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{{Taxobox
{{Infobox Military Conflict
| name = ''Danthonia californica''
|conflict=Invasion of Panama
| image =
|campaign=
| image_width = 204px
|partof=the [[Cold War]]
| image_caption =
|image=[[Image:Operation Just Cause Rangers 3rd sqd la comadancia small.jpg|300px]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
|caption=Rangers from Charlie Company, 3rd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment prepare to take ''La Comandancia'' in the ''El Chorrillo'' neighborhood of Panama City, December 1989.
| divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]]
|date=[[December 20]], [[1989]] – [[January 31]], [[1990]]
|place=[[Panama]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Poales]]
|casus=
| familia = [[Poaceae]]
|result= Allied victory, deposition of Noriega's dictatorship.
| genus = ''[[Danthonia]]''
|combatant1={{flagicon|Panama|size=22px}} [[Panama]]
| species = '''''D. californica'''''
|combatant2={{flagicon|USA|size=22px}} [[United States]]<br> [[Panamanian Civilian Crusade]]<br> [[Image:Ppbanner.PNG|22px]] [[Panameñista Party]]
| binomial = ''Danthonia californica''
|commander1={{flagicon|Panama}} [[Manuel Noriega]]
| binomial_authority = [[Henry Nicholas Bolander|Bolander]]
|commander2={{flagicon|United States}} [[Maxwell R. Thurman]] <br /> {{flagicon|United States}} [[George H. W. Bush]]
| synonyms = ''Danthonia americana''
|strength1=16,000+
|strength2=27,684+
|casualties1= 100-1,000 killed
|casualties2=24 killed,<br />325 wounded
|casualties3= 300-4,000 civilians killed
|casualties4= none
}}
}}
'''''Danthonia californica''''' is a species of [[Poaceae|grass]] known by the common name '''California oatgrass'''. This plant is native to two separate regions of the Americas, western North America from [[California]] to [[Saskatchewan]], and [[Chile]]. This is a clumping erect perennial grass with stems approaching a meter in height at maximum. The leaves are flat and short and may be hairy or hairless. The [[inflorescence]] holds one or more [[raceme|spikelets]], each spikelet holding up to 8 florets. This grass grows best in moist areas, generally in thin forests and meadows.

The '''United States invasion of Panama''', codenamed '''Operation Just Cause''', was the [[invasion]] of [[Panama]] by the [[United States]] in December 1989, during the administration of [[U.S. President]] [[George H. W. Bush]], and ten years before the [[Panama Canal]] was transferred from control of the United States, back to Panama. During the invasion, ''[[de facto]]'' Panamanian leader, general, and dictator [[Manuel Noriega]] was deposed and the Panamanian Defense Force dissolved.

==Background==

The [[Torrijos-Carter Treaties]], which set in motion the process of handing the [[Panama Canal]] over to Panamanian control, was signed by President of the United States [[Jimmy Carter]] and [[Omar Torrijos]] of Panama on September 7, 1977.
U.S. relations with Noriega spanned decades from 1959 to the early 1980s, when Noriega served as a U.S. intelligence asset and was on the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s payroll. Noriega's relations with George H. W. Bush may have begun in the 1970s, when Bush was head of the CIA.<ref name=jones>Jones, Howard. ''Crucible of Power: A History of U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1897''. 2001, page 494.</ref> Noriega had worked to advance U.S. interests in Central America, notably in sabotaging the forces of the communist government in Nicaragua, the [[Sandinistas]], and the [[FMLN]] revolutionaries in [[El Salvador]], receiving upwards of $100,000 for his efforts.<ref>[[Frederick Kempe]], Divorcing the Dictator (New York, Putnam, 1990), ppg 26-30, 162</ref> ; and as he worked with the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] to restrict illegal drug shipments, he was known to work with the drug dealers themselves simultaneously.<ref name=jones />
During the 1980s, U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] negotiated with General Noriega, requesting that the Panamanian leader peacefully step down, while pressuring him with several drug-related indictments in U.S. courts. Later negotiations involved dropping the drug-trafficking indictments. In March of 1989, an attempted coup against the government of Panama was resisted by Noriega's forces. In May '89, during the national elections, an alliance of parties opposed to the military dictatorship of Manuel Noriega counted results from the country's election precincts before they were sent to the district centers. Their tally showed their candidate, [[Guillermo Endara]] defeating [[Carlos Duque]], candidate of a pro-Noriega coalition, by a nearly 3-to-1 margin. Endara was beaten up by Noriega supporters the next day.<ref name=jones /> Noriega declared the election null and maintained power by force, making him unpopular among Panamanians. Noriega's government insisted that they won the presidential [[elections|election]] and irregularities had been on the part of U.S.-backed candidates from opposition parties.<ref> a report by the [[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]] concluded that numerous human rights violations occurred in Panama during Noriega's government [[''Report on the situation of human rights in Panama''. November 9, 1989]].</ref> Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of the Panamanian people.<ref name=jones />[[Image:PanamaJustCause1991.jpg|340px|thumb|right|A US Marine Corps [[LAV-25]] in Panama]]
The Panamanian Defense Force (PDF), turning its back on Noriega, offered to hand him over to the US; no action was taken. In October 1989, Noriega foiled a second coup attempt led by major [[Moisés Giroldi]]. Pressure mounted on Bush, as the media labeled him a "wimp" for failing to aid Panama amidst his rhetoric.<ref name=jones /><ref> [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1989/7/1989_7_40.shtml "THE WIMP FACTOR"] American Heritage Magazine, November 1989.</ref> Bush declared that the U.S. would not negotiate with a known drug-trafficker and denied having any knowledge of Noriega's involvement with the drug trade prior to his indictment.<ref>"The Noriega Challenge to George Bush’s Credibility and the 1989 Invasion of Panama". 2000.</ref> President Bush's allegations that forces under Noriega's command had shot and killed an unarmed American serviceman, wounded another, arrested and brutally beat a third American serviceman and then brutally interrogated his wife, threatening her with sexual abuse, were cited in the [[United Nations Security Council]] as sufficient grounds for invasion to be an act of self-defense within [[Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter#Article_51|Article 51 of the UN charter]].<ref name="UN_SPV2899_page24">{{UN document |docid=S-PV-2899 |type=Verbatim Report |body=Security Council |meeting=2899 |page=24 |accessdate=2008-08-28|date=[[20 December]] [[1989]]|speakername=Mr Pickering|speakernation=United States of America}}</ref>

In the [[December 16]] incident that led to the killing of American Marine officer Lt. Robert Paz, four U.S. personnel were stopped at a roadblock outside PDF headquarters in the ''El Chorrillo'' neighborhood of [[Panama City, Panama|Panama City]]. The [[United States Department of Defense]] claimed that the servicemen were unarmed and in a private vehicle and that they attempted to flee the scene only after their vehicle was surrounded by a crowd of civilians and PDF troops. The PDF claimed the Americans were armed and on a reconnaissance mission.<ref>''Facts On File World News Digest,'' [[December 22]], [[1989]], "U.S. Forces Invade Panama, Seize Wide Control; Noriega Eludes Capture." FACTS.com [http://www.2facts.com/].</ref> It was also reported by the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''<ref>''Los Angeles Times,'' '[[December 22]], [[1990]], "Some Blame Rogue Band of Marines for Picking Fight, Spurring Panama Invasion", Kenneth Freed.</ref> that "according to American military and civilian sources" the officer killed was a member of the "Hard Chargers", a group whose goal was to agitate members of the PDF. It was also reported that the group's "tactics were well known by ranking U.S. officers" who were frustrated by "Panamanian provocations committed under dictator Manuel A. Noriega", although the group was not officially sanctioned by the military. The Pentagon later denied that such a group ever existed.<ref>[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/74056495.html?dids=74056495:74056495&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Oct+17%2C+1992&author=Hal+Hinson&pub=The+Washington+Post+(pre-1997+Fulltext)&edition=&startpage=d.07&desc=Movies%3B+Canal+Knowledge Washington Post] in [[The Panama Deception]] article, accessed 29th September 2008.</ref> According to an official U. S. military report "witnesses to the incident, a U.S. naval officer and his wife were assaulted by Panamanian Defense Force soldiers while in police custody".<ref> [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1995/justcaus.pdf www.globalsecurity.org], Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, ''Operation Just Cause'', p 2, Retrieved on [[10 February]] [[2007]]</ref>

The official United States justification for the invasion was articulated by President George H. W. Bush on the morning of [[December 20]], a few hours after the start of the operation. Bush listed four reasons for the invasion:<ref>''New York Times,'' December 21, 1989, "A Transcript of President Bush's Address on the Decision to Use Force".</ref>

* '''Safeguarding the lives of U.S. citizens in Panama'''. In his statement, Bush claimed that Noriega had declared that a state of war existed between the United States and Panama and that he also threatened the lives of the approximately 35,000 US citizens living there. There had been numerous clashes between U.S. and Panamanian forces; one US Marine had been killed a few days earlier and several incidents of harassment of US citizens had taken place.
* '''Defending [[democracy]] and [[human rights]] in Panama'''.
* '''Combating [[drug trafficking]]'''. Panama had become a center for drug [[money laundering]] and a transit point for drug trafficking to the United States and Europe.
* '''Protecting the integrity of the [[Torrijos-Carter Treaties]]'''. Members of [[United States Congress|Congress]] and others in the U.S. political establishment claimed that Noriega threatened the neutrality of the [[Panama Canal]] and that the United States had the right under the treaties to intervene militarily to protect the Panama canal.
In regard to one of the reasons set forth by the United States to justify the invasion, namely the Panamanian legislature's [[declaration of war|declaration of a state of war]] between the United States and Panama, Noriega insists<ref>Noriega, Manuel and Eisner, Peter. ''America's Prisoner &mdash; The Memoirs of Manuel Noriega''. Random House, 1997.</ref> that this statement referred to a state of war directed by the U.S. against Panama, in the form of what he claimed were harsh economic sanctions and constant, provocative military maneuvers (Operations Purple Storm and Sand Flea)<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1990/90-9/9091his.htm Operation Just Cause Historical Summary] at GlobalSecurity.Org</ref> that were prohibited by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. The U.S. had turned a blind-eye to Noriega's involvement since the 1970s. Noriega was then singled out for direct involvement in these drug trafficking operations. Panama, before the contended 'declaration of war' against the US, had instigated no hostile actions against any other country.

== Timeline ==

September 1987 - Senate passes resolution urging Panama to reestablish a civilian government. Panama protests alleged U.S. violations of the Canal Treaty.<br>
November 1987: Senate resolution cuts military and economic aid to Panama. Panamanians adopt resolution restricting U.S. military presence.<br>
February 1988: Noriega indicted on drug-related charges. U.S. forces begin planning contingency operations in Panama (OPLAN BLUE SPOON).<br>

[[Image:PanamaM-113JustCauseUS-Invasion.jpg|340px|thumb|A US Army [[M113 Armored Personnel Carrier|M-113]] in Panama]]
March 1988
* 14th March: First of four deployments of U.S. forces begins providing additional security to U.S. installations.
* 16th March: PDF officers attempt a coup against Noriega.
April 1988
* 5th April: Additional U.S. forces deployed to provide security.
* 9th April: Joint Task Force Panama activated.
May 1989
* 7th May: Civilian elections are held; opposition alliance tally shows their candidate, [[Guillermo Endara]], beating Noriega's candidate, [[Carlos Duque]], by a 3 to 1 margin. The election is declared invalid two days later by Noriega.
* 11th May: President Bush orders 1,900 additional combat troops to Panama (Operation NIMROD DANCER).
* 22nd May: Convoys conducted to assert U.S. freedom of movement. Additional transport units travelled from bases in the territorial US to bases in Panama, and back, for this express purpose.
Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep 89
* U.S. begins conducting joint training/freedom of movement exercises (SAND FLEAS and PURPLE STORMS). Additional transport units continued from this date to travel repeatedly from bases in the territorial US to bases in Panama, and back, for this express purpose.
Oct 89
* 3rd Oct: Noriega defeats second coup attempt.
Dec 89
* 15th Dec: Noriega refers to himself as leader of Panama and mentions a state of war with the U.S.
* 16th Dec: Marine lieutenant shot and killed by PDF. Navy lieutenant and wife detained and assaulted by PDF.
* 17th Dec: NCA directs execution of Operation JUST CAUSE.
* 18th Dec: Army lieutenant shoots PDF sergeant. Joint Task Force South (JTFSO) advance party deploys. JCS designates D-Day/H-Hour as 200100R Dec 89.
* 19th Dec: U.S. forces alerted, marshaled and launched.
D-Day 20 Dec 89: The United States Invasion of Panama begins. The operation was conducted as a campaign with limited military objectives. JTFSO objectives in PLAN 90-2 were to: Protect U.S. lives and key sites and facilities, capture and deliver Noriega to competent authority, neutralize PDF forces, neutralize PDF command and control, support establishment of a U.S.-recognized government in Panama, and restructure the PDF. Major operations detailed elsewhere continued to the 24th of Dec.<br>
D-Day + 14, 3 Jan 90 - Noriega surrenders to U.S. forces.<br>
D-Day + 23, 12 Jan 90 - Operation JUST CAUSE ends and PROMOTE LIBERTY begins.<br>
Information in this section<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1990/90-9/9091his.htm Operation Just Cause Historical

Summary] at GlobalSecurity.Org</ref>

== Local and international reactions ==
The Panamanian people overwhelmingly supported the action.<ref name=pastor>Pastor, Robert A. ''Exiting the Whirlpool: U.S. Foreign Policy Toward Latin America and the Caribbean''. 2001, page 96.</ref> According to one poll, 92% of Panamanian adults supported the U.S. incursion, and 76% wished that U.S. forces had invaded in October during the coup.<ref name=pastor /> 74% of Americans polled approved the action.<ref name=pastor />

On [[December 22]] the [[Organization of American States]] passed a resolution deploring the invasion and calling for withdrawal of U.S. troops, in addition to a separate resolution condemning the violation of the diplomatic status of the Nicaraguan Embassy in Panama by US Special Forces who had entered the building.<ref> ''New York Times,'' [[December 21]], [[1989]], "U.S. Denounced by Nations Touchy About Intervention", James Brooke.</ref> At the UN Security Council, after discussing the issue over several days, a draft resolution demanding the immediate withdrawal of United States forces from Panama<ref name="UN_S21048">{{UN document |docid=S-21048 |type=Draft Resolution| body=Security Council | date=[[22 December]] [[1989]]|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> was vetoed on [[23 December]] by three of the permanent members of the Security Council,<ref name="UN_SPV2902_page15">{{UN document |docid=S-PV-2902 |type=Verbatim Report |body=Security Council |meeting=2902 |highlight=rect_30,584_960,1025 |page=15 |accessdate=2007-09-13| date=[[December 23]] [[1989]]}}</ref> [[France]], [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]] who cited its right of self-defense of 35,000 Americans present on the [[Panama Canal]].<ref name="UN_SPV2902_page10">{{UN document |docid=S-PV-2902 |type=Verbatim Report |body=Security Council |meeting=2902 |page=10 |accessdate=2007-09-13| date=[[December 22]] [[1989]]}}</ref> On [[29 December]], the [[General Assembly of the United Nations]] voted 75–20 with 40 abstentions to condemn the invasion as a "flagrant violation of international law."<ref>International Development Research Centre, "The Responsibility to Protect", December 2001, http://www.idrc.ca/openebooks/963-1/ </ref>

[[Peru]] recalled its ambassador in protest of the invasion.

The Washington Post disclosed several rulings of the Office of Legal Counsel, issued shortly before the invasion, in regards to the U.S. armed forces being charged with making an arrest abroad. One ruling Interpreted the Executive Order against Assassination of Foreign Leaders, which prohibits the intentional killing of foreign leaders as suggesting that accidental killings would be acceptable foreign policy. Another ruling concludes that the [[Posse Comitatus Act]] of 1878, which prohibits the armed forces from making arrests without Congressional authorization, is effective only within the boundaries of the US, such that the military could be used as a police force abroad &mdash; for example, in Panama, to enforce a federal court warrant against Noriega.<ref>Henkin, Louis. ''Right V. Might: International Law and the Use of Force''. 1991, page 161-2.</ref>

== Aftermath ==
[[Guillermo Endara]], in hiding in the [[Panama Canal Zone]], was sworn in as president by a judge on the night preceding the invasion. In later years, he staged a hunger strike, calling attention to the poverty and homelessness left in the wake of both the Noriega years and destruction caused by the U.S. invasion<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/186762/Guillermo-Endara-Galimany. Brittanica]</ref> For nearly two weeks after the invasion, there was widespread [[looting]] and lawlessness, a contingency which the United States military indicated it had not anticipated.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} This looting inflicted catastrophic losses on many Panamanian businesses, some of which took several years to recover. On [[July 19]], [[1990]], a group of 60 companies based in Panama filed a lawsuit against the United States Government in Federal District Court in [[New York City]] alleging that the U.S. action against Panama was "done in a [[tortious]], careless and negligent manner with disregard for the property of innocent Panamanian residents". Most of the businesses had insurance, but the insurers either went bankrupt or refused to pay, claiming acts of war are not covered.<ref>''New York Times,'' [[July 21]], [[1990]], "Panama Companies Sue U.S. for Damages".</ref>

About 20,000 people lost their homes and became refugees from the invasion. About 2,700 families that were displaced by the Chorrillo fire were each given $6,500 by the United States to build a new house or apartment in selected areas in or near the city. However, numerous problems were reported with the new constructions just two years after the invasion.<ref>''[[Christian Science Monitor]],'' [[December 20]], [[1991]], "El Chorrillo Two years after the U.S. invaded Panama, those displaced by the war have new homes."</ref>

The government of [[Guillermo Endara]] designated the first anniversary of the U.S. invasion a "national day of reflection". On that day hundreds of Panamanians marked the day with a "black march" through the streets of this capital to denounce the U.S. invasion and Endara's economic policies. Protesters echoed claims that 3,000 people were killed as a result of U.S. military action.Since Noriega's ouster, Panama has had three presidential elections, with candidates from opposing parties succeeding each other in the [[Palacio de las Garzas]]. Panama's press, however, is still subject to numerous restrictions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cpj.org/attacks01/americas01/panama.html|title=www.cpj.org/attacks01/americas01/panama.html<!--INSERT TITLE-->}}</ref> On [[February 10]] [[1990]], the Endara government abolished Panama's military and reformed the security apparatus by creating the [[Panamanian Public Forces]]. In 1994, a constitutional amendment permanently abolished the [[military of Panama]]. Concurrent with a severe recession in Latin America throughout the 1990s, Panama's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] recovered by 1993, but very high [[unemployment]] remained a serious problem.

Noriega was brought to the US to await trial. One of the charges brought against him was dropped when what had been widely reported as 50 kilograms of cocaine, was revealed to be [[tamale]]s. <ref>[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/72558818.html?dids=72558818:72558818&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Jan+23%2C+1990&author=William+Branigin&pub=The+Washington+Post+(pre-1997+Fulltext)&edition=&startpage=a.22&desc=50+Kilos+of+Cocaine+Turn+Out+to+Be+Tamales%3B+U.S.+Retracts+a+Charge+Against+Noriega 50 kilos of Cocaine was tamales] Washington Post 1/23/90 accessed September 29 2008.</ref>

== Major operations and U.S. units involved ==
=== Operations ===
All 27 objectives related to the Panamanian Defense Force were completed on D-Day: December 20, 1989; as initial forces moved to new objectives, follow-on forces from 7th Inf Div (L) moved into the western areas of Panama and into Panama City.

D-Day + 1, 21 Dec 89 -
* JCS directs execution of PLAN BLIND LOGIC.
* Panama Canal reopened for daylight operations.
* Refugee situation becomes critical.
* TF Bayonet begins CMO in Panama City.
* Marriott Hotel secured and hostages evacuated.
D-Day + 2, 22 Dec 89 -
* FPP established.
* CMO and stability operations become primary focus.
* 2d Bde, 7th Inf Div (L), deploys to Rio Hato.
* 1st Bde, 7th Inf Div (L), alerted for deployment.
D-Day + 3, 23 Dec 89 -
* International airport reopened.
* 2d Bde, 7th Inf Div (L) and SF elements begin ops in west.
* 96th CA Bn assumes responsibility for DC Camp from USARSO.
* 1st Bde 7th Inf Div (L) closes in Panama.
D-Day + 4, 24 Dec 89 -
* Noriega enters Papal Nunciatura.
* Money for Weapons program initiated.
* Combined U.S./FPP patrols begin.
D-Day + 5, 25 Dec 89 -
* Rangers secure David.
* Operations in western Panama continue successfully.
D-Day + 14, 3 Jan 90 - Noriega surrenders to U.S. forces.
D-Day + 23, 12 Jan 90 - Operation JUST CAUSE ends and PROMOTE LIBERTY begins.<br>
Above information<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1990/90-9/9091his.htm Operation Just Cause Historical Summary] at GlobalSecurity.Org</ref>

=== Units involved in Operation Just Cause ===
* [[5th Infantry Division (United States|5th Infantry Division (Mechanized)]]
:*[[6th Infantry Regiment (United States)|4th Battalion, 6th Infantry Regiment]]
* [[7th Infantry Division (United States)|7th Infantry Division (Light)]]
:*[[27th Infantry Regiment (United States)|27th Infantry Regiment]]
:*4th Battalion, 17th Infantry Regiment
:*6th Battalion, 8th Field Artillery Regiment
:*B Battery, 7th Battalion, 15th Field Artillery Regiment
:*B Battery, 2-62d ADA
:*1st Battalion, 123rd Aviation Regiment
:*[[9th Infantry Regiment]]
* [[XVIII Airborne Corps]]
** [[82nd Airborne Division]]
*** [[504th Infantry Regiment|1st and 2nd Battalions, 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment]]
*** [[A Company, 3rd Battalion (Airborne), 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment]]
*** [[325th Infantry Regiment|4th Battalion, 325th Parachute Infantry Regiment]]
*** 1st Battalion, 82nd Aviation Regiment (AH-64 Apache Helicopter force)
*** C Company, 3rd Battalion, 73rd Armor Regiment (Airborne)
* [[United States Marine Corps]]
**Marine Security Forces Battalion Panama
**[[3rd Battalion 6th Marines|3rd Battalion, 6th Marine Regiment]]
***India Company
***Kilo Company
***Weapons Company (det)
**[[Fleet Antiterrorism Security Teams|FAST Platoon]]
**[[2nd Light Armored Infantry Battlion|Delta Company, 2nd Light Armored Infantry Battlion]]
**Det (G), 2nd BSSG, [[2nd Marine Logistics Group|2nd FSSG]]
*[[United States Navy]]
**[[USS Vreeland (FF-1068)|USS ''Vreeland'' (FF-1068)]]
* [[United States Army Military Police Corps|Military Police]]
**511th MP Company ([[Fort Drum, New York]])
**988th MP Company ([[Fort Benning]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]])
**555th MP Company ([[Fort Lee]], [[Virginia]])
**437th MP Company ([[Fort Belvoir]],[[Virginia]])
**534th MP Company ([[Fort Clayton]], Panama)
**HHD, 92nd MP Battalion (Fort Clayton, Panama)
**549th MP Company ([[Fort Davis]], Panama)
**401st MP Company ([[Fort Hood]], [[Texas]])
**16th MP Brigade ([[Fort Bragg]], [[North Carolina]])
**1138th MP Company, Det. 1, Missouri Army National Guard, Doniphan, Missouri
* [[U.S. Special Operations Command|1st Special Operations Command]]
** [[5th Special Forces Group]] Fort Campbell, KY.
**[[7th Special Forces Group]] (A)
**[[160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne)|160th SOAR (A)]] ''Night Stalkers''
**[[U.S. Navy SEALs|SEAL Team 4]]
**[[United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group|SEAL Team 6]]
**[[Delta Force|1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-DELTA]]
**[[75th Ranger Regiment]]
**[[4th Psychological Operations Group]]
**[[3rd Battalion, 9th Infantry Regiment, 7th Infantry Division (Light)]]
* [[United States Air Force]]
**[[40th Tactical Airlift Squadron]] ([[317th Tactical Airlift Wing]])
**[[50th Tactical Airlift Squadron]] ([[314th Tactical Airlift Wing]])
**[[63rd Military Airlift Wing]]
**[[437th Military Airlift Wing]]
**[[512th Military Airlift Wing]]
**[[172d Military Airlift Wing]]
**107th Military Intelligence BN
**3rd Mobile Aerial Port Squadron (3rd MAPS)
**[[37th Tactical Fighter Wing]]
* [[U.S. Southern Command]]
* [[U.S. Army South]] (USARSO)
* [[193rd Infantry Brigade]]
* [[59th Engineer Company (Sapper)]]
* [[536 Engineer Battalion]]
* [[154th Signal Battalion]]
* [[1st Battalion, 228th Aviation Regiment]]
* [[MEDDAC]]
* [[DENTAC]]
* [[324th Support Group]]
* 470th Military Intelligence Brigade
* [[Armed Forces Radio and Television Services|Armed Forces Radio and Television Services (AFRTS)]]

===Related operations===
* [[Operation Acid Gambit]] &ndash; operation undertaken by [[Delta Force|1st SFOD-D]] and the [[160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (United States)|160th SOAR]] to rescue Kurt Muse, US citizen involved in the broadcast of anti-Noriega material, during Operation Just Cause.
* [[Operation Blade Jewel]]
* [[Operation Nifty Package]] operation to apprehend [[Manuel Noriega]] during Operation Just Cause. Noriega surrendered to US troops on Jan. 3, 1990.
* [[Operation Nimrod Dancer]] &ndash; 7th ID(light) wargames at Ft. Sherman.
* [[Operation Prayer Book]]
* [[Operation Promote Liberty]] &ndash; operation to rebuild the Panamanian military and civilian infrastructure.
* [[Operation Purple Storm]] &ndash; operation to assert, display and exercise U.S. freedom of movement rights with convoys travelling in and out of Panama for that express purpose.
* [[Operation Sand Flea]] &ndash; operation to exercise, display and assert U.S. freedom of movement rights with convoys travelling in and out of Panama for that express purpose.

==See also==
*''[[The Panama Deception]]'' (1992) winner of the 1992 [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]].

==Notes and references==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* ''New York Times,'' [[December 21]], [[1989]], "For a Panamanian, Hope and Tragedy", Roberto Eisenmann. (Opinion piece)
* Hagemeister, Stacy & Solon, Jenny. ''[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1990/90-9/9091toc.htm Operation Just Cause: Lessons Learned &ndash; Volume I, II & III]'' (Bulletin No. 90-9). Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: ''Center for Army Lessons Learned &ndash; U.S. Army Combined Arms Command''. October, 1990.
* Stephen J. Ducat. 2004. ''[[The Wimp Factor]].'' Boston: [[Beacon Press]]. ISBN 0-8070-4344-3. p. 101-102.
* Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1563281554. OCLC 42970390.
* Mellander, Gustavo A. (1971). The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Danville, Ill.: Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568.
* Murillo, Luis E. (1995). The Noriega Mess: The Drugs, the Canal, and Why America Invaded. 1096 pages, illustrated. Berkeley: Video Books. ISBN 0-923444-02-5.


==External links==
==External links==
*[http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?8738,8929,8930 Jepson Manual Treatment]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTbdnNgqfs8 Confessions Of An Economic Hit Man]
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=DACA3 USDA Plants Profile]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1991/NRB.htm GlobalSecurity.org: Marines In Panama:1988 - 1990]
*[http://herbarium.usu.edu/webmanual/info2.asp?name=Danthonia_californica&type=treatment Grass Manual Treatment]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/20/newsid_4054000/4054951.stm BBC News Archive: 1989: U.S. forces oust General Noriega]
* [http://www.cidh.oas.org/countryrep/Panama89eng/TOC.htm 1989 Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Panama by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights] describes human rights violations by the Noriega regime before Operation Just Cause.
* [http://www.chss.montclair.edu/english/furr/panamainv.html How Television Sold the Panama Invasion] &ndash; ''Extra!'', January 1990; a publication of the media watch group, ''[[Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting|FAIR]]''.
* [http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~hbf/panama.htm Panama: Background of U.S. Invasion of 1989] &ndash; historical timeline.
* [http://www.zmag.org/chomsky/dd/dd-c05-s05.html Operation Just Cause] &ndash; an excerpt from ''Deterring Democracy'', by [[Noam Chomsky]].
*[http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/documents/panama/jcpic/pictures.htm Photographs from the XVIII Airborne Corps History Office].
*[http://www.czbrats.com/JustCause/Album1/jcone.htm More photographs].
* [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/conflicts%2058%20west/conflicts%20west%20%20pages/wars%20conflicts%20west%20map%2053.htm Tactical map of Operation Just Cause].
*[http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/44/a44r240.htm Effects of the military intervention by the United States of America in Panama on the situation in Central America] - UN General Assembly Meeting [[29 December]] [[1989]]


[[Category:Danthonia]]
{{American conflicts}}


[[Category:Conflicts in 1989]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1990]]
[[Category:Invasions]]
[[Category:History of Central America|Panama]]
[[Category:Military history of Panama]]
[[Category:Military history of the United States 1900-1999]]
[[Category:American military occupations|Panama]]
[[Category:Operations involving special forces]]
[[Category:Urban warfare]]
[[Category:History of the United States (1980–1991)]]
[[Category:United States Army Rangers]]
[[Category:George H. W. Bush administration controversies]]


{{grass-stub}}
[[de:US-Invasion in Panama]]
{{Poales-stub}}
[[es:Invasión estadounidense de Panamá de 1989]]
[[fr:Opération Just Cause]]
[[ko:미국 파나마 침공]]
[[id:Invasi Amerika Serikat ke Panama 1989]]
[[it:Invasione di Panama: Just Cause]]
[[hu:„Igaz ügy” hadművelet]]
[[nl:Operatie Just Cause]]
[[ja:パナマ侵攻]]
[[ru:Вторжение США в Панаму]]
[[sv:USA:s invasion av Panama]]
[[tl:Pagsalakayin ng Estados Unidos sa Panama]]

Revision as of 02:41, 14 October 2008

Danthonia californica
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
Division:
Magnoliophyta
Class:
Liliopsida
Order:
Poales
Family:
Poaceae
Genus:
Danthonia
Species:
D. californica
Binomial name
Danthonia californica
Synonyms

Danthonia americana

Danthonia californica is a species of grass known by the common name California oatgrass. This plant is native to two separate regions of the Americas, western North America from California to Saskatchewan, and Chile. This is a clumping erect perennial grass with stems approaching a meter in height at maximum. The leaves are flat and short and may be hairy or hairless. The inflorescence holds one or more spikelets, each spikelet holding up to 8 florets. This grass grows best in moist areas, generally in thin forests and meadows.

External links


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