Francization of Brussels: Difference between revisions

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==French Period==
==French Period==
Following the [[French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1794|campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars]], the Low Countries were annexed by the [[French First Republic]], ending Spanish-Austrian rule in the region. Brussels became till the dissolution of the [[First French Empire]] in 1815 the [[Prefectures in France |prefecture]] of the [[Dyle (department)|Dyle department]]. The population decreased from 74,000 inhabitants in 1792 to 66,000 in 1799, partially fueled by the [[Peasants' War (1798)|Peasants' Revolt]] of 1798.<ref name="digitaal"/> The French occupation in Belgium led to further suppression of Dutch across the country, including its abolition as an administrative language.<ref name="ulaval"/><ref name="digitaal">{{nl}}[http://www.digitaalbrussel.be/thema/toerisme/geschiedenis/franseov.asp "De geschiedenis van Brussel - de Franse overheersing"], DigitaalBrussel, een initiatief van de Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie</ref> With the motto "one nation, one language", French became the only accepted language in public life, as well as in economical, political, and social affairs. <ref>{{nl}}[http://www.dutch.ac.uk/studypacks/dutch_language/brussels/broeksele.html "Broeksele"], ''Bruisend Brussel'', UCL, Global University of London</ref> From this period until the 20th century, Dutch was seen in Belgium as a language of the poor and illiterate.<ref name="ned"/> In Flanders as well as other areas in Europe, the aristocracy quickly adopted French. <ref name="brio">{{fr}}[http://www.brio.sharedfolder.net/Taal_sociale_integr_1.pdf "La situation des langues à Bruxelles au XIXe siècle à la lumière d'un examen critique des statistiques"], pagina 33-79</ref><ref name="ulaval"/> The French occupation laid the foundations for a francization of the Flemish middle class aided by an exceptional French-language educational system.<ref name="brio2">{{nl}}[http://www.brio.sharedfolder.net/Taal_sociale_integr_2.pdf "Peilingen naar het taalgebruik in Brusselse stadscartularia en stadsrekeningen, XIIIde-XVde eeuw"], De Ridder Paul, Taal en Sociale Integratie 2, Brussel, VUB, 1979</ref>
Following the [[French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1794|campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars]], the Low Countries were annexed by the [[French First Republic]], ending Spanish-Austrian rule in the region. Brussels became till the dissolution of the [[First French Empire]] in 1815 the [[Prefectures in France |prefecture]] of the [[Dyle (department)|Dyle department]]. The population decreased from 74,000 inhabitants in 1792 to 66,000 in 1799, partially fueled by the [[Peasants' War (1798)|Peasants' Revolt]] of 1798.<ref name="digitaal"/> The French occupation in Belgium led to further suppression of Dutch across the country, including its abolition as an administrative language.<ref name="ulaval"/><ref name="digitaal">{{nl}}[http://www.digitaalbrussel.be/thema/toerisme/geschiedenis/franseov.asp "De geschiedenis van Brussel - de Franse overheersing"], DigitaalBrussel, een initiatief van de Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie</ref> With the motto "one nation, one language", French became the only accepted language in public life, as well as in economical, political, and social affairs. <ref>{{nl}}[http://www.dutch.ac.uk/studypacks/dutch_language/brussels/broeksele.html "Broeksele"], ''Bruisend Brussel'', UCL, Global University of London</ref> The measures of the successive French governments and in particular the [[conscription]] into the French army were particularly unpopular within the Flemish segment of the population and caused the so-called [[Peasants' War (1798) |Peasants' War]].<ref name="leclerc">{{cite web |author=Jacques Leclerc |accessdate=2008-04-02 |Publisher=[[University of Laval]] |title=Belgique - België - Belgien |language=French |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgiqueacc.htm}}</ref> From this period until the 20th century, Dutch was seen in Belgium as a language of the poor and illiterate.<ref name="ned"/> In Flanders as well as other areas in Europe, the aristocracy quickly adopted French. <ref name="brio">{{fr}}[http://www.brio.sharedfolder.net/Taal_sociale_integr_1.pdf "La situation des langues à Bruxelles au XIXe siècle à la lumière d'un examen critique des statistiques"], pagina 33-79</ref><ref name="ulaval"/> The French occupation laid the foundations for a francization of the Flemish middle class aided by an exceptional French-language educational system.<ref name="brio2">{{nl}}[http://www.brio.sharedfolder.net/Taal_sociale_integr_2.pdf "Peilingen naar het taalgebruik in Brusselse stadscartularia en stadsrekeningen, XIIIde-XVde eeuw"], De Ridder Paul, Taal en Sociale Integratie 2, Brussel, VUB, 1979</ref>


In the beginning of the 18th century the [[Napoleonic era|Napoleonic]] Office of Statistics executed a review of the language use, which found that Dutch was still the most frequently spoken language in both the Brussels arrondissement and [[Leuven]]. An exception included a number of districts in the city of Brussels, where France had become the most used language. In [[Nivelles]], [[Walloon language|Walloon]] was the most spoken language.<ref name="ULB"/> Inside of the [[Small ring (Brussels)|Small Ring]] of Brussels, the pentagon, French was the leading language of street markets and of districts such as [[Coudenberg]] and [[Zavel]],<ref name="winkler">{{nl}}[http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/wink007alge02/wink007alge02_067.htm "Algemeen Nederduitsch en Friesch Dialecticon"], Tweede deel, Johan Winkler, 1874 - 156. De stad Brussel</ref> while Dutch dominated in the harbor, the [[Schaarbeek]]sepoort area, and the Leuvensepoort area. In [[Sint-Gillis]], near the center of Brussels, ''Flemish'' was still spoken at the time.<ref name="ULB"/>
In the beginning of the 18th century the [[Napoleonic era|Napoleonic]] Office of Statistics executed a review of the language use, which found that Dutch was still the most frequently spoken language in both the Brussels arrondissement and [[Leuven]]. An exception included a number of districts in the city of Brussels, where France had become the most used language. In [[Nivelles]], [[Walloon language|Walloon]] was the most spoken language.<ref name="ULB"/> Inside of the [[Small ring (Brussels)|Small Ring]] of Brussels, the pentagon, French was the leading language of street markets and of districts such as [[Coudenberg]] and [[Zavel]],<ref name="winkler">{{nl}}[http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/wink007alge02/wink007alge02_067.htm "Algemeen Nederduitsch en Friesch Dialecticon"], Tweede deel, Johan Winkler, 1874 - 156. De stad Brussel</ref> while Dutch dominated in the harbor, the [[Schaarbeek]]sepoort area, and the Leuvensepoort area. In [[Sint-Gillis]], near the center of Brussels, ''Flemish'' was still spoken at the time.<ref name="ULB"/>

Revision as of 13:09, 2 April 2008

Manneken Pis, A symbol of French and Dutch cohabitation in Brussels[1]
Location of Brussels, bilingual enclave in monolingual Dutch-speaking Flanders
French and Dutch are both official languages in the Brussels municipality and the Brussels-Capital Region

The Francization of Brussels transformed Brussels from an almost entirely Dutch-speaking, over a bilingual, to a multilingual city with French as the majority language and lingua franca. The language shift first began in the 18th century but accelerated as Belgium became independent and Brussels expanded out past its original city boundaries. [2][3]

Not only is French-speaking immigration responsible, but more importantly the language change over several generations from Dutch to French by the Flemish people in Brussels themselves. The main reason for this was the lack of consideration to use Dutch as a language of society in Belgium at the time.[4] Only since the 1960s, after the fixation of the Belgian language border and the socio-economic development of Flanders was in full effect, could Dutch stem the tide of increasing French use.[5] Through immigration, a further number of formerly Dutch-speaking municipalities in surrounding Flanders became majority French-speaking in the second half of the 20th century. [6][7][8] This phenomenon is, together with the future of Brussels, one of the most controversial topics in all of Belgian politics.[9][10]

Given its Dutch-speaking origins and the role that Brussels plays as the capital city in a bilingual country, Flemish political parties demand that the entire Brussels capital region be fully bilingual, including its subdivisions and public services. They also request that the contested Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde arrondissement become separated from the Brussels region. However, the French-speaking population regards the language border as artificial [11] and demands the extension of the bilingual region to at least all six municipalities with language facilities in the surroundings of Brussels.[12] Flemish politicians have strongly rejected these proposals.[13][14][15]

Introduction

Ever since its inception in the 10th century, Brussels had been a city where people spoke Dutch, mainly in the form of local Brabantian dialects of the Dutch language.[16][17] However, the language situation of Brussels has seriously changed in the last two centuries. On the one hand, Dutch was largely replaced in favor of French, the so-called francization, and on the other hand, during the 20th century Brussels became more and more of an international city. This internationalization brought an influx of foreign immigrants who favored using primarily French or foreign languages rather than Dutch.[18]

Much more than with other Dutch-speaking cities, during its history Brussels has been administered by a large amount of foreign princes and overlords, who frequently used French as language of the court.[19] This was especially true of the Low Countries under Burgundian rule. The prestige of Dutch in present-day Belgium had been through many ages marginalized, while French had taken the role of a cultural language. [4]

The large-scale francization of Brussels only began in the 19th century, and by the 1910 census a majority of people in what is now the Capital Region reported that the language they spoke exclusively or the most frequently was French (source). In the second half of the 20th century, the Belgian city population growth was fueled by a massive wave of immigration, which contributed to Brussels' transformed bilingual nature into one of multilingualism, with French as lingua franca.[20]

Late Middle Ages

Around the year 1000, the County of Brussels became a part of the Duchy of Brabant and therefore of the Holy Roman Empire and Brussels one of the four capitals of the Duchy, along with Leuven, Antwerp, and 's-Hertogenbosch. In contrast with other Flemish cities where French was used by the aristocracy to communicate, Dutch was the main language of Brussels. However, at that time, though the main language spoken in Brussels was Dutch, a large part of the county, mainly the rural area around Nivelles, spoke French. [19]

Initially in Brussels as well as other parts of Europe, Latin was used as an official language. From the late 13th century, people began to switch to the vernacular. This occurrence took place in Brussels and then in other Brabantian cities, which all had eventually switched by the 16th century. Official city orders and proclamations were thenceforth gradually written in Dietsch, a predecessor to the modern Dutch language. Dutch remained the administrative language in Brabant until the late 18th century. Under control of the German principality, Brabantian cities enjoyed many freedoms, including choice of language.[19] Before 1500, there were almost no French documents in the Brussels City Archive. In Flemish cities such as Bruges, Ghent, Kortrijk and Ypres the percentage of French documents in city archives fluctuated between 30 and 60 percent. Such French influences were not seen in Brabant and Brussels.[19]

After the death of Joanna, Duchess of Brabant, in 1406, the Duchy of Brabant became a part of the Duchy of Burgundy and the use of the French language increased in the region. [21]

In 1477, Burgundian duke Charles the Bold perished in the Battle of Nancy. Through the marriage of his daughter Mary of Burgundy to Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, the Low Countries fell under Habsburg sovereignty. Brussels became the capital of the Burgundian Netherlands, also known as the Seventeen Provinces. After the death of Mary in 1482 her son Philip the Handsome succeeded as the Duke of Brabant. In 1506 he became the king of Castile, and hence the period of the Spanish Netherlands began.

Spanish Period

Brussels in 1555, still a small city inside the present-day Small Ring

After 1531, Brussels was known as the Princelijcke Hoofstadt van 't Nederlandt, literally the Princely Capital of the Netherlands. After the division of the Netherlands resulting from the Eighty Years' War and in particular from the fall of Antwerp to the Spanish forces, the economic and cultural centers of the Netherlands migrated to the northern Dutch Republic. Brabant and Flanders were engulfed in the Counter-Reformation, and the Catholic priests continued to preach in Latin.

Dutch was seen as the language of Calvinism and was thus considered to be anti-Catholic.[21] In the context of the Counter-Reformation, many clerics of the Low Countries had to be educated at the French-speaking university of Douai.[17] However Dutch was not utterly excluded of the religious domain. For instance, F. Brunot reported 1638 that, in Brussels, the Jesuits "preached three times a week in Flemish and two times in French".[17] While Dutch became standardized by the Dutch Republic, dialects continued to be spoken in the south. As in other places in Europe, during the 17th century French grew as a language of the nobility and upper class of society.[22][23] The administrative languages during this time were both French and, to a lesser extent, Spanish.[19] Some French-speaking nobility established themselves in the hills of Brussels (in the areas of Coudenberg and Zavel), bringing with them primarily Walloon personnel. This attracted a considerable number of other Walloons to Brussels who came either in search of work or to beg. This Walloon presence led to the adoption of Walloon words in the Brussels flavor of Brabantian Dutch, although the Walloons who migrated there quickly adopted and began speaking Dutch.[19] Following the Treaty of Utrecht, the Spanish sovereignty over the Southern Netherlands was transferred to the Austrian branch of Habsburgs. This event started the era of the Austrian Netherlands.

Austrian Period

First page of Verlooy's Dissertation on the disregard of the native language in the Netherlands (1788), regarded as the first work dealing with the language problem in Flanders.[24]

In the 18th century, there were already complaints about the waning use of Dutch in Brussels, which had acquired the status of "street language".[25][26] There were various reasons for this. The repressive policies of the Spaniards after the division of the Low Countries and the following mass exodus of the intellectual elite towards the Dutch Republic left Flanders bereft of its upper social class. After the the end of the 17th century Dutch Golden Age and the Dutch Republic went into decline, Dutch was considered even less as a suitable language for politics, culture, and business. Meanwhile, French culture was spreading fast.[5] The "Grand Théâtre de la Monnaie" which opened in 1700 showed in the middle of the 18th century about 95% of plays in French.[17] During the War of the Austrian Succession, between 1745 and 1749, Brussels was under French rule.[citation needed] By 1780, French was the adopted language of much of the Flemish bourgeoisie,[19] who were later pejoratively labelled Franskiljons (loosely: little Frenchies). The large growth coupled with the increasing impoverishment of the population led to even further stigmatization of Dutch, the language of the Brussels commoners. In Brussels the percentage of impoverished people doubled from 1755 to 1784, at which point 15 percent of the population was in poverty.[25] The small French-speaking minority was quite affluent and constituted the social upper class.[27]

The percentage of the Brussels population that chose to use French in public life was between 5 and 10 percent in 1760, increasing to 15 percent in 1780.[17] According to authenticated archives and various official documents, it appears that a fifth of municipal declarations and official orders were written in French. Twenty years later this rose to a quarter. However, over half of the official documents in French originated in the French-speaking bourgeoisie, who made up just a tenth of the population. In 1760 small businesses and artisans wrote only 3.6 percent of their documents in French; by 1780 this had risen to 12.8 percent.[4] In private life, Dutch was by far the most-used language.[4][17]

Brussels politician and jurist Jan-Baptist Verlooy wrote in 1788 his Essay on the disregard of the native language in the Netherlands, in which he declared that the native Dutch-speaking population was 95% of that of Brussels. [4][28] In this essay, he emphasized the necessity of the use of Dutch in the development of the people and culture of the Low Countries.[19]

During the Brabantian Revolution of 1789-1790, the municipal government promulgated a number of orders in both Dutch and French, partly due to influence from Walloon revolutionaries.[19] In general, before the French invasion in 1794 the Brussels municipal government used French for just five percent of its official declarations, the rest being in Dutch. For the Austrian Habsburg administration French was the language of communication, although the communiqué from the Habsburgs was seldom seen by commoners of Brussels[19]

French Period

Following the campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars, the Low Countries were annexed by the French First Republic, ending Spanish-Austrian rule in the region. Brussels became till the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815 the prefecture of the Dyle department. The population decreased from 74,000 inhabitants in 1792 to 66,000 in 1799, partially fueled by the Peasants' Revolt of 1798.[29] The French occupation in Belgium led to further suppression of Dutch across the country, including its abolition as an administrative language.[27][29] With the motto "one nation, one language", French became the only accepted language in public life, as well as in economical, political, and social affairs. [30] The measures of the successive French governments and in particular the conscription into the French army were particularly unpopular within the Flemish segment of the population and caused the so-called Peasants' War.[31] From this period until the 20th century, Dutch was seen in Belgium as a language of the poor and illiterate.[26] In Flanders as well as other areas in Europe, the aristocracy quickly adopted French. [32][27] The French occupation laid the foundations for a francization of the Flemish middle class aided by an exceptional French-language educational system.[33]

In the beginning of the 18th century the Napoleonic Office of Statistics executed a review of the language use, which found that Dutch was still the most frequently spoken language in both the Brussels arrondissement and Leuven. An exception included a number of districts in the city of Brussels, where France had become the most used language. In Nivelles, Walloon was the most spoken language.[17] Inside of the Small Ring of Brussels, the pentagon, French was the leading language of street markets and of districts such as Coudenberg and Zavel,[34] while Dutch dominated in the harbor, the Schaarbeeksepoort area, and the Leuvensepoort area. In Sint-Gillis, near the center of Brussels, Flemish was still spoken at the time.[17] 150 years later, half of the population spoke only French, and today not a single Dutch-speaking family lives in the municipality.[18]

Immediately after the invasion of the French, Dutch was forbidden to be used in the Brussels city hall.[4] The francization rules implemented by the French government, instituted to unify the state, were aimed at the citizens who were to assume power from the nobility as was done in the French Revolution.[4] However the French conquerors rapidly understood it was not possible to force local populations speaking languages very different of French to use this language. The frenchization of the Low Countries therefore remained limited, in the Dutch sprachraum, to the higher level of the local administration and the upper-class society.[17] The effect on lower social classes, of whom 60% were illiterate,[4] was somewhat limited.[22] Life on the streets was greatly affected, as by law all notices, streetnames, and the like were required to be written in French.[4] From then on, official documents were to be written solely in French, although "when needed", a non-legally-binding translation could be permitted.[22] Simultaneously, businesses from the rural areas were told not to continue operating if they were not proficient in French.[17] In addition, the law stated that all court pleas, sentences, and other legal materials were to be written solely in French, unless practical considerations made this impossible.[17] This law applied to all notaries, although in practical terms this was only implemented by 1803. These measures increased the percentage of official documents written in French from 60% at the turn of the century to 80% by 1813. This reflected more the effects of the new language laws rather than an evolution in language use by the population. Although mainly used by in higher social circles, a more appropriate measure of actual language use might include an observation of written testaments, three quarters of which in 1804 were written in Dutch.[17] Thus, the higher classes still used primarily Dutch near the turn of the century.[17] During the implementation of these laws Brussels continued to grow. The first city wall was immediately removed, and the second wall (where the Small Ring now stands), was gradually demolished between 1810 and 1840, so that the city could incorporate the outlying districts.[35] After the fall of Napoleon, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by the Congress of Vienna.

Dutch Period

Right after the formation of the new kingdom, at the request of Brussels businesses, Dutch once again became the official language of Brussels.[4] Nevertheless, the short union of the Netherlands and Belgium from 1815 to 1830 did not lessen the political and economical power of French in Flanders, for it remained the language of the aristocracy there.[36] Brussels and The Hague were dual capitals of the Kingdom, although in the parliament the Belgian delegates only spoke French. King William I wanted to develop the Southern Netherlands to the level of the Northern Netherlands, and instituted a wide network of schools in the local language of the people.[19][27] He made Dutch the single official language of the Flemish provinces, and requested the same for bilingual Brabant and Brussels. The Walloon provinces remained monolingually French.[4] The King hoped to make Dutch the sole language of the nation, but the French-speaking citizenry, the Catholic Church, and the Walloons resisted this move.[27] The French-speaking population feared that their opportunities for participation in government were threatened, and that they would become unneeded elements of the new Kingdom. Under pressure from these groups, in 1830 King William I reintroduced a language freedom policy throughout all of present-day Belgium. This nullified the mononlingual status of Brussels and the Flemish provinces.[37][38][4]

Important for the later development of the Dutch language was that the Flemish population experienced a certain of amount of contact with Standard Dutch during the short reign of the kingdom.[22] The Catholic Church saw Dutch as a threatening element representative of Protestantism, while the Francophone aristocracy still viewed Dutch as a language subordinate to French.[38] These views helped contribute to the Belgian Revolution and to a future monolingually Francophone Belgium.[37][22][29] This strong preference for French would have a great influence on the language use of Brussels.

Belgian Period

The Belgian Revolution in the Grand Place in front of the Town Hall
See also: Language legislation in Belgium

The bourgeoisie in Brussels used more and more French, numerous French and Walloon immigrants moved to Brussels, and for the first time in mass numbers the Flemish people began switching to French.[16][21] There were a number of reasons for these occurences.

By October 16, 1830 King William I had already rescinded a policy that named Dutch as the official language of Brussels.[39] The sole official language of the newly created state was French, even though a majority of the population was Flemish.[27][5] French became the language of the court, the administration, the army, the media, and of culture and education.[16] With more French being spoken, there was a certain aura of "decency" in societal progress, culture, and universalism.[34] In contrast, Dutch garnered little consideration and was deemed a language for peasants, farmers, and poor workers.[40] In addition to the geographical language border between Flanders and Wallonia, there was in fact also a social language border between the Dutch and French speakers.[41][23][38] French was the language of politics and economics and a symbol of upward social mobility.[32] French poet Charles Baudelaire, during his short stay in Brussels, complained of the hypocrisy of the bourgeoisie at the time:[42]

In Brussels, people do not really speak French, but pretend that they do not speak Flemish. For them it shows good taste. The proof that they actually do speak good Flemish is that they bark orders to their servants in Flemish.[43]

The new Belgian capital had been a Dutch-speaking city, where the inhabitants spoke a local dialect of South Brabantian Dutch. A minority of French-speaking citizens, mainly those who had immigrated from France during the previous decades, constituted 15% of the population.[27] Despite this, the first mayor of Brussels after the revolution, Nicolas-Jean Rouppe, declared French as the sole language of administration.[29] The political center of Brussels attracted the economic elite, and Brussels soon acquired French-speaking upper and middle classes.[41] In 1846, 37.6% of the city was French-speaking, while this percentage was 5% in Ghent and 1.9% in Antwerp. An important portion of the so-called French speakers were actually Flemish with Dutch-speaking roots.[44] In 1860, 95% of the Flemish population spoke Dutch, although these people had hardly any economic and political power[26] and deemed a good knowledge of French necessary to attain higher social status and wealth.[16][27][21]

Brussels attracted many immigrants from Flanders, where economic strife and hunger were widespread.[41] Native bilingual Brussels residents harbored a sense of superiority over the Flemish immigrants from the poor countryside, which manifested itself in the decision to speak the "superior" French language.[32]

In two or three generations, the new immigrants themselves began to speak French[21]. A typical family might have Dutch-speaking grandparents, bilingual parents, and French-speaking children. The exclusively French educational system played an important role in this changing language landscape. Flemish was mainly ignored as a school subject. From 1842, Dutch disappeared form the first four years of boys' schools, although in later school grades it could be studied. In girls' schools and Catholic schools Dutch was taught even less, even though Dutch was still the native tongue of a majority of the students.[44]

References

  1. ^ Template:Nl[1] "Manneken-Pis schrijft slecht Nederlands", Taalrespect.be, Het Nieuwsblad, 25/08/2007
  2. ^ Template:Fr[2] "Wallonie - Bruxelles", Le Service de la langue française, 19/05/1997
  3. ^ Template:Fr[3] "Villes, identités et médias francophones: regards croisés Belgique, Suisse, Canada.", Université Laval, Québec
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Template:Nl[4] "Nederlands in België, Het Nederlands bedreigd en overlevend", door G. Geerts. Uit "Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse taal", onder redactie van M.C. van den Toorn, W. Pijnenburg, J.A. van Leuvensteijn en J.M. van der Horst Cite error: The named reference "nlb" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  5. ^ a b c Template:Nl[5] "De historische kracht van de Vlaamse beweging in Belgie: de doelstellingen van gister, de verwezenlijkingen vandaag en de culturele aspiraties voor morgen", Mr. J. Fleerackers, Kabinetschef van de Belgische Minister van Nederlandse Cultuur en Vlaamse Aangelegenheden, 1973, Digitale bibliotheek voor Nederlandse Letteren Cite error: The named reference "dbnl" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  6. ^ Template:Nl[6] "Kort historisch overzicht van het OVV", Overlegcentrum van Vlaamse Verenigingen
  7. ^ Template:Fr[7] "Bisbilles dans le Grand Bruxelles", Le Monde, 20/10/2007
  8. ^ Template:Nl[8] "Sint-Stevens-Woluwe: een unicum in de Belgische geschiedenis", Overlegcentrum van Vlaamse Verenigingen
  9. ^ Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{lang-en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead.[9] "Brussels", Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
  10. ^ Template:Fr[10] "Bruxelles dans l'oeil du cyclone", France 2, 14/11/2007
  11. ^ Template:Fr[11] "La Flandre ne prendra pas Bruxelles...", La Libre Belgique, 28/05/2006
  12. ^ The six municipalities with language facilities around Brussels are Wemmel, Kraainem, Wezembeek-Oppem, Sint-Genesius-Rode, Linkebeek and Drogenbos.
  13. ^ Template:Fr[12] "Une question: partir ou rester?", La Libre Belgique, 24/01/2005
  14. ^ Template:Fr[13] "Position commune des partis démocratiques francophones", Union des Francophones (UF), Provincie Vlaams-Brabant
  15. ^ Template:Fr[14] "Bruxelles-capitale: une forte identité", France 2, 14/11/2007
  16. ^ a b c d Template:Nl[15] "Brussel historisch", Hoofdstedelijke Aangelegenheden, Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Daniel Droixhe. "Le français en Wallonie et à Bruxelles aux XVIIe. et XVIIIe. siècles" (in French). Université Libre de Bruxelles. Retrieved 2008-04-02.
  18. ^ a b Template:Nl[16] Janssens, Rudi (2001), "Over Brusselse Vlamingen en het Nederlands in Brussel", In: Els Witte, Ann Mares (red.) 19 keer Brussel; Brusselse Thema's (7), VUBPress, ISBN 90 5487 292 6
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Template:Nl[17] "De mythe van de vroege verfransing", Taalgebruik te Brussel van de 12de eeuw tot 1794, Paul De Ridder
  20. ^ Template:Nl[18] "Laatste 45 jaar in Brussel: 50% bevolking van autochtoon naar allochtoon", BuG 54- Bericht uit het Gewisse 04/04/07, Non-Profit Data
  21. ^ a b c d e Template:Fr"Bruxelles, la Flandre, et le fédéralisme", Ernest Mandel, 1963
  22. ^ a b c d e Template:Nl"Vlaanderen tot 1914", vakgroep Nederlands op de UF Berlin
  23. ^ a b Template:Fr"Perspectives socialistes sur la question flamande", Ernest Mandel, 1958
  24. ^ Original title:Verhandeling op d’onacht der moederlyke tael in de Nederlanden
  25. ^ a b Template:Nl"De visie van reizigers op Brabant en Mechelen (1701-1800)", Thomas De Wolf, Licentiaatsverhandelingen on-line
  26. ^ a b c Template:Nl"Het Nederlands in Brussel", NedWeb — Universität Wien, Institut für Europäische und Vergleichende Sprach- und, Literaturwissenschaft, Abteilung Nederlandistik Cite error: The named reference "ned" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  27. ^ a b c d e f g h Template:Fr"Petite histoire de la Belgique et ses conséquences linguistiques", Département de Langues, linguistique et traduction, Faculté des Lettres, Université Laval de Québec, Canada
  28. ^ A study from 1979 by Hervé Hasquin, a French-speaking linguist and professor from ULB Brussels, gives the number of Dutch-speaking citizens in 1785 as 90%
  29. ^ a b c d Template:Nl"De geschiedenis van Brussel - de Franse overheersing", DigitaalBrussel, een initiatief van de Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie
  30. ^ Template:Nl"Broeksele", Bruisend Brussel, UCL, Global University of London
  31. ^ Jacques Leclerc. "Belgique - België - Belgien" (in French). Retrieved 2008-04-02. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ a b c Template:Fr"La situation des langues à Bruxelles au XIXe siècle à la lumière d'un examen critique des statistiques", pagina 33-79
  33. ^ Template:Nl"Peilingen naar het taalgebruik in Brusselse stadscartularia en stadsrekeningen, XIIIde-XVde eeuw", De Ridder Paul, Taal en Sociale Integratie 2, Brussel, VUB, 1979
  34. ^ a b Template:Nl"Algemeen Nederduitsch en Friesch Dialecticon", Tweede deel, Johan Winkler, 1874 - 156. De stad Brussel
  35. ^ Template:Nl"De territoriale groei van Brussel", Brussels Onderwijspunt, Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie
  36. ^ Template:Nl"Het Nederlands: status en verspreiding", Nederlands Online, Institut für Deutsche und Niederländische Philologie — FU Berlin 2004
  37. ^ a b Template:Fr"La langue et la révolution de 1830", Robert Demoulin, Unification politique, essor économique (1794-1914), in "Histoire de la Wallonie", op. cit., p. 313-322 — Wallonie en mouvement
  38. ^ a b c Template:Fr"Comment sortir du labyrinthe belge?", Marcel Bauwens
  39. ^ Template:Nl"Brussel verfranst in de 19de eeuw", Flanders Online, uitgebaat door het Vlaams Dienstencentrum vzw
  40. ^ Template:Fr"Le Québec entre la Flandre et la Wallonie : Une comparaison des nationalismes sous-étatiques belges et du nationalisme québécois", Erudit, promouvoir et diffuser la recherche universitaire
  41. ^ a b c Template:Nl"De sociale taalgrens", Als goede buren: Vlaanderen en de taalwetgeving, Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap
  42. ^ Template:Nl"Taalgebruik in Brussel. Taalverhoudingen, taalverschuivingen en taalidentiteit in een meertalige stad", Rudi Janssens, Brusselse Thema's 8, Brussel, VUBPRESS, 2001.
  43. ^ Original quote: On ne sait pas le français, personne ne le sait, mais tout le monde affecte de ne pas connaître le flamand. C’est de bon goût. La preuve qu’ils le savent très bien, c’est qu’ils engueulent leurs domestiques en flamand.
  44. ^ a b Template:Nl"Taal- en onderwijspolitiek te Brussel (1878-1914)", Harry van Velthoven, p261-443, Taal en Sociale Integratie 4, Brussel, VUB, 1981

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