Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Template:Did you know/Preparation area 1: Difference between pages

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{{redirect|Rousseau}}
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{{Infobox Philosopher
==Next update==
| region = Western Philosophers
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| era = [[18th-century philosophy]]<br />(Modern Philosophy)
| color = #B0C4DE
| image_name = Allan Ramsay 003.jpg
| image_caption = A 1766 portrait of Rousseau by [[Allan Ramsay (1713-1784)|Allan Ramsay]]
| birth = {{birth date|1712|6|28}}<br>([[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]])
| death = {{death date and age|1778|7|2|1712|6|08}}<br>([[Ermenonville]], [[France]])
| school_tradition = [[Social contract theory]]
| main_interests = [[Political philosophy]],[[music]], [[education]], [[literature]], [[autobiography]]
| influences = [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], [[Michel De Montaigne]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]], [[Denis Diderot]]
| influenced = [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Robespierre]], [[Louis de Saint-Just]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Romanticism]], [[Thomas Paine|Paine]], [[Auguste Comte|Comte]], [[Simon Bolivar|Bolivar]], [[Karl Marx]], [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], [[Jacques Derrida|Derrida]], [[Paul de Man]], [[Benedetto Croce]], [[Galvano Della Volpe]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Émile Durkheim]], [[Mikhail Bakunin]], [[Leon Tolstoi]]
| notable_ideas = [[General will]], [[amour-propre]], [[Human nature #State of nature|natural goodness of humanity]]
}}
'''Jean Jacques Rousseau''' ([[Geneva]], [[June 28]], [[1712]]{{ndash}} [[Ermenonville]], [[July 2]], [[1778]]) was a major [[French]] [[philosopher]], writer, and [[composer]] of the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], whose [[political philosophy]] influenced the [[French Revolution]] and the development of [[liberalism|liberal]], [[conservative]], and [[socialism|socialist]] theory. With his ''[[Confessions (Jean-Jacques Rousseau)|Confessions]]'', ''[[Reveries of a Solitary Walker]]'', and other writings, he invented modern [[autobiography]] and encouraged a new focus on the building of subjectivity that bore fruit in the work of thinkers as diverse as [[Hegel]] and [[Freud]]. His [[novel]] ''[[Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse]]'' was one of the best-selling [[fictional]] works of the eighteenth century and of great importance to the development of [[romanticism]].<ref>Robert Darnton, ''The Great Cat Massacre'', chapter 6: Readers Respond to Rousseau: The Fabrication of Romantic Sensitivity</ref> He also made important contributions to [[music]] as a theorist and a [[composer]], and was reburied alongside other French national heroes in the [[Panthéon (Paris)|Panthéon]] in [[Paris]], sixteen years after his death, in 1794.
==Biography==
Rousseau was born in [[Geneva]], an associated member of the ''Old Confederation'' (known today as the ''Helvetian Confederation'' or [[Switzerland]]) and throughout his [[life]] described himself as a [[citizen]] of Geneva. Nine days after his [[birth]], his [[mother]], Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, died of birth complications. When he was young, Rousseau's father, a failed watchmaker, got in a quarrel with a French captain, and to avoid imprisonment abandoned Rousseau at an uncle of his in 1722. The uncle, in turn, sent Rousseau to a small village to receive his education, which consisted solely of reading [[Plutarch]]'s ''[[Parallel Lives|Lives]]'' and [[Calvinist]] [[sermons]].


==Hooks==
After several years of apprenticeship to a notary and then an engraver, Rousseau left Geneva at age 16 on [[March 14]], [[1728]]. He then met a French [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] baroness named [[Françoise-Louise de Warens]]. De Warens, who was thirteen years his senior, gave Rousseau work as a secretary and teacher. She was also a key figure in his conversion to Catholicism, which resulted in his having to give up his Geneva citizenship (although he would later revert back to Calvinism in order to regain it). The Baroness provided Rousseau the education of a nobleman by sending him to Catholic school. Apart from studying [[Aristotle]], Rousseau also became familiar with Latin and the dramatic arts.
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[[Image:LesCharmettes.jpg|thumb|right|Les Charmettes: the house where Jean-Jacques Rousseau lived with Mme de Warens in 1735-6. Now a museum dedicated to Rousseau.]]
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[[Image:Rousseauvenicembassy.jpg|thumb|right|Palazzo belonging to Tommaso Querini at 968 Cannaregio Venice that served as the French Embassy during Rousseau's period as Secretary to the Ambassador]]
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[[Image:Jean-Jacques Rousseau (photo of his crypt).jpg|thumb|right|The tomb of Rousseau in the crypt of the Panthéon, Paris]]
''From Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Recent additions|newest articles]]:''


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In order to present the [[Académie des Sciences]] with a new system of [[numbered musical notation]], he moved to Paris in 1742. His system is based on a single line displaying numbers representing [[interval (music)|intervals]] between notes and dots and commas indicating rhythmic values. The system was intended to be compatible with [[typography]]. Believing the system was impractical and unoriginal, the Academy rejected it. However, in some parts of the world, a version of the system remains in use.
[[Image:MexCity85quake.jpg|100x100px|Mexico City Earthquake, September 19, 1985. Eight-story frame structure with brick infill walls broken in two.]]
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{{*mp}}... that after the '''[[1985 Mexico City earthquake]]''' ''(destroyed building pictured)'', a number of babies were safely rescued from the Juárez Hospital despite being without nourishment, water, warmth or human contact for seven days?
{{*mp}}... that unlike their peers in other [[States and territories of Australia|Australian states]], [[physical therapy|physiotherapists]] in [[New South Wales]] are subject to discipline by a special '''[[Physiotherapists Tribunal]]'''?
{{*mp}}... that the 2008 film ''[[Nick and Norah's Infinite Playlist]]'' was '''[[Lorene Scafaria]]'''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s ninth [[screenplay]] but first novel adaptation?
{{*mp}}... that having lost his father early, jurist and [[Storting|Norwegian Parliament]] member '''[[Nils Landmark]]''' was raised by [[Jens Stub]], a [[List of members of the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly|founding father of the Norwegian Constitution]]?
{{*mp}}... that the [[UK|British]] [[Late night television|late night]] comedy TV show '''''[[Up Sunday]]''''' was described by one of the cast members as "aimed at dirty-minded insomniacs"?
{{*mp}}... that '''[[John J. Leonard]]''', a professor at [[MIT]] [[CSAIL]], developed a [[Computer vision|vision]]-based [[simultaneous localization and mapping]] (SLAM) algorithm for mapping the [[RMS Titanic]]?
{{-}}
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He was secretary to the French ambassador in [[Venice]] from 1743 to 1744, whose republican government Rousseau often referred to in his later political work. After eleven months in this position, he was dismissed and fled to Paris to avoid prosecution by the Venetian Senate. There he befriended and lived with [[Thérèse Levasseur]], a semi-literate seamstress who, according to Rousseau, bore him five children, though this number may not be accurate. Soon after birth, the children were deposited at an orphanage. As the mortality rate for orphanage children was very high, most of them likely perished. When Rousseau became known as a theorist of education and child-rearing, his abandonment of his children was used by enemies, including [[Voltaire]], to attack him. In his defense, Rousseau explained he would have been a poor father and that the children would have a better life at the foundling home.
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While in Paris, he became friends with French philosopher [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]] and beginning with some articles on music in 1749, he contributed several articles to the latter's [[Encyclopédie]]. His most noted work was an article on political economy written in 1755. Soon after, his friendship with Diderot and the Encyclopedists became strained. Diderot later described Rousseau as being,"deceitful, vain as Satan, ungrateful, cruel, hypocritical, and full of malice."
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==Credits==
In 1749, as Rousseau was walking to visit Diderot in a [[Vincennes]] prison, he read an essay competition entry sponsored by the [[Académie de Dijon]], named the ''Mercure de France''. The work asked whether the development of the arts and sciences had been morally beneficial. Rousseau said this question caused him to immediately perceive the principle of the natural goodness of humanity on which all his later philosophical works were based. He answered the competition question in the negative, in his 1750 "[[Discourse on the Arts and Sciences]]", which won him first prize and gained him significant fame.
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He continued his interest in music and his opera [[Le Devin du Village]] was performed for [[Louis XV of France|King Louis XV]] in 1752. The same year, the visit of a troupe of Italian musicians to Paris, and their performance of [[Giovanni Battista Pergolesi]]'s [[La Serva Padrona]], prompted the [[Querelle des Bouffons]], which pitted protagonists of French music against supporters of the Italian style. Rousseau was an enthusiastic supporter of the Italians against [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]] and others, making an important contribution with his ''Letter on French Music''.
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Rousseau returned to Geneva where he reconverted to [[Calvinism]] and regained his official Genevan citizenship in 1754. In 1755, Rousseau completed his second major work, the ''Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men'' (the [[Discourse on Inequality]]). This caused him to gradually become estranged from his former friends such as [[Diderot]] and [[Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm|Grimm]] and from benefactors such as [[Madame d'Epinay]]. He pursued an important but unconsummated romantic attachment with [[Sophie d'Houdetot]]. Following his break with the Encyclopedists, he enjoyed the support and patronage of one of the wealthiest nobles in France, [[Duc de Luxembourg]].


==Images==
In [[1761 in literature|1761]], Rousseau published the successful romantic novel ''[[Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse]]'' (''The New Heloise''). In 1762, he published two major books, ''Du Contrat Social, Principes du droit politique'' (in English, literally ''[[Social Contract (Rousseau)|Of the Social Contract, Principles of Political Law]]'') in April and then ''Émile, or On Education'' in May. The books criticized religion and were banned in France and Geneva. Rousseau was forced to flee arrest and made stops in [[Bern]] and [[Môtiers]] in Switzerland, where he enjoyed the protection of [[Frederick the Great of Prussia]] and his local representative, [[Lord Keith]]. While in Môtiers, Rousseau wrote the ''Constitutional Project for Corsica'' (''Projet de Constitution pour la Corse'').
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His house in Motiers was stoned on the night of [[September 6]] [[1765]]{{ndash}} he took refuge with the philosopher [[David Hume]] in Great Britain. Isolated at [[Weaver Hills|Wootton]] on the borders of Derbyshire and Staffordshire, Rousseau suffered a serious decline in his mental health and began to experience paranoid fantasies about plots against him involving Hume and others. Rousseau's letter to Hume, in which he articulates the perceived misconduct, sparked an exchange which was published in and received with great interest in contemporary Paris.
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While he was not allowed to return to France before 1770, Rousseau returned under the name "Renou," in 1767. In 1768 he went through a legally invalid marriage to Thérèse, and in 1770 he returned to Paris. As a condition of his return, he was not allowed to publish any books, but after completing his ''Confessions'', Rousseau began private readings in 1771. At the request of Madame d'Epinay the police ordered him to stop, and the ''Confessions'' was only partially published in 1782, four years after his death. All his subsequent works were only to appear posthumously.
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[[Category:Wikipedia Did you know]]
In 1772, he was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], resulting in the ''[[Considerations on the Government of Poland]]'', which was to be his last major political work. In 1776 he completed ''Dialogues: Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques'' and began work on the ''[[Reveries of a Solitary Walker|Reveries of the Solitary Walker]]''. In order to support himself, he returned to copying music. Rousseau's final years were largely spent in deliberate withdrawal; however, he did respond favourably to an approach from the composer [[Gluck]], whom he met in 1774. One of Rousseau's last pieces of writing was a critical yet enthusiastic analysis of Gluck's opera [[Alceste (Gluck)|Alceste]]. While taking a morning walk on the estate of the Marquis de Giradin at [[Ermenonville]] (28 miles northeast of [[Paris]]), Rousseau suffered a hemorrhage and died on [[July 2]], [[1778]].
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Rousseau was initially buried on the Ile des Peupliers. His remains were moved to [[Panthéon (Paris)|the Panthéon]] in Paris in 1794, sixteen years after his death and located directly across from those of his contemporary [[Voltaire]]. The tomb was designed to resemble a rustic temple, to recall Rousseau's theories of nature. In 1834, the Genevan government reluctantly erected a statue in his honour on the tiny [[Ile Rousseau]] in [[Lake Geneva]]. In 2002, the [http://www.espace-rousseau.ch/e/jean-jacques-rousseau.asp Espace Rousseau] was established at 40 Grand-Rue, Geneva, Rousseau's birthplace.

==Philosophy==
===Theory of Natural Man===
{{Cquote2|The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said "This is mine," and found people naive enough to believe him, that man was the true founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how many horrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this imposter; you are undone if you once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody.|Jean-Jacques Rousseau, ''[[Discourse on Inequality]]'', 1754}}

Rousseau saw a fundamental divide between [[society]] and [[human nature]]. Rousseau believed that [[humankind|man]] was good when in the state of [[nature]] (the state of all other animals, and the condition humankind was in before the creation of [[civilization]] and [[society]]), but is corrupted by society. This idea has often led to attributing the idea of the [[noble savage]] to Rousseau, an expression first used by [[John Dryden]] in [[The Conquest of Granada]] (1672). Rousseau, however, never used the expression himself and it does not adequately render his idea of the natural goodness of humanity. Rousseau's idea of natural goodness is complex and easy to misunderstand. Contrary to what might be suggested by a casual reading, the idea does not imply that humans in the state of nature act morally; in fact, terms such as 'justice' or 'wickedness' are simply inapplicable to pre-political society as Rousseau understands it. Humans there may act with all of the ferocity of an animal. They are good because they are self-sufficient and thus not subject to the vices of political society. He viewed society as artificial and held that the development of society, especially the growth of social interdependence, has been inimical to the well-being of human beings. The goodness of the humanity is the goodness of an animal and not the virtue as we can read it very clearly in [[The Social Contract]]: ''The passage from the state of nature to the civil state produces a very remarkable change in man, by substituting justice for instinct in his conduct, and giving his actions the morality they had formerly lacked. Then only, when the voice of duty takes the place of physical impulses and right of appetite, does man, who so far had considered only himself, find that he is forced to act on different principles, and to consult his reason before listening to his inclinations. Although, in this state, he deprives himself of some advantages which he got from nature, he gains in return others so great, his faculties are so stimulated and developed, his ideas so extended, his feelings so ennobled, and his whole soul so uplifted, that, did not the abuses of this new condition often degrade him below that which he left, he would be bound to bless continually the happy moment which took him from it for ever, and, instead of a stupid and unimaginative animal, made him an intelligent being and a man.'' <ref>The Social contract Livre I Chapter 8 [http://www.constitution.org/jjr/socon_01.htm]</ref>. The society corrupts the Man only because the Social Contract does not succeed, ''de facto''. The Society doesn't corrupt the Man per se, only if the society failed ''and'' the society ''actually'' failed as we see it in the [[Discourse on Inequality]]. There is no contradiction in the thought of Rousseau but a strong unity as Victor Goldschmidt demonstrates it in his great book ''Anthropologie et Politique. Les principes du système de Rousseau''<ref>Paris, Vrin, 1974, 802 pages. This book places all the books of Rousseau in a chronological and logical continuity which is astonishing only because of the prejudice we have - and also in France - about the inconsequence of this great philosopher</ref>

In Rousseau's philosophy, society's negative influence on men centers on its transformation of ''[[amour de soi]]'', a positive self-love, into ''[[amour-propre]]'', or [[pride]]. ''Amour de soi'' represents the instinctive human desire for [[self-preservation]], combined with the human power of [[reason]]. In contrast, ''amour-propre'' is artificial and forces man to compare himself to others, thus creating unwarranted [[fear]] and allowing men to take pleasure in the pain or weakness of others. Rousseau was not the first to make this distinction; it had been invoked by, among others, [[Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues|Vauvenargues]].

In "[[Discourse on the Arts and Sciences]]" Rousseau argued that the arts and sciences had not been beneficial to humankind because they were not human needs, but rather a result of pride and [[vanity]]. Moreover, the opportunities they created for idleness and luxury contributed to the corruption of man. He proposed that the progress of [[knowledge]] had made [[government]]s more [[power (sociology)|power]]ful and had crushed individual [[liberty]]. He concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of true [[friendship]] by replacing it with [[jealousy]], [[fear]] and suspicion.

His subsequent ''[[Discourse on Inequality]]'' tracked the progress and degeneration of mankind from a primitive [[state of nature]] to modern society. He suggested that the earliest human beings were solitary and differentiated from animals by their capacity for free will and their perfectibility. He also argued that these primitive humans were possessed of a basic drive to care for themselves and a natural disposition to [[compassion]] or pity. As humans were forced to associate together more closely by the pressure of population growth, they underwent a psychological transformation and came to value the good opinion of others as an essential component of their own well-being. Rousseau associated this new self-awareness with a golden age of human flourishing. However, the development of agriculture, metallurgy, private property, and the [[division of labour]] led to humans becoming increasingly dependent on one another, and led to [[inequality]]. The resulting state of conflict led Rousseau to suggest that the first state was invented as a kind of [[social contract]] made at the suggestion of the rich and powerful. This original contract was deeply flawed as the wealthiest and most powerful members of society tricked the general population, and thus instituted inequality as a fundamental feature of human society. Rousseau's own conception of the social contract can be understood as an alternative to this fraudulent form of association. At the end of the ''[[Discourse on Inequality]]'', Rousseau explains how the desire to have value in the eyes of others, which originated in the golden age, comes to undermine personal integrity and authenticity in a society marked by interdependence, [[hierarchy]], and inequality.

===Political theory===
===="The Social Contract"====
Perhaps Jean-Jacques Rousseau's most important work is ''[[Social Contract (Rousseau)|The Social Contract]]'', which outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of [[classical republicanism]]. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of [[political philosophy]] in the [[Western Culture|Western]] tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article ''Economie Politique'', featured in Diderot's ''Encyclopédie''. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. One man thinks himself the master of others, but remains more of a slave than they." Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without [[law]] or [[morality]], which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, division of labour and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent [[competition]] with his fellow men while at the same time becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his [[Freedom (philosophy)|freedom]]. According to Rousseau, by joining together into [[civil society]] through the [[social contract]] and abandoning their claims of [[natural right]], individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the authority of the [[general will]] of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the [[law]].

While Rousseau argues that [[sovereignty]] should be in the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction between sovereignty and [[government]]. The government is charged with implementing and enforcing the general will and is composed of a smaller group of [[citizens]], known as [[magistrates]]. Rousseau was bitterly opposed to the idea that the people should exercise sovereignty via a [[representative assembly]]. Rather, they should make the laws directly. It was argued that this would prevent Rousseau's ideal state from being realized in a large society, such as France was at the time. Much of the subsequent controversy about Rousseau's work has hinged on disagreements concerning his claims that citizens constrained to obey the [[general will]] are thereby rendered free.

===Education===
Rousseau set out his views on education in ''[[Emile: Or, On Education|Émile]]'', a semi-fictitious work detailing the growth of a young boy of that name, presided over by Rousseau himself. He brings him up in the countryside, where, he believes, humans are most naturally suited, rather than in a city, where we only learn bad habits, both physical and intellectual. The aim of education, Rousseau says, is to learn how to live righteously. This is accomplished by following a guardian who can guide his pupil through various contrived learning experiences.

The growth of a child is divided into three sections, first to the age of about 12, when calculating and complex thinking is not possible, and children, according to his deepest conviction, live like animals. Second, from 12 to about 16, when reason starts to develop, and finally from the age of 16 onwards, when the child develops into an adult. During this stage, the young adult should learn a skill, such as carpentry. This trade is offered because it requires creativity and thought, but would not compromise one's morals. It is at this age that Emile finds a young woman to complement him.

The book is based on Rousseau's ideals of healthy living. The boy must work out how to follow his social instincts and be protected from the vices of urban individualism and self-consciousness.

Rousseau's account of the education of Emile is, however, not an account of education of a gender-neutral "child." The education he proposes for Sophie, the young woman Emile is destined to marry, is importantly different to that of Emile. Sophie (as a representative of ideal womanhood) is educated to be governed (by her husband) while Emile (as a representative of the ideal man) is educated to be self-governing. This is not an accidental feature of Rousseau's educational and political philosophy; it is essential to his account of the distinction between private, personal relations and the public world of political relations. The private sphere as Rousseau imagines it depends on the (naturalized) subordination of women in order for both it and the public political sphere (upon which it depends) to function as Rousseau imagines it could and should.

The education proposed in ''[[Emile: Or, On Education|Émile]]'' has been criticized for being impractical, and the topic itself (the education of children) has led the text to be ignored by many studying Rousseau’s more “political” works. However, of particular interest to anyone interested in Rousseau’s intentions in [[Emile: Or, On Education|Émile]] is a letter he wrote to his friend Cramer on October 13, 1764. In the letter, Rousseau answers the criticism of impracticability: “You say quite correctly that it is impossible to produce an Emile. But I cannot believe that you take the book that carries this name for a true treatise on education. It is rather a philosophical work on this principle advanced by the author in other writings that ''man is naturally good''”([[sic]]).{{Fact|date=November 2007}}

===Religion===
Rousseau was most controversial in his own time for his views on religion. His view that man is good by nature conflicts with the doctrine of [[original sin]] (in ''Emile'', Rousseau writes ''there is no orginal perversity in the human heart'' <ref> ''il n’y a point de perversité originelle dans le cœur humain'' http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Émile,_ou_De_l’éducation_-_Livre_second</ref>), and his [[theology]] of [[nature]] expounded by the Savoyard Vicar in ''Émile'' led to the condemnation of the book in both [[Calvinist]] [[Geneva]] and [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Paris]]. In the ''[[Social Contract (Rousseau)|Social Contract]]'' he claims that true followers of [[Jesus]] would not make good citizens. This was one of the reasons for the book's condemnation in Geneva. Rousseau attempted to defend himself against critics of his religious views in his Letter to [[Christophe de Beaumont]], the Archbishop of Paris.<ref>The full text of the letter is available online only in the French original: [http://alain-leger.mageos.com/docs/Rousseau.pdf Lettre à Mgr De Beaumont Archevêque de Paris (1762)]</ref>

==Legacy==
[[Image:Rousseauplaque.jpg|right|thumb|A plaque commemorating the bicentenary of Rousseau's birth. Issued by the city of Geneva on 28 June 1912. The legend at the bottom says "Jean-Jacques, aime ton pays", and shows Rousseau's father gesturing towards the window. The scene is drawn from a footnote to the Letter to d'Alembert where Rousseau recalls witnessing the popular celebrations following the exercises of the St Gervais regiment.]]
At the time of the [[French Revolution]], Rousseau's ideas were influential. Writers such as [[Benjamin Constant]] and [[Hegel]] sought to blame the excesses of the Revolution's [[Reign of Terror]] on Rousseau, but since popular sovereignty was exercised through representatives rather than directly, it cannot be said {{Fact|date=September 2008}} the Revolution was an implementation of Rousseau's ideas. The [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|Declaration of the Rights of Man]], a result of the Revolution, has its philosophical foundation in the assumption that humans are born with inherent and inalienable rights, a notion Rousseau rejects.

Rousseau's ideas about education have profoundly influenced modern educational theory. In ''Émile'' he differentiates between healthy and "useless" crippled children. Only a healthy child can be the rewarding object of any educational work. John Darling's 1994 book ''Child-Centered Education and its Critics'' argues that the history of modern [[pedagogy|educational theory]] is a series of footnotes to Rousseau.

In his main writings, Rousseau identifies nature with the primitive state of savage man. Later he took nature to mean the spontaneity of the process by which man builds his egocentric, instinct based character and his little world. Nature thus signifies interiority and integrity, as opposed to that imprisonment and enslavement which society imposes in the name of progressive emancipation from cold-hearted brutality.

Hence, to go back to nature means to restore to man the forces of this natural process, to place him outside every oppressing bond of society and the prejudices of civilization. It is this idea that made his thought particularly important in [[Romanticism]], though Rousseau himself is sometimes regarded as a figure of [[The Enlightenment]].<ref>The case for Rousseau as an enemy of the Enlightenment is made in Graeme Garrard, ''Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment: A Republican Critique of the Philosophes'' (Albany: SUNY Press, 2003).</ref>

Despite some similarities in thought, there is little evidence that Rousseau had an impact on [[Thomas Jefferson]] and, indeed, he seems to have had little impact on 18th century political thought in the United States, which was dominated by [[Republicanism in the United States|Republicanism]] and [[Liberalism]]. However he did have some influence on several later Transcendentalists such as theologian [[William Ellery Channing]] and philosopher [[Henry David Thoreau]].<ref> "Rousseau, whose romantic and egalitarian tenets had practically no influence on the course of Jefferson's, or indeed any american, thought." Nathan Schachner, ''Thomas Jefferson: A Biography.'' (1957). p. 47. One admirer was lexicographer [[Noah Webster]]. Mark J. Temmer, "Rousseau and Thoreau," ''Yale French Studies,'' No. 28, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1961), pp. 112-121.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Democracy]]
*[[Philosophy of education#Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau's educational philosophy]]
*[[Republicanism]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[List of liberal thinkers]]
*[[Political absolutism]]
*[[Romanticism]]
*[[Socialism]]
*[[Rousseau Institute]]
*[[Totalitarianism]]
*[[Numbered musical notation]]
*[[Georges Hébert]], a physical culturist influenced by Rousseau's teachings

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*Abizadeh, Arash (2001). [http://profs-polisci.mcgill.ca/abizadeh/Banishing.htm "Banishing the Particular: Rousseau on Rhetoric, ''Patrie,'' and the Passions"] ''Political Theory'' 29.4: 556-82.
*Bertram, Christopher (2003). ''Rousseau and The Social Contract''. London: Routledge.
*[[Ernst Cassirer|Cassirer Ernst]], ''Rousseau, Kant, Goethe'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1945.
*Cooper, Laurence (1999).''Rousseau, Nature and the Problem of the Good Life''. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press.
*Cottret, Monique, Cottret, Bernard, ''Jean-Jacques Rousseau en son temps'', Paris, Perrin, 2005.
*Cranston, Maurice (1982). ''Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work''. New York: Norton.
*Cranston, Maurice (1991). ''The Noble Savage''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*Cranston, Maurice (1997). ''The Solitary Self''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*Damrosch, Leo (2005). ''Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius''. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
*Dent, N.J.H. (1988). ''Rousseau : An Introduction to his Psychological, Social, and Political Theory''. Oxford: Blackwell.
*Dent, N.J.H. (1992). ''A Rousseau Dictionary''. Oxford: Blackwell.
*Dent, N.J.H. (2005). ''Rousseau''. London: Routledge.
*Derrida, Jacques (1976). ''Of Grammatology'', trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
*Farrell, John (2006). ''Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau.'' New York: Cornell University Press.
*Garrard, Graeme (2003). ''Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment: A Republican Critique of the Philosophes''. Albany: State University of New York Press.
*Gauthier, David (2006). ''Rousseau: The Sentiment of Existence''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Lange, Lynda (2002). ''Feminist Interpretations of Jean-Jacques Rousseau''. University Park: Penn State University Press.
*Melzer, Arthur (1990). ''The Natural Goodness of Man: On the System of Rousseau's Thought''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*Pateman, Carole (1979). ''The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critical Analysis of Liberal Theory''. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
*Riley, Patrick (ed.) (2001). ''The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). ''Introducing Political Philosophy''. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X.
*Starobinski, Jean (1988). ''Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*Strauss, Leo (1953). ''Natural Right and History''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, chap. 6A.
*Strauss, Leo (1947). "On the Intention of Rousseau," ''Social Research'' 14: 455-87.
*Strong, Tracy B. (2002). ''Jean Jacques Rousseau and the Politics of the Ordinary''. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
*Wokler, Robert (1995). ''Rousseau''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

==Major works==
* ''Dissertation sur la musique moderne'', 1736
* ''[[Discourse on the Arts and Sciences]]'' (''Discours sur les sciences et les arts''), 1750
* ''Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy'', 1752
* ''[[Le Devin du Village]]: an opera'', 1752, {{PDFlink|[http://www.library.unt.edu/music/virtual/Rousseau_Devin/Rousseau.pdf score]|21.7&nbsp;[[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 22834344 bytes -->}}
* ''[[Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men]]'' (''Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes''), 1754
* ''[[Discourse on Political Economy]]'', 1755
* ''[[Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles]]'', 1758 (''Lettre à d'Alembert sur les spectacles'')
* ''[[Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse|Julie, or the New Heloise]]'' (''Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse''), 1761
* ''[[Emile: Or, On Education|Émile: or, on Education]]'' (''Émile ou de l'éducation''), 1762
* ''[[The Creed of a Savoyard Priest]]'', 1762 (in ''Émile'')
* ''[[Social Contract (Rousseau)|The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Right]]'' (''Du contrat social''), 1762
* ''[[Four Letters to M. de Malesherbes]]'', 1762
* ''[[Pygmalion (1762 play)|Pygmalion: a Lyric Scene]]'', 1762
* ''[[Letters Written from the Mountain]]'', 1764 (''Lettres de la montagne'')
* ''[[Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'' (''Les Confessions''), 1770, published 1782
* ''[[Constitutional Project for Corsica]]'', 1772
* ''[[Considerations on the Government of Poland]]'', 1772
* ''[[Essay on the origin of language (Rousseau)|Essay on the origin of language]]'', published 1781 (''Essai sur l'origine des langues'')
* ''[[Reveries of a Solitary Walker]]'', incomplete, published 1782 (''Rêveries du promeneur solitaire'')
* ''[[Dialogues: Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques]]'', published 1782

==Editions in English==
* ''Basic Political Writings'', trans. Donald A. Cress. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1987.
* ''Collected Writings'', ed. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly, Dartmouth: University Press of New England, 1990-2005, 11 vols. (Does not as yet include ''Émile''.)
* ''The Confessions'', trans. Angela Scholar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
* ''Emile, or On Education'', trans. with an introd. by [[Allan Bloom]], New York: Basic Books, 1979.
* "On the Origin of Language," trans. John H. Moran. In ''On the Origin of Language: Two Essays''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
* ''Reveries of a Solitary Walker'', trans. Peter France. London: Penguin Books, 1980.
* '' 'The Discourses' and Other Early Political Writings'', trans. Victor Gourevitch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
* '' 'The Social Contract' and Other Later Political Writings'', trans. Victor Gourevitch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
* '' 'The Social Contract'', trans. Maurice Cranston. Penguin: Penguin Classics Various Editions, 1968-2007.
* ''The Political writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau'', edited from the original MCS and authentic editions with introduction and notes by C.E.Vaughan, Blackwell, Oxford, 1962. (In French but the introduction and notes are in English).

==Online texts==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
* [http://projects.ilt.columbia.edu/pedagogies/rousseau/ Emile ] French text and English translation (Grace G. Roosevelt's revision and correction of Barbara Foxley's Everyman translation, at Columbia)
* [http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/thesocialcontract/thesocialcontracttoc.htm Mondo Politico Library's presentation of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's book, ''The Social Contract'' (G.D.H. Cole translation; full text)]
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.geocities.com/avisolo3/rousseaubotany.pdf 'Elementary Letters on Botany', 1771-3]|4.23&nbsp;[[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 4442872 bytes -->}} English translation
* [http://www.4literature.net/Jean_Jacques_Rousseau/Discourse_on_the_Moral_Effects/ A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences] English translation
* [http://userwww.service.emory.edu/~cjcampb/sourcedocs/narcissus.html Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy] English translation
* [http://www.constitution.org/jjr/ineq.htm Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men] English translation
* [http://www.constitution.org/jjr/polecon.htm Discourse on Political Economy] English translation
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/rousseau.htm The Creed of a Savoyard Priest] English translation
* [http://www.constitution.org/jjr/socon.htm The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right] English translation
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3913 Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau] English translation, as published by Project Gutenberg, 2004 [EBook #3913]
* [http://www.asiaing.com/the-confessions-of-jean-jacques-rousseau.html The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau]
* [http://www.constitution.org/jjr/corsica.htm Constitutional Project for Corsica] English translation
* [http://www.constitution.org/jjr/poland.htm Considerations on the Government of Poland] English translation
* [http://www.normanschmidt.net/%7Eabc/Rousseau.htm Project Concerning New Symbols for Music] French text and English translation
*{{gutenberg author|id=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau|name=Jean-Jacques Rousseau}}

==External links==
*[http://www.rousseauassociation.org/ Rousseau Association/Association Rousseau], a bilingual association (English and French) devoted to the study of Rousseau's life and works
*[http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/ENLIGHT/ROUSSEAU.HTM The European Enlightenment: Jean-Jacques Rousseau]
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109503/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau], from [[Encyclopedia Britannica]], latest edition full article. <!--Full EB articles are free when linked from Wikipedia. See "next page" link to see full article-->
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/r/rousseau.htm Jean-Jacques Rousseau page at Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://www.c18th.com/author-works.aspx?id=4 Jean-Jacques Rousseau Bibliography]

<references/>

{{Age of Enlightenment}}

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{{lifetime|1712|1778|Rousseau, Jean-Jacques}}

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[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers]]
[[Category:18th century philosophers]]
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