Turukkaeans: Difference between revisions
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{{about|a people of ancient South West Asia|an African ethnic group sometimes known as the Tukri|Toucouleur people}} |
{{about|a people of ancient South West Asia|an African ethnic group sometimes known as the Tukri|Toucouleur people}} |
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The '''Turukkaeans''' were a [[Bronze Age|Bronze]] and [[Iron Age]] people of |
The '''Turukkaeans''' were a [[Bronze Age|Bronze]] and [[Iron Age]] people of [[Zagros Mountains]]. Their [[endonym]] has sometimes been [[language reconstruction|reconstructed]] as '''Tukri'''. |
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==History== |
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===Middle Bronze=== |
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Turukkum was regarded by the [[Old Assyrian Empire]] as a constant threat, during the reign of [[Shamshi-Adad I]] (1813-1782 BCE) and his son and successor [[Ishme-Dagan]] (1781-1750 BCE). The Turukkaeans were allied to the Land of Ahazum, and they gathered at the town of Ikkallum to face the army of Ishme-Dagan, as Shamshi-Adad wrote in a letter to his other son Yasmah-Adad. Turukkum seems to have been made up of a collection of kingdoms with mixed populations, possibly mostly [[Hurrian]] but also heavily [[Semitic people|Semitic]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Turukkum |encyclopedia=The Routledge Handbook of The Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia |first=Trevor |last=Bryce |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |page=721 }}</ref> |
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⚫ | The Turukkaeans were reported to have sacked the city of [[Mardaman]], apparently under Hurrian rule, around the year 1769/68 BCE.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pfälzner |first1=Peter, (2018).|title=Keilschrifttafeln von Bassetki lüften Geheimnis um Königsstadt Mardaman |url=https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/university/news-and-publications/newsletter-uni-tuebingen-aktuell/2018/2/forschung/5/ |website=uni-tuebingen.de |publisher=University of Tubingen}}</ref> Babylon's defeat of Turukku was celebrated in the 37th year of Hammurabi's reign (c. 1773 BCE). |
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A significant early reference to them is an inscription by the Babylonian king [[Hammurabi]], (r. circa 1792 – c. 1752 BCE) that mentions a kingdom named ''Tukriš'' <small>(UET I l. 46, iii–iv, 1–4)</small>, alongside [[Gutium]], [[Subartu]] and another name that is usually reconstructed as [[Elam]]. Other texts from the same period refer to the kingdom as ''Tukru''. |
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===Iron Age=== |
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By the early part of the 1st millennium BCE, names such as ''Turukkum'', ''Turukku'' and ''ti-ru-ki-i'' are being used for the same region. In a broader sense, names such as Turukkaean been used in a generic sense to mean "mountain people" or "highlanders". |
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[[File:Elam1.png|thumb|A map of Mesopotamia and south-western Iran during the 2nd Millennium BCE. The Tukri are generally believed to have been located immediately north of Lullubi (top centre of the map) during this period.]] |
[[File:Elam1.png|thumb|A map of Mesopotamia and south-western Iran during the 2nd Millennium BCE. The Tukri are generally believed to have been located immediately north of Lullubi (top centre of the map) during this period.]] |
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''Tukru'' or ''Turukkum'' was said to have spanned the north-east edge of Mesopotamia and an adjoining part of the Zagros Mountains |
''Tukru'' or ''Turukkum'' was said to have spanned the north-east edge of Mesopotamia and an adjoining part of the Zagros Mountains. In particular, they were associated with the [[Lake Urmia]] basin and the valleys of the north-east Zagros. They were therefore located north of ancient [[Lullubi]], and at least one [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] (9th to 7th centuries BCE) text refers to the whole area and its peoples as "Lullubi-Turukki" <small>(VAT 8006)</small>. |
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==Hurrians== |
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In terms of cultural and linguistic characteristics, little is known about the Tukri. They are described by their contemporaries as a semi-[[nomad]]ic, mountain tribe, who wore animal skins. Some scholars believe they may have been [[Hurrian]]-speaking or subject to a Hurrian elite.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WRMcBQAAQBAJ&q=turukkaean+origin&pg=PT85|title=People of Ancient Assyria: Their Inscriptions and Correspondence|last=Læssøe|first=Jørgen|date=2014-10-24|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317602613|language=en}}</ref> According to {{Interlanguage link|Horst Klengel|de}}, "''The Turukka people evidently belonged to those late-gentile groups in which the primitive social conditions had already decayed and tribal leaders exercised a permanent function due to close contact, partly established through economic pressure, with the state-organized population practicing rain-fed agriculture in the Rania Plain and the Zagros foothills.''"<ref>{{cite book |title=The Shemshara Archives: The letters |volume=1 |editor-first1=Jesper |editor-last1=Eidem |editor-first2=Jørgen |editor-last2=Læssøe |publisher=Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab |year=2001 |page=25}}</ref> |
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The Turukkeans were closely associated with the Lullubi, and attacked the Hurrian city of Mardaman.{{cn|date=June 2024}} |
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⚫ | |||
In terms of cultural and linguistic characteristics, little is known about the Tukri. They are described by their contemporaries as a semi-[[nomad]]ic, mountain tribe, who wore animal skins. Some scholars believe they may have been [[Hurrian]]-speaking or subject to a Hurrian elite. spoken an early, now-extinct [[Indo-European language]]. |
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{{AncientNearEast-stub}} |
{{AncientNearEast-stub}} |
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*[[Gutian dynasty of Sumer]] |
*[[Gutian dynasty of Sumer]] |
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*[[Sumerian King List]] |
*[[Sumerian King List]] |
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*[[Gutian language]] |
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==Footnotes== |
==Footnotes== |
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*German Archaeological Institute. [https://books.google.com/books?id=eWFtAAAAMAAJ Department of Tehran Archaeological releases from Iran, Volume 19], Dietrich Reimer, 1986 {{in lang|de}} |
*German Archaeological Institute. [https://books.google.com/books?id=eWFtAAAAMAAJ Department of Tehran Archaeological releases from Iran, Volume 19], Dietrich Reimer, 1986 {{in lang|de}} |
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* Wayne Horowitz, ''Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography''. Winona Lake; Eisenbrauns, 1998. |
* Wayne Horowitz, ''Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography''. Winona Lake; Eisenbrauns, 1998. |
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*Jesper Eidem, Jørgen Læssøe, ''The Shemshara archives, Volume 23''. Copenhagen, Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, 2001. {{ISBN|8778762456}} |
*Jesper Eidem, [[Jørgen Læssøe]], ''The Shemshara archives, Volume 23''. Copenhagen, Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, 2001. {{ISBN|8778762456}} |
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*Jörgen Laessøe, ''The Shemshāra Tablets''. Copenhagen, 1959. |
*Jörgen Laessøe, ''The Shemshāra Tablets''. Copenhagen, 1959. |
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*Jörgen Laessøe, "The Quest for the Country of *Utûm", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 1968, vol. 88 , no. 1, pp. 120–122. |
*Jörgen Laessøe, "The Quest for the Country of *Utûm", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 1968, vol. 88 , no. 1, pp. 120–122. |
Latest revision as of 20:40, 1 June 2024
The Turukkaeans were a Bronze and Iron Age people of Zagros Mountains. Their endonym has sometimes been reconstructed as Tukri.
History[edit]
Middle Bronze[edit]
Turukkum was regarded by the Old Assyrian Empire as a constant threat, during the reign of Shamshi-Adad I (1813-1782 BCE) and his son and successor Ishme-Dagan (1781-1750 BCE). The Turukkaeans were allied to the Land of Ahazum, and they gathered at the town of Ikkallum to face the army of Ishme-Dagan, as Shamshi-Adad wrote in a letter to his other son Yasmah-Adad. Turukkum seems to have been made up of a collection of kingdoms with mixed populations, possibly mostly Hurrian but also heavily Semitic.[1]
The Turukkaeans were reported to have sacked the city of Mardaman, apparently under Hurrian rule, around the year 1769/68 BCE.[2] Babylon's defeat of Turukku was celebrated in the 37th year of Hammurabi's reign (c. 1773 BCE).
A significant early reference to them is an inscription by the Babylonian king Hammurabi, (r. circa 1792 – c. 1752 BCE) that mentions a kingdom named Tukriš (UET I l. 46, iii–iv, 1–4), alongside Gutium, Subartu and another name that is usually reconstructed as Elam. Other texts from the same period refer to the kingdom as Tukru.
Iron Age[edit]
By the early part of the 1st millennium BCE, names such as Turukkum, Turukku and ti-ru-ki-i are being used for the same region. In a broader sense, names such as Turukkaean been used in a generic sense to mean "mountain people" or "highlanders".
Tukru or Turukkum was said to have spanned the north-east edge of Mesopotamia and an adjoining part of the Zagros Mountains. In particular, they were associated with the Lake Urmia basin and the valleys of the north-east Zagros. They were therefore located north of ancient Lullubi, and at least one Neo-Assyrian (9th to 7th centuries BCE) text refers to the whole area and its peoples as "Lullubi-Turukki" (VAT 8006).
Hurrians[edit]
In terms of cultural and linguistic characteristics, little is known about the Tukri. They are described by their contemporaries as a semi-nomadic, mountain tribe, who wore animal skins. Some scholars believe they may have been Hurrian-speaking or subject to a Hurrian elite.[3] According to Horst Klengel , "The Turukka people evidently belonged to those late-gentile groups in which the primitive social conditions had already decayed and tribal leaders exercised a permanent function due to close contact, partly established through economic pressure, with the state-organized population practicing rain-fed agriculture in the Rania Plain and the Zagros foothills."[4]
The Turukkeans were closely associated with the Lullubi, and attacked the Hurrian city of Mardaman.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
- ^ Bryce, Trevor (2009). "Turukkum". The Routledge Handbook of The Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. Routledge. p. 721.
- ^ Pfälzner, Peter, (2018). "Keilschrifttafeln von Bassetki lüften Geheimnis um Königsstadt Mardaman". uni-tuebingen.de. University of Tubingen.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Læssøe, Jørgen (2014-10-24). People of Ancient Assyria: Their Inscriptions and Correspondence. Routledge. ISBN 9781317602613.
- ^ Eidem, Jesper; Læssøe, Jørgen, eds. (2001). The Shemshara Archives: The letters. Vol. 1. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. p. 25.
Bibliography[edit]
- German Archaeological Institute. Department of Tehran Archaeological releases from Iran, Volume 19, Dietrich Reimer, 1986 (in German)
- Wayne Horowitz, Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography. Winona Lake; Eisenbrauns, 1998.
- Jesper Eidem, Jørgen Læssøe, The Shemshara archives, Volume 23. Copenhagen, Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, 2001. ISBN 8778762456
- Jörgen Laessøe, The Shemshāra Tablets. Copenhagen, 1959.
- Jörgen Laessøe, "The Quest for the Country of *Utûm", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1968, vol. 88 , no. 1, pp. 120–122.
- Victor Harold Matthews, Pastoral nomadism in the Mari Kingdom (ca. 1830-1760 B.C.). American Schools of Oriental Research, 1978. ISBN 0897571037
- Peter Pfälzner, Keilschrifttafeln von Bassetki lüften Geheimnis um Königsstadt Mardaman (webpage; German language), University of Tubingen, 2018.
- Daniel T. Potts, Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era. Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2014.