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The '''Ato Boldon Stadium''', located in [[Couva]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], is named for eight-time Olympic and World Championship medal winner and 1997 200m World Champion, [[Ato Boldon]]. The stadium was constructed for the 2001 [[Football U-17 World Championship|U-17 World Cup]] which was hosted by Trinidad and Tobago.
{{Otheruses}}
<!--SPELLING OF ALUMINIUM - Please see the talk page, this article is written using the British English spelling of "aluminium" and so 'ium' should be used.
However it also follows [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions (chemistry)#Element names]] for conventions on chemical names, so "sulfur", etc. should be maintained.-->{{Infobox aluminium}}
'''Aluminium''' ({{Audio-IPA|En-uk-aluminium1.ogg|ˌæljʊˈmɪniəm}}, {{IPA|/ˌæljəˈmɪniəm/}}) or '''aluminum''' ({{Audio-IPA|En-uk-aluminum.ogg|/əˈluːmɪnəm/}}, see ''[[#Present-day spelling|spelling]]'' below) is a silvery white and [[ductile]] member of the [[boron group]] of [[chemical element]]s. It has the symbol '''Al'''; its [[atomic number]] is 13. It is not soluble in water under normal circumstances.
Aluminium is the [[element abundance|most abundant metal]] in the [[Earth]]'s [[Crust (geology)|crust]], and the third most abundant element therein, after [[oxygen]] and [[silicon]]. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth’s solid surface. Aluminium is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as the free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different [[mineral]]s.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Science is Fun | author = Bassam Z. Shakhashiri | url = http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/Aluminum/ALUMINUM.html | title = Chemical of the Week: Aluminum | accessdate = 2007-08-28}}</ref> The chief source of aluminium is [[bauxite]] [[ore]].


{{coord missing|Trinidad and Tobago}}
Aluminium is remarkable for its ability to resist [[corrosion]] (due to the phenomenon of [[passivation]]) and its low density. Structural components made from aluminium and its [[aluminium alloy|alloys]] are vital to the [[aerospace]] industry and very important in other areas of [[transport]]ation and building. Its reactive nature makes it useful as a catalyst or additive in chemical mixtures, including being used in [[ammonium nitrate]] [[explosives]] to enhance blast power.


[[Category:Buildings and structures in Trinidad and Tobago]]
==Characteristics==
[[Category:Football venues in Trinidad and Tobago]]
Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, [[malleable]] [[metal]] with appearance ranging from silvery to dull grey, depending on the surface roughness. Aluminium is nonmagnetic and nonsparking. It is also insoluble in alcohol, though it can be soluble in water in certain forms. The [[Yield (engineering)|yield strength]] of pure aluminium is 7–11 [[Pascal (unit)|MPa]], while [[aluminium alloy]]s have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.<ref name=polmear>I. J. Polmear, ''Light Alloys'', Arnold, 1995 </ref> Aluminium has about one-third the [[density]] and [[Elastic modulus|stiffness]] of [[steel]]. It is [[Ductility|ductile]], and easily [[machining|machined]], [[casting|cast]], and [[extrusion|extruded]].


{{Trinidad-stub}}
[[Corrosion]] resistance can be excellent due to a thin surface layer of [[aluminium oxide]] that forms when the metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further [[oxidation]]. The strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to [[galvanic cell|galvanic]] reactions with alloyed [[copper]].<ref name=polmear/> This corrosion resistance is also often greatly reduced when many aqueous salts are present however, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.
{{Caribbean-sports-venue-stub}}

Aluminium atoms are arranged in a [[face-centered cubic]] (FCC) structure. Aluminium has a high [[stacking-fault energy]] of approximately 200 mJ/m².<ref>G. E. Dieter, ''Mechanical Metallurgy'', McGraw-Hill, 1988</ref>

Aluminium is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver paints. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200–400 nm ([[ultraviolet|UV]]) and the 3000–10000 nm (far [[infrared|IR]]) regions, while in the 400–700 nm visible range it is slightly outdone by [[tin]] and [[silver]] and in the 700–3000 (near IR) by silver, [[gold]], and copper.{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

Aluminium is a good [[Heat conduction|thermal]] and [[electrical conductor]], by weight better than copper. Aluminium is capable of being a [[superconductor]], with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 [[kelvin]] and a critical magnetic field of about 100 [[Gauss (unit)|gauss]].<ref>{{cite journal|author= John F. Cochran and D. E. Mapother|title=Superconducting Transition in Aluminum |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.111.132| journal=Physical Review |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=132–142| month=July| year=1958}}</ref>

== Isotopes ==
{{main|isotopes of aluminium}}
Aluminium has nine [[isotope]]s, whose mass numbers range from 23 to 30. Only <sup>27</sup>Al ([[stable isotope]]) and <sup>26</sup>Al ([[radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotope, [[half-life|''t''<sub>1/2</sub>]] = 7.2 × 10<sup>5</sup> [[year|y]]) occur naturally; however, <sup>27</sup>Al has a natural abundance of 99.9+ %. <sup>26</sup>Al is produced from [[argon]] in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] by [[spallation]] caused by [[cosmic-ray]] [[proton]]s. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating [[ocean|marine]] sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, [[quartz]] in [[Rock (geology)|rock]] exposures, and [[meteorite]]s. The ratio of <sup>26</sup>Al to <sup>10</sup>[[beryllium|Be]] has been used to study the role of transport, deposition, [[sediment]] storage, burial times, and erosion on 10<sup>5</sup> to 10<sup>6</sup> year time scales.<ref>[http://www.onafarawayday.com/Radiogenic/Ch14/Ch14-6.htm Cosmogenic Isotopes and Aluminum]</ref> [[Cosmogenic]] <sup>26</sup>Al was first applied in studies of the [[Moon]] and meteorites. Meteoroid fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial <sup>26</sup>Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further <sup>26</sup>Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that <sup>26</sup>Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Most meteoriticists believe that the energy released by the decay of <sup>26</sup>Al was responsible for the melting and [[planetary differentiation|differentiation]] of some [[asteroids]] after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.<ref>Robert T. Dodd, ''Thunderstones and Shooting Stars'', pp. 89-90. ISBN 0-674-89137-6.</ref>

== Natural occurrence ==
{{Expand|date=January 2008}}
In the [[Earth's crust]], aluminium is the most abundant (8.13%) metallic element, and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon). However, because of its strong affinity to oxygen, it is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. [[Feldspar]]s, the most common group of minerals in the earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Native aluminium metal can be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.<ref>{{Citation | title = Aluminum Mineral Data | url = http://webmineral.com/data/Aluminum.shtml | accessdate = 2008-07-09}}</ref>

Although aluminium is an extremely common and widespread element, the common aluminium minerals are not economic sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the [[ore]] [[bauxite]]. Bauxite occurs as a [[weathering]] product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.<ref>Guilbert, John M. and Carles F. Park, ''The Geology of Ore Deposits,'' Freeman, 1986, pp. 774-795 ISBN 0-7167-1456-6 </ref>

== Production and refinement ==
Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust (believed to be 7.5 to 8.1 percent), it is rare in its free form, occurring in oxygen-deficient environments such as [[volcanic]] mud, and it was once considered a [[precious metal]] more valuable than gold. [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]], emperor of France, is reputed to have given a banquet where the most honoured guests were given aluminium utensils, while the other guests had to make do with gold.<ref>{{cite journal | title = "Silver" from clay | author = S Venetski | journal = [[Metallurgist]] | volume = 13 | issue = 7 | pages = 451–453 |month=July | year=1969 | doi = 10.1007/BF00741130}}</ref><ref>ChemMatters October 1990 Page 14</ref> The [[Washington Monument]] was completed, with the 100 ounce (2.8 kg) aluminium capstone being put in place on December 6, 1884, in an elaborate dedication ceremony. It was the largest single piece of aluminium cast at the time. At that time, aluminium was more expensive than silver, gold, or platinum. Aluminium has been produced in commercial quantities for just over 100 years.

Aluminium is a strongly reactive metal that forms a high-energy chemical bond with oxygen. Compared to most other metals, it is difficult to extract from ore, such as [[bauxite]], due to the energy required to reduce aluminium oxide (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>). For example, direct reduction with [[carbon]], as is used to produce [[iron]], is not chemically possible, since aluminium is a stronger reducing agent than carbon. Aluminium oxide has a melting point of about 2,000 °C. Therefore, it must be extracted by [[electrolysis]]. In this process, the aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten [[cryolite]] and then reduced to the pure metal. The operational temperature of the reduction cells is around 950 to 980 °C. Cryolite is found as a mineral in [[Greenland]], but in industrial use it has been replaced by a synthetic substance. Cryolite is a chemical compound of aluminium, [[sodium]], and [[calcium]] [[fluoride]]s: (Na<sub>3</sub>AlF<sub>6</sub>). The aluminium oxide (a white powder) is obtained by refining bauxite in the [[Bayer process]] of [[Karl Bayer]]. (Previously, the [[Deville process]] was the predominant refining technology.)

The electrolytic process replaced the [[Wöhler process]], which involved the reduction of anhydrous aluminium chloride with [[potassium]]. Both of the [[electrode]]s used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are carbon. Once the refined alumina is dissolved in the electrolyte, its ions are free to move around. The reaction at the [[cathode]] (negative electrode) is
:Al<sup>3+</sup> + 3 e<sup>−</sup> → Al

Here the aluminium ion is being [[redox|reduced]] (electrons are added). The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off.

At the [[anode]] (positive electrode), oxygen is formed:
:2 O<sup>2−</sup> → O<sub>2</sub> + 4 e<sup>−</sup>

This carbon anode is then oxidized by the oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide.
:O<sub>2</sub> + C → CO<sub>2</sub>
The anodes in a reduction cell must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process.

Unlike the anodes, the cathodes are not oxidized because there is no oxygen present, as the carbon cathodes are protected by the liquid aluminium inside the cells. Nevertheless, cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes and metal movement. After five to ten years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be rebuilt because of cathode wear.

[[Image:Aluminium - world production trend.svg|thumb|World production trend of aluminium]]
Aluminium electrolysis with the [[Hall-Héroult]] process consumes a lot of energy, but alternative processes were always found to be less viable economically and/or ecologically. The worldwide average specific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 [[kilowatt-hour]]s per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 [[megajoule|MJ]]/kg). The most modern smelters achieve approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). (Compare this to the [[heat of reaction]], 31 MJ/kg, and the [[Gibbs free energy]] of reaction, 29 MJ/kg.) Reduction line currents for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kA; state-of-the-art smelters<ref>{{cite web | publisher = AME Mineral Economics| author = | url = http://www.ame.com.au/smelters/al/smelters.htm| title = Aluminium Smelters| accessdate = 2008-04-17}}</ref> operate at about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.

Recovery of the metal via [[recycling]] has become an important facet of the aluminium industry. Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only five percent of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore. However, a significant part (up to 15% of input material) is lost as [[dross]] (ash-like oxide).<ref>{{cite web | title = Benefits of Recycling | publisher = Ohio Department of Natural Resources | url = http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/recycling/awareness/facts/benefits.htm}}</ref> Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium [[beverage can]]s brought it to the public consciousness.

Electric power represents about 20% to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Smelters tend to be situated where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive, such as [[South Africa]], the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Middle East]], [[Russia]], [[Quebec]] and [[British Columbia]] in [[Canada]], and [[Iceland]].
[[Image:Aluminium output2.PNG|thumb|right|Aluminium output in 2005]]
In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer of aluminium with almost one-fifth world share, followed by Russia, Canada, and USA, reports the [[British Geological Survey]].

Over the last 50 years, Australia has become a major producer of bauxite ore and a major producer and exporter of alumina.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Australian Aluminium Council | url = http://www.aluminium.org.au/Page.php?s=1005 | title = The Australian Industry | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref> Australia produced 62 million tonnes of bauxite in 2005. The Australian deposits have some refining problems, some being high in silica but have the advantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Australian Aluminium Council | url = http://www.aluminium.org.au/Page.php?s=1007 | title = Australian Bauxite | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref>

{{seealso|Category:Aluminium minerals}}

== Chemistry ==
{{cleanup-list}}
=== Oxidation state one ===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}

* AlH is produced when aluminium is heated in an atmosphere of [[hydrogen]].
* Al<sub>2</sub>O is made by heating the normal oxide, Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, with silicon at 1800 °C in a [[vacuum]].
* Al<sub>2</sub>S can be made by heating Al<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub> with aluminium shavings at 1300 °C in a vacuum. It quickly [[Disproportionation|disproportionates]] to the starting materials. The selenide is made in a parallel manner.
*AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium.
Aluminium halides usually exist in the form AlX<sub>3</sub>.
e.g. AlF<sub>3</sub>, AlCl<sub>3</sub>, AlBr<sub>3</sub>, AlI<sub>3</sub> etc.

=== Oxidation state two ===
* [[Aluminium monoxide]], AlO, is present when aluminium powder burns in oxygen.

=== Oxidation state three ===
* [[Fajans' rules]] show that the simple trivalent cation Al<sup>3+</sup> is not expected to be found in anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. The hydroxide is a weak base and aluminium salts of weak acids, such as carbonate, can't be prepared. The salts of strong acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with at least six molecules of [[water of crystallization]].
* [[Aluminium hydride]], (AlH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>n</sub>, can be produced from [[trimethylaluminium]] and an excess of hydrogen. It burns explosively in air. It can also be prepared by the action of aluminium chloride on [[lithium hydride]] in [[ether]] solution, but cannot be isolated free from the solvent.
* [[Aluminium carbide]], Al<sub>4</sub>C<sub>3</sub> is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1000 °C. The pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure, and react with water or dilute acids to give [[methane]]. The [[metal acetylide|acetylide]], Al<sub>2</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, is made by passing [[acetylene]] over heated aluminium.
* [[Aluminium nitride]], AlN, can be made from the elements at 800 °C. It is hydrolysed by water to form [[ammonia]] and [[aluminium hydroxide]].
* [[Aluminium phosphide]], AlP, is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give [[phosphine]].
* [[Aluminium oxide]], Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, occurs naturally as corundum, and can be made by burning aluminium in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate. As a gemstone, its hardness is only exceeded by [[diamond]], [[boron nitride]], and [[carborundum]]. It is almost insoluble in water.
* [[Aluminium hydroxide]] may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an aqueous solution of an aluminium salt. It is [[amphoteric]], being both a very weak acid, and forming aluminates with [[alkali]]s. It exists in various crystalline forms.
* [[Aluminium sulfide]], Al<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>, may be prepared by passing [[hydrogen sulfide]] over aluminium powder. It is [[Polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphic]].
* [[Aluminium iodide]], AlI<sub>3</sub>, is a [[dimer]] with applications in [[organic synthesis]].
* [[Aluminium fluoride]], AlF<sub>3</sub>, is made by treating the hydroxide with HF, or can be made from the elements. It consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at 1291 °C. It is very inert. The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure.
* Aluminium fluoride/water complexes: When aluminium and fluoride are together in aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions such as AlF(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>5</sub><sup>+2</sup>, AlF<sub>3</sub>(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>3</sub><sup>0</sup>, AlF<sub>6</sub><sup>-3</sup>. Of these, AlF<sub>6</sub><sup>-3</sup> is the most stable. This is explained by the fact that aluminium and fluoride, which are both very compact ions, fit together just right to form the octahedral aluminium hexafluoride complex. When aluminium and fluoride are together in water in a 1:6 molar ratio, AlF<sub>6</sub><sup>-3</sup> is the most common form, even in rather low concentrations.
* Organo-metallic compounds of empirical formula AlR<sub>3</sub> exist and, if not also giant molecules, are at least dimers or trimers. They have some uses in organic synthesis, for instance trimethylaluminium.
* Alumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the most useful being [[lithium aluminium hydride]], Li[AlH<sub>4</sub>]. It decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminium and hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. It has many uses in organic chemistry, particularly as a reducing agent. The aluminohalides have a similar structure.

== Applications ==
=== General use ===
[[Image:Aluminum Metal coinless.jpg|thumb|left|A piece of aluminium metal.]]
Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year= |title = aluminum | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher= |location= |url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-64454}}</ref> Global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except [[iron]] (837.5 million tonnes).<ref>{{cite book | title = World Mineral Production: 2001 - 2005 | author = L E Hetherington, T J Brown, A J Benham, P A J Lusty, N E Idoine | year = 2007 | publisher = British Geological Survey | isbn = 978-0-85272-592-4 | format = available online | url = http://www.mineralsuk.com/britmin/wmp_2001_2005.pdf}}</ref>
Relatively pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance and/or workability is more important than strength or hardness. A thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a flat surface by [[physical vapor deposition]] or (very infrequently) [[chemical vapor deposition]] or other chemical means to form [[optical coating]]s and [[mirror]]s. When so deposited, a fresh, pure aluminium film serves as a good reflector (approximately 92%) of [[visible light]] and an excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared.

Pure aluminium has a low [[tensile strength]], but when combined with thermo-mechanical processing, aluminium alloys display a marked improvement in mechanical properties, especially when [[tempering|tempered]]. Aluminium alloys form vital components of [[aircraft]] and [[rocket]]s as a result of their high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminium readily forms alloys with many elements such as copper, [[zinc]], [[magnesium]], [[manganese]] and [[silicon]] (e.g., [[duralumin]]). Today, almost all bulk metal materials that are referred to loosely as "aluminium," are actually alloys. For example, the common [[aluminium foil]]s are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = How Products are Made | author = L. S. Millberg | url = http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Aluminum-Foil.html | title = Aluminum Foil | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref>

Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:[[Image:aluminumfoil.jpg|thumb|household aluminium foil]]
* Transportation ([[automobile]]s, aircraft, [[truck]]s, [[railway car]]s, marine vessels, [[bicycle]]s etc.)
* Packaging ([[aluminium can|cans]], foil, etc.)
* [[Water purification|Water treatment]]
* Treatment against fish parasites such as ''[[Gyrodactylus salaris]]''.
* Construction ([[window]]s, [[door]]s, [[siding]], building wire, etc.)
* [[Cooking utensil]]s
* [[Electrical transmission line]]s for power distribution
* [[MKM steel]] and [[Alnico]] magnets
* Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and [[compact disc|CDs]].
* [[Heat sink]]s for electronic appliances such as [[transistor]]s and [[Central processing unit|CPUs]].
* Substrate material of [[metal-core copper clad laminates]] used in high brightness [[LED lighting]].
* Powdered aluminium is used in [[paint]], and in [[pyrotechnics]] such as [[solid rocket]] fuels and [[thermite]].
* In the blades of [[theatrical property|prop]] [[sword]]s and [[knives]] used in [[stage combat]].
* Aluminium is widely used in watch production as it provides durability and resists tarnishing and corrosion.<ref>[http://watches.infoniac.com/index.php?page=post&id=62 Aluminum in Watchmaking]</ref>

=== Aluminium compounds ===
* Aluminium ammonium sulfate ([Al(NH<sub>4</sub>)](SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>), [[ammonium alum]] is used as a [[mordant]], in water purification and sewage treatment, in [[paper]] production, as a [[food additive]], and in [[leather]] tanning.

* [[Aluminium acetate]] is a [[salt]] used in solution as an [[astringent]].

* [[Aluminium borate]] (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> B<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) is used in the production of [[glass]] and [[ceramic]].

* [[Aluminium borohydride]] (Al(BH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>) is used as an additive to [[jet fuel]].
* [[Aluminium bronze]] (CuAl<sub>5</sub>)
* [[Aluminium chloride]] (AlCl<sub>3</sub>) is used: in paint manufacturing, in [[antiperspirant]]s, in [[petroleum]] [[refining]] and in the production of synthetic [[rubber]].

* [[Aluminium chlorohydride]] is used as an antiperspirant and in the treatment of [[hyperhidrosis]].

* [[Aluminium fluorosilicate]] (Al<sub>2</sub>(SiF<sub>6</sub>)<sub>3</sub>) is used in the production of synthetic [[gemstone]]s, glass and ceramic.

* [[Aluminium hydroxide]] (Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>) is used: as an [[antacid]], as a mordant, in [[water]] purification, in the manufacture of glass and ceramic and in the waterproofing of fabrics.

* [[Aluminium oxide]] (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), alumina, is found naturally as [[corundum]] ([[ruby|rubies]] and [[sapphire]]s), [[emery (mineral)|emery]], and is used in glass making. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in [[laser]]s for the production of [[coherent light]].

* [[Aluminium phosphate]] (AlPO<sub>4</sub>) is used in the manufacture: of glass and ceramic, [[Wood pulp|pulp]] and paper products, [[cosmetics]], paints and [[varnish]]es and in making dental [[cement]].

* [[Aluminium sulfate]] (Al<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>) is used: in the manufacture of paper, as a mordant, in a [[fire extinguisher]], in water purification and sewage treatment, as a food additive, in fireproofing, and in leather tanning.

* In many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune [[Immunologic adjuvant|adjuvant]] (immune response booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant.

=== Aluminium alloys in structural applications ===
[[Image:Aluminium foam.jpg|thumb|Aluminium foam]]
{{main|Aluminium alloy}}
Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system ([[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]]) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents ([[DIN]] and [[International Organization of Standardization|ISO]]).

The strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary widely, not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and manufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly designed structures and gained aluminium a bad reputation. (See main article)

One important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their [[Fatigue (material)|fatigue]] strength. Unlike steels, aluminium alloys have no well-defined [[fatigue limit]], meaning that fatigue failure will eventually occur under even very small cyclic loadings. This implies that engineers must assess these loads and design for a [[Fatigue (material)#Design against fatigue|fixed life]] rather than an infinite life.

Another important property of aluminium alloys is their sensitivity to heat.
Workshop procedures involving heating are complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, will melt without first glowing red. Forming operations where a [[blow torch]] is used therefore requires some expertise, since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminium alloys, like all structural alloys, also are subject to internal stresses following heating operations such as welding and casting. The problem with aluminium alloys in this regard is their low [[melting point]], which make them more susceptible to distortions from thermally induced stress relief. Controlled stress relief can be done during manufacturing by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual cooling -- in effect [[annealing (metallurgy)|annealing]] the stresses.

The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precluded their use in rocketry; even for use in constructing combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500&nbsp;K. The [[RM-81 Agena|Agena]] upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooled aluminium design for some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region.

=== Household wiring ===
{{seealso|Aluminium wire}}

Compared to copper, aluminium has about 65% of the [[electrical conductivity]] by volume, although 200% by weight. Traditionally copper is used as household wiring material. In the 1960s aluminium was considerably cheaper than copper, and so was introduced for household electrical wiring in the United States, even though many fixtures had not been designed to accept aluminium wire. However, in some cases the greater [[coefficient of thermal expansion]] of aluminium causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal [[screw]] connection, eventually loosening the connection. Also, pure aluminium has a tendency to ''[[Creep (deformation)|creep]]'' under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature rises), again loosening the connection. Finally, [[Galvanic corrosion]] from the dissimilar metals increased the electrical resistance of the connection.

All of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn resulted in fires. Builders then became wary of using the wire, and many jurisdictions outlawed its use in very small sizes in new construction. Eventually, newer fixtures were introduced with connections designed to avoid loosening and overheating. At first they were marked "Al/Cu", but they now bear a "CO/ALR" coding. In older assemblies, workers forestall the heating problem using a properly-done [[crimp (metalworking)|crimp]] of the aluminium wire to a short "[[pigtail]]" of copper wire. Today, new alloys, designs, and methods are used for aluminium wiring in combination with aluminium terminations.

== History ==
[[Image:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg|thumb|right|The statue of the [[Anteros]] as the Angel of Christian Charity (commonly mistaken for ''Eros'') in [[Piccadilly Circus]] London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues to be cast in aluminium.]]

Ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents for dressing wounds; [[alum]] is still used as a [[styptic]]. In 1761 [[Guyton de Morveau]] suggested calling the base alum ''alumine.'' In 1808, [[Humphry Davy]] identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he at first termed ''alumium'' and later ''aluminum'' (see [[#Etymology|Etymology]] section, below).

[[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]] is generally credited with isolating aluminium ([[Latin]] ''alumen'', alum) in 1827 by mixing [[anhydrous]] [[aluminium chloride]] with [[potassium]]. As the metal had first been produced two years earlier (in an impure form) by [[Denmark|Danish]] physicist and chemist [[Hans Christian Ørsted]], Ørsted can also be listed as its discoverer.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = ChemicalElements.com | title = Periodic Table: Aluminum | url = http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/al.html | author = Yinon Bentor | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref> Further, [[Pierre Berthier]] discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Today in Science History | title = Pierre Berthier | url = http://www.todayinsci.com/7/7_03.htm#Berthier | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref> Frenchman [[Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville]] improved Wöhler's method in 1846, and described his improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more expensive potassium.

(Note: The title of Deville's book is "De l'aluminium, ses propriétés, sa fabrication" (Paris, 1859). Deville likely also conceived the idea of the [[electrolysis]] of aluminium oxide dissolved in cryolite; however, Charles Martin Hall and Paul Héroult might have developed the more practical process after Deville.)

Before the [[Hall-Héroult process]] was developed, aluminium was exceedingly difficult to extract from its various [[ore]]s. This made pure aluminium more valuable than gold. Bars of aluminium were exhibited alongside the [[France|French]] [[crown jewels]] at the [[Exposition Universelle (1855)|Exposition Universelle of 1855]], and [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] was said to have reserved a set of aluminium dinner plates for his most honoured guests.

Aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the [[Washington Monument]] in 1884, a time when one [[ounce]] (30 grams) cost the daily wage of a common worker on the project;<ref>{{cite journal | author = George J. Binczewski | title = The Point of a Monument: A History of the Aluminum Cap of the Washington Monument | journal = JOM | volume = 47 | issue = 11 | pages = 20–25 | year = 1995 | url = http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9511/Binczewski-9511.html}}</ref> aluminium was about the same value as silver.

The [[Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company|Cowles companies]] supplied aluminium alloy in quantity in the [[United States]] and [[England]] using [[smelting|smelters]] like the furnace of [[Carl Wilhelm Siemens]] by 1886.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Cowles' Aluminium Alloys|pages=13|month=January | year=1886|journal=The Manufacturer and Builder|location=New York|volume=18|issue=1|publisher=Western and Company, via Cornell University Library|url=http://moa.cit.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&coll=moa&view=50&root=%2Fmoa%2Fmanu%2Fmanu0018%2F&tif=00019.TIF|accessdate=2007-10-27}} and {{cite book|author=McMillan, Walter George|title=A Treatise on Electro-Metallurgy|publisher=Charles Griffin and Company, J.B. Lippincott Company, via Google Books scan of New York Public Library copy|location=London, Philadelphia|year=1891|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DDAKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA302|pages=302-305|accessdate=2007-10-26}} and {{cite book|author=Sackett, William Edgar, John James Scannell and Mary Eleanor Watson|title=New Jersey's First Citizens|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cNgDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA103|publisher=J.J. Scannell via Google Books scan of New York Public Library copy|location=New Jersey|date=1917/1918|pages=103-105|accessdate=2007-10-25}}</ref> [[Charles Martin Hall]] of [[Ohio]] in the U.S. and [[Paul Héroult]] of [[France]] independently developed the [[Hall-Heroult process|Hall-Héroult electrolytic process]] that made extracting aluminium from minerals cheaper and is now the principal method used worldwide. The Hall-Heroult process cannot produce Super Purity Aluminium directly. Hall's process,<ref name="Hall-patent">{{US patent reference|number = 400664|y = 1889 | m=04|d=02|inventor=[[Charles Martin Hall]]|title=Process of Reducing Aluminium from its Fluoride Salts by Electrolysis}}</ref> in 1888 with the financial backing of [[Alfred E. Hunt]], started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company today known as [[Alcoa]]. Héroult's process was in production by 1889 in [[Switzerland]] at Aluminium Industrie, now [[Alcan]], and at [[British Aluminium]], now [[Luxfer Group]] and Alcoa, by 1896 in [[Scotland]].<ref name=Wallace>{{cite book|author=Donald Holmes Wallace|title=Market Control in the Aluminum Industry|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E-acdJWbo90C&pg=PA6|year=1977|origyear=1937|pages=6|isbn=0-4050-9786-7|publisher=Harvard University Press via Ayer Publishing via Google Books limited view|accessdate=2007-10-27}}</ref>

By 1895 the metal was being used as a building material as far away as [[Sydney]], [[Australia]] in the dome of the Chief Secretary's Building.

Many navies use an aluminium [[superstructure]] for their vessels, however, the 1975 fire aboard [[USS Belknap]] that gutted her aluminium superstructure, as well as observation of battle damage to British ships during the [[Falklands War]], led to many navies switching to all steel superstructures. The [[Arleigh Burke class]] was the first such U.S. ship, being constructed entirely of steel.

In April 2008 the price of aluminium was around $1.35/[[Pound (mass)|lb]].<ref>[http://www.infomine.com/commodities/aluminum.asp Aluminum prices]</ref>

== Etymology ==
=== Nomenclature history ===
The earliest citation given in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] for any word used as a name for this element is ''alumium'', which British chemist and inventor [[Humphry Davy]] employed in 1808 for the metal he was trying to isolate electrolytically from the mineral ''[[alumina]]''. The citation is from his journal ''Philosophical Transactions'': "Had I been so fortunate as..to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium, alumium, zirconium, and glucium."<ref>"alumium", ''Oxford English Dictionary''. Ed. J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, second edition Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. OED Online Oxford University Press. Accessed 29 October 2006. Citation is listed as "1808 SIR H. DAVY in Phil. Trans. XCVIII. 353". The ellipsis in the quotation is as it appears in the ''OED'' citation. </ref>

By 1812, Davy had settled on ''aluminum''. He wrote in the journal ''Chemical Philosophy'': "As yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a perfectly free state."<ref>"aluminum", ''ibid''. Citation is listed as "1812 SIR H. DAVY ''Chem. Philos.'' I. 355"</ref> But the same year, an anonymous contributor to the ''[[Quarterly Review]],'' a British political-literary journal, objected to ''aluminum'' and proposed the name ''aluminium'', "for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound."<ref>"aluminium", ''ibid''. Citation is listed as "1812 ''Q. Rev.'' VIII. 72"</ref>

The ''-ium'' suffix had the advantage of conforming to the precedent set in other newly discovered elements of the time: potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and [[strontium]] (all of which Davy had isolated himself). Nevertheless, ''-um'' spellings for elements were not unknown at the time, as for example [[platinum]], known to Europeans since the sixteenth century, [[molybdenum]], discovered in 1778, and [[tantalum]], discovered in 1802.

Americans adopted ''-ium'' to fit the standard form of the periodic table of elements, for most of the nineteenth century, with ''aluminium'' appearing in [[Noah Webster|Webster's]] Dictionary of 1828. In 1892, however, Charles Martin Hall used the ''-um'' spelling in an advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the ''-ium'' spelling in all the patents<ref name="Hall-patent"/> he filed between 1886 and 1903.<ref>{{cite web | author = Peter Meiers | publisher = The History of Fluorine, Fluoride and Fluoridation | title = Manufacture of Aluminum | url =http://www.fluoride-history.de/p-aluminum.htm}}</ref> It has consequently been suggested that the spelling reflects an easier to pronounce word with one fewer syllable, or that the spelling on the flier was a mistake. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling ''aluminum'' became the standard in North America; the ''Webster Unabridged Dictionary'' of 1913, though, continued to use the ''-ium'' version.

In 1926, the [[American Chemical Society]] officially decided to use ''aluminum'' in its publications; American dictionaries typically label the spelling ''aluminium'' as a British variant.

=== Present-day spelling ===
In the UK and other countries using [[American and British English spelling differences|British spelling]], only ''aluminium'' is used. In the United States, the spelling ''aluminium'' is largely unknown, and the spelling ''aluminum'' predominates.<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw}}</ref><ref>John Bremner, ''Words on Words: A Dictionary for Writers and Others Who Care about Words'', page 22–23. ISBN 0-231-04493-3</ref> The [[Canadian Oxford Dictionary]] prefers ''aluminum'', whereas the Australian [[Macquarie Dictionary]] prefers ''aluminium''. The spelling in virtually all other languages is analogous to the ''-ium'' ending.

The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) adopted ''aluminium'' as the standard international name for the element in 1990, but three years later recognized ''aluminum'' as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includes both, but places ''aluminium'' first.<ref>[http://www.iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/index.html IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements]</ref> IUPAC officially prefers the use of ''aluminium'' in its internal publications, although several IUPAC publications use the spelling ''aluminum''.<ref>[http://www.iupac.org/general/search.php?restrict=publications&query=aluminum&submit=Search IUPAC Web site publication search for 'aluminum']</ref>

== Health concerns ==
Aluminium's use in some antiperspirants and food additives is controversial. Aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water.<ref name=Yokel2008>{{cite journal |author=Yokel RA, Hicks CL, Florence RL |title=Aluminum bioavailability from basic sodium aluminum phosphate, an approved food additive emulsifying agent, incorporated in cheese |journal=Food and chemical toxicology |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=2261–6 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18436363 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2008.03.004 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0278-6915(08)00134-8}}</ref> Some researchers have expressed concerns that the aluminium in antiperspirants may increase the risk of breast cancer,<ref name=Exley2007>{{cite journal |author=Exley C, Charles LM, Barr L, Martin C, Polwart A, Darbre PD |title=Aluminium in human breast tissue |journal=J. Inorg. Biochem. |volume=101 |issue=9 |pages=1344–6 |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17629949 |doi=10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2007.06.005 |url=}}</ref> and aluminium has been implicated as a factor in [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref name=Ferreira2008>{{cite journal |author=Ferreira PC, Piai Kde A, Takayanagui AM, Segura-Muñoz SI |title=Aluminum as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease |journal=Rev Lat Am Enfermagem |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=151–7 |year=2008 |pmid=18392545 |doi= |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-11692008000100023&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en}}</ref>

The toxicity of aluminium can be traced to increased deposition in bone and the central nervous system, particularly in the presence of reduced renal function. Because aluminium competes with calcium for absorption, increased amounts of dietary aluminium may contribute to the reduced skeletal mineralization (osteopenia) observed in preterm infants and infants with growth retardation. Full-term infants with normal renal function do not seem to be at substantial risk from aluminium toxicity from soy protein-based formulas.
Aluminium can cause [[neurotoxicity]] in very high doses which can alter the function of the [[blood-brain barrier]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Banks, W.A. | coauthors = Kastin, A.J. | year = 1989 | title = Aluminum-induced neurotoxicity: alterations in membrane function at the blood-brain barrier | journal = Neurosci Biobehav Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–53 | doi = 10.1016/S0149-7634(89)80051-X}}</ref> It is one of the few abundant elements that have no known function in living cells. A small percentage of people are [[allergy|allergic]] to it — they experience [[contact dermatitis]]: an itchy [[rash]] from using [[styptic]] or [[antiperspirant]] products, [[Digestion|digestive]] disorders and inability to absorb nutrients from eating food cooked in aluminium pans, and [[vomiting]] and other symptoms of [[poisoning]] from ingesting such products as [[Amphojel]], and [[Maalox]] (antacids). Such allergies are extremely rare though, in other people aluminium is not considered as toxic as [[heavy metals]], but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts. The use of aluminium [[cookware]], popular because of its [[corrosion]] resistance and good [[heat conduction]], has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general. Excessive consumption of [[antacid]]s containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants are more likely causes of [[toxicity]]. Also, studies have shown that consumption of citric acid with aluminium significantly increases aluminium absorption,<ref>{{cite journal| title=Dietary citric acid enhances absorption of aluminum in antacids| author = Slanina, P. | coauthors = Frech, W.; Ekstrom, L. G.; Loof, L.; Slorach, S.; and Cedergren, A. | journal = Clinical Chemistry | volume = 32 | pages = 539&ndash;541 | date = 1986 | publisher = American Association for Clinical Chemistry |url=http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/abstract/32/3/539 | accessdate = 2008-10-09}}</ref> and [[maltol]] has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nervous and osseus tissue (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8445293). Furthermore, aluminium increases [[estrogen]]-related [[gene expression]] in human [[breast cancer]] cells grown in the laboratory.<ref>[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112438172/ABSTRACT Metalloestrogens: an emerging class of inorganic xenoestrogens with potential to add to the oestrogenic burden of the human breast] J Appl Toxicol. 2006 May-Jun;26(3):191-7</ref> These salts' estrogen-like effects have led to their classification as a [[metalloestrogen]].

It has been suggested that aluminium is a cause of [[Alzheimer's disease]], as some [[senile plaques|brain plaques]] have been found to contain the metal. Research in this area has been inconclusive; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the Alzheimer's damage, not the cause. In any event, if there is any toxicity of aluminium it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences | title = Alzheimer's Disease and Aluminum |month=October | year=2005 | url = http://www.niehs.nih.gov/external/faq/aluminum.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | author = Michael Hopkin | title = Death of Alzheimer victim linked to aluminium pollution| publisher = news @ nature.com | doi = 10.1038/news060417-10 | date = 21 April 2006}}</ref>

[[mercury (element)|Mercury]] applied to the surface of an [[aluminium alloy]] can damage the protective oxide surface film by forming a [[Mercury-aluminum amalgam|Mercury-aluminium amalgam]]. This may cause further corrosion and weakening of the structure. For this reason, mercury [[thermometer]]s are not allowed on many [[airliner]]s, as aluminium is used in many aircraft structures.

A mixture of powdered aluminium and [[Iron(III) oxide|Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>]] is known as [[thermite]], and burns with a high energy output to form [[Iron|Fe]] and [[Al2O3|Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>]]. Thermite can be produced inadvertently during grinding operations, but the high [[ignition temperature]] makes incidents unlikely in most workshop environments.

== Effect on plants ==
{{Unreferenced|date=August 2008}}
<!-- Am hoping to fill up this section with a bit more chemistry when I come across it. If you feel that this does not deserve a sub-paragraph, thank you for moving it to the discussion page where I can come back to it as information comes -->
Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of toxic Al<sup>3+</sup> [[cation]]s increases and disturbs root growth and function.

[[Wheat]]'s [[adaptation]] to allow aluminium tolerance is such that the aluminium induces a release of [[organic compound]]s that bind to the harmful aluminium [[cations]]. [[Sorghum]] is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism. The first gene for aluminium tolerance has been identified in wheat. A group in the U.S. Department of Agriculture showed that sorghum's aluminium tolerance is controlled by a single gene, as for wheat. This is not the case in all plants.

== See also ==
*[[Aluminium alloy]]
*[[Aluminium battery]]
*[[Aluminium in Africa]]
*[[Aluminium foil]]
*[[Beverage can]]
*[[Institute for the History of Aluminium (IHA)]]
*[[List of countries by aluminium production]]
*[[Aluminium industry in Russia]]
*[[:Category:Aluminium alloys]]
*[[:Category:Aluminium compounds]]
*[[:Category:Aluminium companies]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Aluminium}}
{{wiktionarypar|aluminium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Al/index.html WebElements.com – Aluminium]
*[http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-a01-al-prod.htm Electrolytic production]
*[http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/aluminum/aluminum_table12.html World production of primary aluminium, by country]
*[http://www.world-aluminium.org/About+Aluminium/Story+of/In+history History of Aluminium (from the website of the International Aluminium Institute)]
*[http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic113.htm Emedicine - Aluminium]

{{clear}}
{{compact periodic table}}

[[Category:Aluminium| ]]
[[Category:Recyclable materials]]
[[Category:Rocket fuels|Aluminium]]
[[Category:Electrical conductors]]
[[Category:Pyrotechnic fuels]]
[[Category:Airship technology]]
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