough to power eighteen million homes for one year.<ref name = "SRI"/> Recycling one ton of steel saves 1,100&nbsp;kilograms of [[iron ore]], 630&nbsp;kilograms of [[coal]], and 55&nbsp;kilograms of [[limestone]].<ref name="wastecap">{{cite web | title = Information on Recycling Steel Products | publisher = WasteCap of Massachusetts | url = http://wastecap.org/wastecap/commodities/steel/steel.htm#Benefitssteel | accessdate = 2007-02-28 }}</ref> 76 million tons of steel were recycled in 2005.<ref name = "SRI"/>
[[Image:steel scrap.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A pile of steel scrap in Brussels, waiting to be recycled.]]

In recent years, about three quarters of the steel produced annually has been recycled. However, the numbers are much higher for certain types of products. For example, in both 2004 and 2005, 97.5% of structural steel beams and plates were recycled.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.recycle-steel.org/PDFs/2005Graphs.pdf |title=Steel Recycling Rates at a Glance |year=2005 |publisher=recycle-steel.org |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-08-13}}</ref> Other steel construction elements such as reinforcement bars are recycled at a rate of about 65%. Indeed, structural steel typically contains around 95% recycled steel content, whereas lighter gauge, flat rolled steel contains about 30% reused material.

Because steel beams are manufactured to standardized dimensions, there is often very little waste produced during [[construction]], and any waste that is produced may be recycled. For a typical {{convert|2000|sqft|m2|-2|sing=on}} two-story house, a [[steel frame]] is equivalent to about six recycled cars, while a comparable wooden frame house may require as many as 40–50 [[tree]]s.<ref name="SRI">[http://recycle-steel.org Steel Recycling Institute<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

Global demand for steel continues to grow, and though there are large amounts of steel existing, much of it is actively in use. As such, recycled steel must be augmented by some first-use metal, derived from raw materials. Commonly recycled steel products include cans, [[automobile]]s, [[appliance]]s, and [[debris]] from demolished buildings. A typical appliance is about 65% steel by weight and [[automobile]]s are about 66% steel and iron.

While some recycling takes place through the integrated [[steel mills]] and the [[basic oxygen process]], most of the recycled steel is melted electrically, either using an [[electric arc furnace]] (for production of low-carbon steel) or an [[induction furnace]] (for production of some highly-alloyed ferrous products).

==Contemporary steel==
{{seealso|Steel grades}}

Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes.<ref name="materialsengineer"/> [[Carbon steel]], composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production.<ref name=EM2/> [[HSLA steel|High strength low alloy steel]] has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% [[manganese]], to provide additional strength for a modest price increase.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/Corus/16plus/steelch3pg1.html|title=High strength low alloy steels|publisher=Schoolscience.co.uk|accessdate=2007-08-14 }}</ref> [[Low alloy steel]] is alloyed with other elements, usually [[molybdenum]], manganese, [[chromium]], or [[nickel]], in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections.<ref name=EM2/> [[Stainless steel]]s and [[surgical stainless steel]]s contain a minimum of 10% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist [[corrosion]] ([[rust]]). Some stainless steels are [[magnetic]], while others are [[nonmagnetic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://steel.org |title=Steel Glossary |publisher= [[American Iron and Steel Institute]] (AISI)|accessdate=2006-07-30}}</ref>

Some more modern steels include [[tool steel]]s, which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and [[cobalt]] or other elements to maximize [[solution hardening]]. This also allows the use of [[precipitation hardening]] and improves the alloy's temperature resistance.<ref name=EM2/> Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include [[weathering steel]]s such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aisc.org/MSCTemplate.cfm?Section=Steel_Interchange2&Template=/CustomSource/Faq/SteelInterchange.cfm&FaqID=2311 |title=Steel Interchange | publisher= American Institute of Steel Construction Inc. (AISC)|accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref>

Many other high-strength alloys exist, such as [[dual-phase steel]], which is heat treated to contain both a ferrite and martensic microstructure for extra strength.<ref>{{cite web | title = Dual-phase steel | publisher = Intota Expert Knowledge Services | url = http://www.intota.com/multisearch.asp?strSearchType=all&strQuery=dual-phase+steel | accessdate = 2007-03-01 }}</ref> Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austentite at room temperature in normally austentite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain to the metal, the austentite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat.<ref>{{cite web | last = Werner | first = Prof. Dr. mont. Ewald | title = Transformation Induced Plasticity in low alloyed TRIP-steels and microstructure response to a complex stress history | url = http://www.wkm.mw.tum.de/Forschung/projekte_html/transtrip.html | accessdate = 2007-03-01}}</ref> [[Maraging steel]] is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains almost no carbon at all. This creates a very strong but still [[malleability|malleable]] metal.<ref>{{cite web | title = Properties of Maraging Steels | publisher = INI International | url = http://www.key-to-steel.com/Articles/Art103.htm | accessdate = 2007-03-01}}</ref> Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy.<ref>{{cite web | last = Mirko | first = Centi | coauthors = Saliceti Stefano | title = Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP), Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) and Dual-Phase (DP) Steels | publisher = Tampere University of Technology | url = http://www.dimet.unige.it/resta/studenti/2002/27839/26/TWIP,TRIPandDualphase%20mirko.doc | accessdate = 2007-03-01 }}</ref> [[Eglin Steel]] uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost metal for use in [[bunker buster]] weapons. Hadfield steel (after Sir [[Robert Hadfield]]) or [[manganese]] steel contains 12–14% manganese which when abraded forms an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing. Examples include [[Continuous track|tank tracks]], [[bulldozer#blade|bulldozer blade]] edges and cutting blades on the [[jaws of life]].<ref>[http://answers.com/topic/hadfield-manganese-steel Hadfield manganese steel.] Answers.com. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Retrieved on [[2007]]-[[02-28]].</ref> A special class of high-strength alloy, the [[superalloy]]s, retain their mechanical properties at extreme temperatures while minimizing [[creep (deformation)|creep]]. These are commonly used in applications such as [[jet engine]] blades where temperatures can reach levels at which most other alloys would become weak.<ref>{{cite web | last = Bhadeshia | first = H. K. D. H. | title = The Superalloys | publisher = University of Cambridge | url = http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2003/nickel.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28}}</ref>

Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the [[Society of Automotive Engineers]] has a series of [[SAE steel grades|grades]] defining many types of steel.<ref name=bringas>{{Citation | last = Bringas | first = John E. | title = Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards: Third Edition | publisher = ASTM International | page = 14 | year = 2004 | edition = 3rd. | url = http://www.astm.org/BOOKSTORE/PUBS/DS67B_SampleChapter.pdf | isbn = 0-8031-3362-6}}</ref> The [[ASTM International|American Society for Testing and Materials]] has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as [[A36 steel]], the most commonly used structural steel in the United States.<ref>Steel Construction Manual, 8th Edition, second revised edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1986, ch. 1 page 1-5</ref>

Though not an alloy, [[hot-dip galvanizing|galvanized]] steel is a commonly used variety of steel which has been hot-dipped or electroplated in [[zinc]] for protection against corrosion (rust).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Galvanic protection | encyclopedia = Britannica | publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica | date = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-02-28}}</ref>

==Modern production methods==
[[Image:Allegheny Ludlum steel furnace.jpg|thumb|right|280px|White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace.]]
[[Blast furnace]]s have been used for two millennia to produce [[pig iron]], a crucial step in the steel production process, from iron ore by combining fuel, charcoal, and air. Modern methods use [[coke (fuel)|coke]] instead of charcoal, which has proven to be a great deal more efficient and is credited with contributing to the British [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref name="Darby">
*A. Raistrick, ''A Dynasty of Ironfounders'' (1953; York 1989)
*C. K. Hyde, ''Technological Change and the British iron industry'' (Princeton 1977)
*B. Trinder, ''The Industrial Revolution in Shropshire'' (Chichester 2000)
</ref> Once the iron is refined, converters are used to create steel from the iron. During the late 19th and early 20th century there were many widely used methods such as the Bessemer process and the Siemens-Martin process. However, [[basic oxygen steelmaking]], in which pure oxygen is fed to the furnace to limit impurities, has generally replaced these older systems. [[Electric arc furnace]]s are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a great deal of electricity (about 440&nbsp;kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity.<ref>J.A.T. Jones, B. Bowman, P.A. Lefrank, ''Electric Furnace Steelmaking'', in ''The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel'', R.J. Fruehan, Editor. 1998, The AISE Steel Foundation: Pittsburgh. p.525-660.</ref>

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==Uses of steel==
[[Image:Steel-wool.jpg|thumb|right|A piece of [[steel wool]]]]
Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, infrastructure and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as [[Stadium#The modern stadium|stadiums]] and [[skyscraper]]s, [[bridges]] and [[airports]], are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure will employ steel for reinforcing. In addition to widespread use in [[major appliances]] and [[cars]] (despite growth in usage of [[aluminium]], it is still the main material for car bodies), steel is used in a variety of other [[construction]]-related applications, such as bolts, [[nail (engineering)|nails]], and [[screw]]s.<ref>{{cite web | last = Ochshorn | first = Jonathan | title = Steel in 20th Century Architecture | publisher = Encyclopedia of Twentieth Century Architecture | date = 2002-06-11 | url = http://people.cornell.edu/pages/jo24/comments/steel.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 }}</ref> Other common applications include [[shipbuilding]], [[pipeline transport]], [[mining]], [[aerospace]], [[white goods]] (e.g. washing machines), [[heavy equipment]] (e.g. bulldozers), office furniture, [[steel wool]], [[tool]]s, and [[armour]] in the form of personal vests or [[vehicle armour]] (better known as [[rolled homogeneous armour]] in this role).

===Historically===
[[Image:Carbon steel knife.jpg|thumb|right|A carbon steel [[knife]]]]
Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of knives, razors, swords, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for [[spring (device)|springs]], including those used in clocks and watches.<ref name="britannicaironandsteel"/>

===Since 1850===
With the advent of faster and more efficient steel production methods, steel has been easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of [[plastic]]s during the later 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in many products due to their lower cost and weight.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Materials science | encyclopedia = Britannica | publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica | date = 2007 | accessdate = 2007-03-01}}</ref>

====Long steel====
[[Image:Steel tower.jpg|thumb|right|A steel pylon suspending [[overhead powerline]]s.]]
*As supports in [[reinforced concrete]]
*[[Rail tracks|Railroad tracks]]
*[[Structural steel]] in modern [[building]]s and [[bridge]]s
*[[Wire]]s

====Flat carbon steel====
*[[Major appliance]]s
*[[Magnetic core]]s
*The inside and outside body of [[automobile]]s, [[train]]s, and [[ship]]s.

==== Stainless steel ====
[[Image:Sauce boat.jpg|thumb|right|A stainless steel [[sauce boat]].]]
{{main|Stainless steel}}
*[[Cutlery]]
*[[Rulers]]
*[[Surgery|Surgical]] equipment
*[[Wrist watch]]es
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==See also==
<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
*[[Calphad]]
*[[Cold rolling]]
*[[Foundry]]
*[[Hot rolling]]
*[[Iron in mythology]]
*[[Machinability]]
*[[Maraging steel]]
*[[Global steel industry trends]]
*[[Pelletizing]]
*[[Rolling (metalworking)|Rolling]]
*[[Rolling mill]]
*[[Rust Belt]]
*[[Silicon steel]]
*[[Stainless steel]]
*[[Steel mill]]
*[[Steel producers]]
*[[Steel production by country]]
*[[Tinplate]]
</div>

==References==
{{clear}}
{{reflist|colwidth=35em}}

==Further reading==
*Duncan Burn; ''The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867-1939: A Study in Competition.'' Cambridge University Press, 1961 [http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3914930 online version].
*Gernet, Jacques (1982). ''A History of Chinese Civilization''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Harukiyu Hasegawa; ''The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain'' 1996 [http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108742046 online version].
*J. C. Carr and W. Taplin; ''History of the British Steel Industry'' Harvard University Press, 1962 [http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=808791 online version]
*H. Lee Scamehorn; ''Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century'' University of Nebraska Press, 1992 [http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94821694 online version].
*Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 1 & Part 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
*Warren, Kenneth, ''Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901-2001.'' (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001) [http://eh.net/bookreviews/library/0558.shtml online review].

==External links==
{{commons|Steel}}
*[http://www.stahlseite.de Extensive picture gallery of iron and steel production methods in North America and Europe. In German and English.]
*[http://worldsteel.org International Iron & Steel Institute (IISI)]
*[http://steeluniversity.org/ steeluniversity.org: Online steel education resources from IISI and the University of Liverpool]
{{wiktionarypar|steel}}

[[Category:Construction]]
[[Category:Recyclable materials]]
[[Category:Steel| ]]
[[Category:Steelmaking]]

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Revision as of 00:46, 13 October 2008

Ueda Station (植田駅, Ueda-eki) is a train station in Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan

Lines

Layout

Adjacent stations

« Service »
Nagoya Municipal Subway
Tsurumai Line
Shiogama-guchi - Aichi


Template:Aichi-rail-station-stub

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