Napalm and James B. Edwards Bridge: Difference between pages
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[[Image:Ecuadorian Kfir dropping napalm.jpg|thumb|An [[Ecuador]]ian air force [[IAI Kfir]] aircraft drops napalm on a target range during the joint US and Ecuadorian Exercise "Blue Horizon".]] |
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'''Napalm''' is the name given to any of a number of [[flammable]] [[liquid]]s used in [[war]]fare, often jellied [[gasoline]]. Napalm is actually the [[thickener]] in such liquids, which when mixed with gasoline makes a sticky incendiary gel. Developed by the U.S. in [[World War II]] by a team of [[Harvard]] chemists led by [[Louis Fieser]], its name is a combination of the names of its original ingredients, [[coprecipitated]] [[aluminium|aluminium]] salts of [[naphthenic acid|'''na'''phthenic]] and [[palmitic acid|'''palm'''itic]] acids. These were added to the flammable substance to cause it to gel.<ref name="GS Napalm">[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/napalm.htm Napalm<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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|official_name=James B. Edwards Bridge<ref>[http://www.scstatehouse.net/sess110_1993-1994/bills/1170.htm Concurrent Resolution] of the [[South Carolina General Assembly]]</ref> |
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|carries=[[I-526]] |
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|crosses=[[Wando River]] |
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|locale=[[Charleston, South Carolina]] |
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|maint=[[South Carolina Department of Transportation]] |
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|length=7,900 feet |
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|width=Twin {{convert|44|ft|m|sing=on}} wide bridges |
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|traffic=45,300<ref>[http://www.scdot.org/getting/pdfs/Traffic_Count_Files/Charleston05.pdf SCDOT Traffic Counts], Accessed April 20, 2007</ref> |
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The '''James B. Edwards Bridge''' is a pair of pre-cast concrete [[box girder bridge|box girder]] [[bridge]]s that span the [[Wando River]] between [[Mount Pleasant, South Carolina|Mount Pleasant]] and [[Daniel Island]]. It was built in 1989 by the [[South Carolina Department of Transportation]]. |
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The bridge is named for [[James B. Edwards]], who was a [[governor]] of [[South Carolina]], [[United States Secretary of Energy|Secretary of Energy]], and long-time president of the [[Medical University of South Carolina]]. |
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One of the major problems of early incendiary fluids was that they splashed and drained too easily. The U.S. found that a gasoline gel increased both the range and effectiveness of flamethrowers, but was difficult to manufacture because it used natural rubber, which was in high demand and expensive. Napalm provided a far cheaper alternative, solving the issues involved with rubber-based incendiaries.<ref name="GS Napalm"/> |
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The bridge was constructed of pre-cast concrete segments using top-down construction. Segments were transported along already completed spans and put in place from above. This construction method was selected to reduce construction impacts on the [[marsh]] areas along the banks of the Wando River. |
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Modern napalm is composed primarily of [[benzene]] and [[polystyrene]], and is known as napalm-B.<ref name="GS Napalm"/> |
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===References=== |
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Napalm 877 was used in [[flamethrower]]s and [[bomb]]s by the U.S. and Allied forces, to increase effectiveness of flammable liquids. The substance is formulated to burn at a specific rate and adhere to materials. Napalm is mixed with gasoline in various proportions to achieve this. Another useful (and dangerous) effect, primarily involving its use in bombs, was that napalm "rapidly deoxygenates the available air" as well as creating large amounts of [[carbon monoxide]] causing suffocation. Napalm bombs were also used in the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name="GS Napalm"/> |
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* Kohls, Amy R. and D. Brice Urquhart, [http://www.arema.org/eseries/scriptcontent/custom/e_arema/library/2003_Conference_Proceedings/0022.pdf Design Challenges and Construction Benefits of Precast Segmental Rail Bridges], Accessed April 20, 2007. |
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<references/> |
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Though napalm was a 20th century invention, it is part of a long history of [[Early thermal weapons|incendiary materials]] in warfare. Historically however, liquids were primarily used (see [[Greek fire]]). An infantry-based flammable liquid fuel weapon, the [[flamethrower]], was introduced in [[World War I]] by the Germans, variations of which were soon developed by other nations in the conflict.<ref name="GS Napalm"/> |
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[[Category:Bridges in South Carolina]] |
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==Usage in warfare== |
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[[Category:Bridges completed in 1989]] |
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[[Image:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|thumb|The French [[Aviation navale]] drops napalm over Viet Minh guerrilla positions during an ambush (December 1953).]] |
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[[Category:Charleston, South Carolina]] |
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[[Image:US riverboat using napalm in Vietnam.jpg|thumb|Riverboat of the U.S. [[Brownwater Navy]] deploying an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat mounted [[flamethrower]] in Vietnam.]] |
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On [[July 17]], [[1944]], napalm incendiary bombs were dropped for the first time by American [[P-38]] pilots on a fuel depot at [[Coutances]], near [[St. Lô]], France.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} [[Howard Zinn]] relates how he participated in a napalm bombing of German soldiers (and French civilians) who were awaiting the end of World War II in France about two weeks before the end of the war.<ref>Howard Zinn: You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train. 2004 Documentary.[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0416825]</ref> Napalm bombs were first used in the Pacific Theatre during the [[Battle of Tinian]] by [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] aviators; however, its use was complicated by problems with mixing, [[Fuse_%28explosives%29#Munition_fuzes|fuzing]] and aircraft release mechanisms.<ref>{{cite book |last=De Chant |first= John A. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Devilbirds |year=1947 |publisher= Harper & Brothers Publishers |location= New York |isbn= |pages=155 }}</ref> In World War II, The USAAF [[Bombing of Tokyo in World War II|bombed cities]] in [[Japan]] with napalm, and used it in bombs and flamethrowers in Germany and the Japanese-held islands. It was used by the Greek National army against the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) during the [[Greek Civil War]], by [[United Nations Command (Korea)|United Nations forces in Korea]], by [[France]] against the Viet Minh in the [[First Indochina War]], by [[Mexico]] in the late 1960s against guerrilla fighters in [[Guerrero]] and by the [[United States]] during the [[Vietnam War]]. |
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The most well-known method of delivering napalm is from air-dropped [[incendiary bomb]]s. A lesser-known method is the flame throwers used by combat infantry. Flame throwers use a thinner version of the same jellied gasoline to destroy gun emplacements, bunkers and cave hideouts. U.S. Marines fighting on [[Guadalcanal]] found them very effective against Japanese positions. The Marines used fire as both a casualty weapon as well as a psychological weapon. They found that Japanese soldiers would abandon positions in which they fought to the death against other weapons. Prisoners of war confirmed that they feared napalm more than any other weapon utilised against them. |
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Pilots returning from the war zone often remarked they would rather have a couple of droppable gasoline tanks full of napalm than any other weapon, bombs, rockets or guns. The U.S. Air Force and Navy used napalm with great effect against all manner of targets to include troops, tanks, buildings and even railroad tunnels. The demoralizing effect napalm had on the enemy became apparent when scores of [[North Korea]]n troops began to surrender to aircraft flying overhead. Pilots noted that they saw surviving enemy troops waving white flags on subsequent passes after dropping napalm. The pilots radioed to ground troops and the North Koreans were captured. <ref>{{cite book |
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| title = Napalm Fire Bombs |
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| author = Naval Aviation News |
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| date = [[1951-05-01]] |
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| publisher = Chief of Naval Operations, Navy Department |
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| location = Washington D.C. |
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| pages = 8-11 |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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Napalm has been used more recently in wartime by or against: [[Morocco]] (1976), [[Iran]] (1980–88), [[Israel]] (1967, 1982), [[Nigeria]] (1969), [[India]] & [[Pakistan]] (1965 & 1971), [[Brazil]] (1972), [[Egypt]] (1973), [[Cyprus]] (1964, 1974), [[Argentina]] (1982), [[Iraq]] (1980–88, 1991, 2003 - present), [[Serbia]] (1994),1993 [[Angola]], [[France]] during the [[First Indochina War]] (1946-1954) and the [[Algerian War of Independence|Algerian War]] (1954-1962),<ref> [[Benjamin Stora]], "Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie", in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' n°324, October 2007, pp.28-29 {{fr icon}}</ref> and the [[United States]]. |
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Napalm can kill or wound by immolation and by asphyxiation. Immolation produces rapid loss of blood pressure, unconsciousness and death in a short time. [[Burn#Classification_by_degree|Third-degree burns]] are typically not painful at the time, because only the skin nerves respond to heat and third-degree burns kill the nerves. Burn victims do not experience first-degree burns due to the [[adhesive]] properties of napalm that stick to the skin. Severe second-degree burns, likely to be suffered by someone hit with a small splash of napalm are severely painful and produce hideous scars called [[keloids]], which can also bring about motor disturbances.<ref name="GS Napalm"/> |
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<blockquote>"Napalm is the most terrible pain you can imagine," said [[Phan Thị Kim Phúc|Kim Phúc]], a napalm bombing survivor known from a famous Vietnam War photograph. "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. Napalm generates extremely high temperatures upon oxidation on the skin."<ref name="UConn">Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu. University of Connecticut Advance. [http://www.advance.uconn.edu/2004/041108/04110803.htm Napalm Survivor Tells of Healing After Vietnam War]. [[November 8]], [[2004]].</ref></blockquote> |
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Phúc sustained third-degree burns to half her body and was not expected to live after the attack by South Vietnamese aircraft. But thanks to assistance from South Vietnamese photographer [[Nick Ut]] and American doctors, and after surviving a 14-month hospital stay and 17 operations, she became an outspoken [[peace activist]]. |
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International law does not necessarily prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets,<ref name="UConn"/> but use against civilian populations was banned by the [[United Nations]] [[Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons]], (often referred to as the CCW) in 1980. [[Treaty#Protocols| Protocol]] III of the CCW restricts the use of incendiary weapons (not only napalm), but a number of states have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), states are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, if they ratify at least two of the five protocols. The [[United States]], for example, is a party to the CCW but did not sign protocol III.<ref>[http://www.sipri.org/contents/library/AnnexA05.pdf Microsoft Word - YB05 771 A.rtf<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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Reports by the ''[[Sydney Morning Herald]]'' suggested the usage of napalm in the [[Iraq War]] by US forces.<ref>http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/texts/BH790.txt</ref> This was denied by the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]]. In August 2003, the San Diego Union Tribune alleged that U.S. Marine pilots and their commanders confirmed the use of [[Mark 77 bomb|Mark 77 firebombs]] on [[Iraqi Republican Guards]] during the initial stages of combat. Official denials of the use of 'napalm' were, however, disingenuous, as the Mk 77 bomb that is currently in service at this time, the Mk 77 Mod 5, does not use actual napalm (for example, napalm-B). The last U.S. bomb to use actual napalm was the Mark 77 Mod 4, the last of which were destroyed in March 2001.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/mk77.htm MK-77 - Dumb Bombs<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The substance used now is a different incendiary mixture, but sufficiently analogous in its effects that it is still a controversial incendiary, and can still be referred to colloquially as 'napalm.' |
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<blockquote>"We napalmed both those (bridge) approaches," said Col. Randolph Alles in a recent interview. "Unfortunately, there were people there because you could see them in the (cockpit) video." (...) "They were Iraqi soldiers there. It's no great way to die," he added.... The generals love napalm.... It has a big [[psychological warfare|psychological]] effect." - ''[[San Diego Union-Tribune]], August 2003''<ref>[http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/military/20030805-9999_1n5bomb.html SignOnSanDiego.com > News > Military - Officials confirm dropping firebombs on Iraqi troops<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref></blockquote> |
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These bombs did not actually contain napalm. The napalm-B (super napalm) used in Vietnam was gasoline based. The Mk-77 firebombs used in the Gulf were [[kerosene]] based. It is, however, a napalm-like liquid in its effect.<ref name="GS Napalm"/> |
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==Composition== |
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[[Image:Naplam explodes following ROK airdrop.jpg|thumb|Napalm bombs explode after being dropped from a [[Republic of Korea Air Force]] [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4E Phantom II]] aircraft during a live-fire exercise.]] |
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Napalm is usually a mixture of gasoline with suitable [[thickening agent]]s. The earliest thickeners were [[soap]]s, [[aluminium]], and magnesium [[palmitate]]s and [[stearate]]s. Depending on the amount of added thickener, the resulting [[viscosity]] may range between syrupy liquid and thick rubbery gel. The content of long hydrocarbon chains makes the material highly [[hydrophobic]] (resistant to wetting with water), making it more difficult to extinguish. Thickened fuel also rebounds better from surfaces, making it more useful for operations in urban terrain. |
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There are two types of napalm: oil-based with aluminium soap thickener, and oil-based with polymeric thickener ("napalm-B"). |
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The United States military uses three kinds of thickeners: M1, M2, and M4. |
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* The M1 Thickener (MIL-T-589A), chemically a mixture of 25% wt. [[aluminium]] [[naphthenate]], 25% aluminium [[oleate]], and 50% aluminium [[laurate]], (or, according to other sources, aluminium [[stearate]] soap) is a highly [[hygroscopic]] coarse tan-colored powder. As the water content impairs the quality of napalm, thickener from partially used open containers should not be used later. It is not maintained in the US Army inventory any more as it was replaced with M4. |
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* The M2 Thickener (MIL-T-0903025B) is a whitish powder similar to M1, with added devolatilized [[silica]] and [[anticaking agent]]. |
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* The [[M4 Thickener|M4 flame fuel thickening compound]] (MIL-T-50009A), [[hydroxyl aluminium bis(2-ethylhexanoate)]] with anti-caking agent, is a fine white powder. It is less hygroscopic than M1 and opened containers can be resealed and used within one day. About half the amount of M4 is needed for the same effect as of M1. |
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A later variant, '''napalm-B''', also called "super napalm", is a mixture of [[octane rating|low-octane]] [[gasoline]] with [[benzene]] and [[polystyrene]]. It was used in the Vietnam War. Unlike conventional napalm, which burns for only 15–30 seconds, napalm B burns for up to 10 minutes with fewer fireballs, sticks better to surfaces, and offers improved destruction effects. It is not as easy to ignite, which reduces the number of accidents caused by soldiers smoking. When it burns, it develops a characteristic smell. |
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Starting in the early 1990s, various websites including [[The Anarchist Cookbook]] advertised recipes for homemade napalm. These recipes were predominantly equal parts gasoline and [[styrofoam]]. This mixture closely resembles that of napalm-B, but lacks a percentage of benzene. |
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Napalm reaches burning temperatures of approximately 1,200 °[[Celsius|C]] (2,200 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]). Other additives can be added, eg. powdered [[aluminium]] or [[magnesium]], or [[white phosphorus (weapon)|white phosphorus]]. |
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In the early 1950s, [[Norway]] developed its own napalm, based on fatty acids in [[whale oil]]. The reason for this development was that the American-produced thickening agent performed rather poorly in the cold Norwegian climate. The product was known as Northick II.<ref>[http://www.norwaves.com/norwaves/Volume5_1997/v5nw43.html Norwaves Volume 5, Number 43, 1997<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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Some weapons utilize a [[pyrophoric]] variant, known as TPA ([[thickened pyrophoric agent]]). Chemically it is a [[triethylaluminium]] thickened with [[polyisobutylene]]. |
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==See also== |
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*[[Fougasse (weapon)#Flame|Flame Fougasse]] |
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*[[Phan Thị Kim Phúc]] |
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*[[Mark 77 bomb]] |
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== Notes == |
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{{wiktionary}} |
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{{reflist}} |
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== External links == |
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{{commons|Napalm|Napalm}} |
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* ''[http://www.dispatx.com/show/item.php?back=2062&wip=1 Tracking Wildfire]'' |
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* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nqEy5NjJOrY&feature=related Hawker Tempest WW II testing including Napalm dropping] |
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*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ev2dEqrN4i0 Napalm use in Vietnam, 1972 (Warning: very graphic)] |
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[[Category:Incendiary weapons]] |
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[[Category:Falklands War weapons]] |
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[[Category:Vietnam War weapons]] |
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Revision as of 00:43, 14 October 2008
Wando River Bridge | |
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| Coordinates | 32°51′35″N 79°53′46″W / 32.859839°N 79.896203°W |
| Carries | I-526 |
| Crosses | Wando River |
| Locale | Charleston, South Carolina |
| Official name | James B. Edwards Bridge[1] |
| Maintained by | South Carolina Department of Transportation |
| Characteristics | |
| Total length | 7,900 feet |
| Width | Twin 44-foot (13 m) wide bridges |
| Statistics | |
| Daily traffic | 45,300[2] |
| Location | |
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The James B. Edwards Bridge is a pair of pre-cast concrete box girder bridges that span the Wando River between Mount Pleasant and Daniel Island. It was built in 1989 by the South Carolina Department of Transportation.
The bridge is named for James B. Edwards, who was a governor of South Carolina, Secretary of Energy, and long-time president of the Medical University of South Carolina.
The bridge was constructed of pre-cast concrete segments using top-down construction. Segments were transported along already completed spans and put in place from above. This construction method was selected to reduce construction impacts on the marsh areas along the banks of the Wando River.
References
- Kohls, Amy R. and D. Brice Urquhart, Design Challenges and Construction Benefits of Precast Segmental Rail Bridges, Accessed April 20, 2007.
- ^ Concurrent Resolution of the South Carolina General Assembly
- ^ SCDOT Traffic Counts, Accessed April 20, 2007