User:Gwinva/Sandbox3

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
< User:Gwinva

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Gwinva (talk | contribs) at 22:21, 1 March 2007 (→‎Warhorses). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

References for cut and paste

  • Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996
  • Oakeshott, Ewart. A Knight and his Horse, Rev. 2nd Ed. USA:Dufour Editions, 1998
  • Barker, Juliet. The Tounament in England: 1100-1400, UK: The Boydell Press, 1986
  • Talhoffer, Hans. Medieval Combat, 1467. Translated and edited by Mark Rector, London:Greenhill Books, 2000
  • Tuchman, Barbara W. A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century, New York: Ballantine Books, 1978
  • Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval Times, UK: Grange Books, 2005 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
  • Clark, John (Ed). The Medieval Horse and its Equipment: c.1150-c.1450, Rev. 2nd Ed, UK: The Boydell Press, 2004
  • Gravett, Christopher. English Medieval Knight 1300-1400, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002
  • Bumke, Joachim. Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages, translated by Thomas Dunlap, USA: Overlook Duckworth, 2000 (First published in 1986 as Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im holen Mittelalter by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag)
  • Leyser, Henrietta. Medieval Women: A Social History of Women in England 450-1500, UK: Phoenix Press, 1996
  • Nicolle, David. Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom, UK: Brockhampton Press, 1999
  • Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua B; Cairns, John. Warfare in the Medieval World, UK: Pen & Sword Military, 2006
  • Bennet, Matthew; Bradbury, Jim; DeVries, Kelly; Dickie, Iain; Jestice, Phyllis G. Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World: AD 500-AD 1500, London: Amber Books, 2005

Note about my draft

I have noticed a number of articles relating to the medieval horse that need editing in various ways (eg. Horses in warfare, Destrier, Lance), so I am using this sandbox to run through all the ideas in a logical way (for me). It is a work in progress; at times I work purely with text for fluency, but I aim to add links and references over time. When complete, some or all of the sections might be merged with the approriate article, or used as a reference to make smaller changes. It is possible that the balance of the information (once arranged appropriately) might be suitable for an article as titled. If a link or search has brought you here, then please offer comments on my talk page.

Title:'Horses in the Middle Ages: Western Europe'

It is difficult to determine exactly what breed of horse was common in the Middle Ages. Modern breeds have developed over the years, and may bear little resemblance to their ancestors. Moreover, the horse in the Middle Ages was rarely differentiated by breed, but rather by use. This lead them to be described, for example, as 'chargers' (warhorse), 'palfreys' (riding horse) or packhorses. Reference is also given to their place of origin, with a number of horses being called 'Spanish', but whether this referred to one breed or several is unknown. Along with literary references, there are many pictures of horses, plus representations of them on seals or other decoration. However, many of these were stylised, relied on the skill of the artist, and also conformed to the artistic traditions of the time. Certainly the medieval artists use of perspective and scale differs considerably to the modern expectation, so care has to be taken over any analysis of these. In literature, also, it was common to employ hyperbole when describing great men and great battles.

Another difficulty arising during the study of medieval documents and literature is the flexibilty of the language, where several words can be used for one thing (or, conversely, several objects are described by one word). Words such as 'courser' and 'charger' are used interchangeably (even within one document), and where one epic may speak disparagingly of a rouncey, another praises its skill and swiftness.

Consequently, the assumptions and theories developed by historians are not definitive, and debate still rages on many issues, such as the breeding or size of the horse. A number of sources must be consulted in order to understand the breadth of the subject.

Warhorses

The most well known horse of the medieval era is the destrier, known for carrying knights into war. Also known as the 'Great Horse', the destrier was highly prized by knights and men-at-arms, but was actually not very common.[1] Most knights and mounted men-at-arms rode other war horses, such as coursers and rounceys.[2] (A generic name often used of warhorses is 'charger', which appears interchangeable with the other terms). While some sources describe rounceys as indifferent horses, suitable only for poor squires, others describe them as good all-purpose horses. When a summons to war was sent out in England, in 1327, it expressly requested rounceys, for swift pursuit, rather than destriers. [3]

Despite the popular image of a knight on horseback charging into battle, the heavy cavalry charge was not a common occurence. Pitched battles were avoided, if at all possible, with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of sieges[4] or swift mounted raids (chevauchées),[5] with the warriors lightly armed and their warhorses safely in the stable. While pitched battle was sometimes unavoidable, it was rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry. By the fourteenth century, it became custom for knights to dismount to fight, although warhorses remained essential. [6] Dismounting was less effective for attack.[7] By the late Middle Ages (approx 1300-1550), battles became more common, probably because of the success of infantry tactics.[8]

Stallions were chosen for warhorses due to their natural agression, and hot-blooded image. A thirteenth century work describes destriers "biting and kicking" on the battlefield.[9] However, the use of mares cannot be discounted from literary references.[10]

Warhorses were more expensive than normal riding horses, and destriers the most prized, but figures vary greatly from source to source. Destriers are given a values ranging from seven times the price of an ordinary horse[11] to 700 times.[12] The Bohemian king Wenzel II rode a horse "valued at one thousand marks" in 1298.[13] At the other extreme, a 1265 French ordnance ruled that a squire could not spend more than twenty marks on a rouncey.[14] Knights were expected to have at least one warhorse (as well as riding horses and packhorses), with some records from the later Middle Ages showing knights bringing twenty-four horses on campaign.[15] Five horses was perhaps the standard.[16]

Destrier

The word destrier comes form the latin dextarius, which means 'right-sided' (the same root as our modern 'dexterous'). This may refer to the fact that it was led by the squire at the knight's right side (or led by the right hand) or to the horse's pacing (leading with the right).[17] 'Destrier' does not refer to a breed, but to a horse displaying certain characteristics: that of the finest warhorse. It was described by contemporary sources as a 'great horse' because of its size and reputation. This is, of course, a subjective term, and gives no firm information about its height. The average horse of the time was 12-14 hands, so a 'great horse' by medieval standards might appear small to our modern eyes.

The destrier was perhaps more suited to the joust; coursers seem to have been preferred for war.[18]

Breed and size of warhorses

There is little evidence for a controlled and consistent breeding of warhorses in the Middle Ages, or a development of particular strains, although in the 7th century, a Merovingian kingdom still retained at least one of the Roman horse breeding centres.[19] This appears to be the exception, as in the early Middle Ages, uncontrolled breeding throughout Europe resulted in the loss of good warhorse stock, which had to be built up again over the following centuries.[20]

It is also hard to trace what happened to the bloodline when the warhorse-type seem to disappear from record during the seventeenth century.[21] Many modern draft breeds claim some link to the warhorses, with some sources considering breeds such as the Percheron, Belgian and Suffolk Punch likely descendants of the destrier.[22] However, many historians discount this theory. [23] Such a theory would suggest the warhorses began breeding once again with the cold-bloods, since warhorses, and the destrier in particular, were renowned for their hot-blooded nature.[24]

The origins of the warhorse are equally obscure, although it is believed they had Arabian blood, through the Spanish or Andalusian horses. It is possible bloodstock from the Nisaean breed from Iran and Anatolia were brought back from the Crusades. [25] Spanish horses were the most expensive (although that refered to their origin, not their breeding). In Germany, spanjol became the word used to describe warhorses; German literary sources also refer to fine horses from Scandanavia. [26]Feudal France was also noted for its warhorses.[27]

There has also been some dispute, in medievalist circles, over the size of the warhorse, with some notable historians claiming a size of 17-18 hands (as large as a modern Shire or police horse).[28] However, there is little evidence for such a size. Analysis of existing horse armour located in the Royal Armouries indicates they were originally worn by horses of 15-16 hands[29], about the size and build of a modern hunter. [30] Research undertaken at the Museum of London, using literary, pictorial and archeological sources, supports military horses of 14-15 hands, distinguished from a riding horse by its strength and skill, rather than its size.[31]

Perhaps one reason the 'myth' of the giant warhorse was so persuasive is the assumption, still held by many, that medieval armour was heavy. In fact, even the heaviest tournment armour (for knights) weighed little more than 90 lb, and field (war) armour 40-70 lb; horse armour, more common in tournaments than war, rarely weighed more than 70lb.[32] Hardened leather, and padded bards would have been more common [33], and probably as effective.[34] Even allowing for the weight of the rider, such a load could easily be carried by 1200 lb horse.

Further evidence for a 14-16 hand warhorse is that it was a matter of pride to a knight to be able to vault onto his horse in full armour, without touching the stirrup. This arose not from vanity, but necessity: if unhorsed during battle, a knight would remain vulnerable if unable to mount by himself. In reality, of course, a wounded or weary knight might find it difficult, and rely on a vigilant squire to assist him. Incidentally, a knight's armour served in his favour in any fall. With his long hair twisted on his head to form a springy padding under his padded-linen hood, and his helm placed on top, he had head protection not dissimilar to a modern bike helmet.[35]


Tournaments

Tournaments began in the eleventh century as both a sport and training for war. Usually taking the form of a mêlée, the participants used the horses, armour and weapons of war.[36] The sport of jousting grew out of it and, by the fifteenth century tilting became quite sophisticated.[37] Its pageantry and specialism became less war-like, perhaps because of the knight's changed role in war.[38]

Horses were now specially breed for the joust, and heavier armour developed. However, this did not lead to significantly larger horses. Interpreters at the Royal Armouries, Leeds, have re-created the joust, using specially bred horses and replica armour.[39] Their horses are 15-16 hands, approx 1100 lb,[40] and perform well in the joust. Incidentally, the medieval war saddle within the armoury fits one of their smaller horses perfectly.

Riding horses

A knight kept riding horse in his war-train, saving his warhorses for the battle. [41]

In Germany, Hungarian horses were commonly used for riding. [42]

Work horses

Transportation

During much of the Middle Ages, there was no system of interconnected roads and bridges, and those Roman roads remaining fell in to disrepair.[43] Barges for river and canal travel, and mule trains, were the most common form of long-haulage, although horse carts or wagons were used for shorter journeys.[44] These could be two-wheeled or four-wheeled. [45]

Agriculture

Oxen were traditionally used as work animals on farms, but with the development of the horse collar (and associated technologies), draft horses began to be used. This can be traced from pictorial eveidence (for example, the eleventh-century Bayeux tapestry depicts working horses) and also the change from the Roman two-field crop-rotation system to a new three-field system, which increased the cultivation of fodder crops (predominatley oats, barley and beans).[46] Oxen and horses were sometimes harnessed together. [47]

In an affiliated industry, horses were often used to turn the wheels in mills (such as cornmills).

Women and horses

Women would have ridden many of the horses discussed above, or been responsible for their care. It was customary for a girl to learn her father's trade, and for a woman to share her husband's trade. Many guilds also accepted the membership of widows, so they might continue their husband's business. Under this system, many women trained in horse-related trades, and there are records of women trading as farriers and saddlers.[48] On farms, there was no division of labour, and women would have worked alongside men (on their own farms or as hired help), leading the farmhorses and oxen, and managing their care.[49]

As Medieval roads were not of a high standard through much of Europe, carriages were rare. If roads permitted, women could ride in carriages developed form haulage-wagons, and pulled by three or four horses.[50] Carriage travel was made more comfortable in the late fourteenth century with the introduction of the chariot branlant, which had strap suspension. [51] Women would usually travel on horseback or, if delicate or infirm, be carried in a litter.[52] Sidesaddles were manufactured from the thirteenth century, but not universally adopted. [53] Despite the difficulties of travel, it was customary for many, including women, to travel long distances. [54]

Horse transports

Care of horses

Other topics, bits that don't fit, or useful for other articles

  • Medieval men and women were only marginally shorter than their modern counterpart. The average height of an urban Englishman was 5'8" (1.72m). A woman was on average 5'2" (1.58m). The well-nourished knightly classes would exceed this average. [55] Edward I of England was over 6'.
  • In 732, Pope Gregory III banned the eating of horsemeat. This proscription was ignored, or forgotten, in most of Europe, but was observed in England throughout the Middle Ages, causing old horses to be almost worthless. [56]

Mounted shock combat

It has been commonly understood that the introduction of the stirrup to Western Europe from the east led to the development of mounted shock warfare; particularly, the stirrup allowed the man-at-arms to couch his lance. This theory is assumed in many histories of medieval warfare. However, this theory has been questioned by recent research. (discuss mechanics of charge). One of the commonly-used pictorial evidence for a later development of mounted shock is the Bayeux tapestry, where the mounted combatants are seen wielding un-couched spears, suggesting to some historians that the spears were not couched at that stage of warfare. However, the tapestry depicts the melee (close-combat stage of a battle), when it would be impossible to wield a couched spear. A couched spear is only appropriate for attacking an enemy who is directly in front, not one who comes from the side, as the torque would be enough to knock the horseman out of his saddle. The style of fighting shown on the Bayeux tapestry is not primitive; the fifteenth-century fight master Hans Talhoffer pictures an almost identical stance in his treatise on fighting on horseback.[57] Moreover, the ground at Hastings was not suitable for cavalry charges, suiting the deployment of small units of mounted men. [58]

Interestingly, the word lance was not used until the fifteenth century, coinciding with the heavy spear (lance) developed for the tournament. By that time, the knight rarely fought as heavy cavalry on the battlefield, but dismounted to fight. During the (heyday) of mounted warfare, the lighter war-lance (or spear) was used, couched only for the initial charge.

The stirrup was developed in the east, where the mode of warfare relied on long, hard riding, and the use of missiles (eg arrows)... (complete)

development of saddle.


Notes and references

  1. ^ Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, p 30
  2. ^ Oakeshott, Ewart. A Knight and his Horse, Rev. 2nd Ed. USA:Dufour Editions, 1998, pp 11-12
  3. ^ Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, p 318
  4. ^ Bennet, Matthew; Bradbury, Jim; DeVries, Kelly; Dickie, Iain; Jestice, Phyllis G. Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World: AD 500-AD 1500, London: Amber Books, 2005, p121
  5. ^ Chevauchées were the preferred form of warfare for the English during the Hundred Years' War (see, amongst many, Barber, Richard. The Reign of Chivalry, 2nd Ed. UK: The Boydell Press, 2005, pp 34-38) and the Scots in the Wars of Independence (see Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996)
  6. ^ Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, p 31
  7. ^ Barber, Richard. The Reign of Chivalry, 2nd Ed. UK: The Boydell Press, 2005, p 33
  8. ^ Bennet, Matthew; Bradbury, Jim; DeVries, Kelly; Dickie, Iain; Jestice, Phyllis G. Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World: AD 500-AD 1500, London: Amber Books, 2005, p 123
  9. ^ Bumke, Joachim. Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages, translated by Thomas Dunlap, USA: Overlook Duckworth, 2000, p 175 (First published in 1986 as Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im holen Mittelalter by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag)
  10. ^ Bumke, Joachim. Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages, translated by Thomas Dunlap, USA: Overlook Duckworth, 2000, p 177 (First published in 1986 as Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im holen Mittelalter by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag)
  11. ^ Nicolle, David. Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom, UK: Brockhampton Press, 1999, p 267
  12. ^ Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua B; Cairns, John. Warfare in the Medieval World, UK: Pen & Sword Military, 2006, p112
  13. ^ Bumke, Joachim. Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages, translated by Thomas Dunlap, USA: Overlook Duckworth, 2000, p 178 (First published in 1986 as Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im holen Mittelalter by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag)
  14. ^ Oakeshott, Ewart. A Knight and his Horse, Rev. 2nd Ed. USA:Dufour Editions, 1998, p 12
  15. ^ Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, p 31
  16. ^ Nicolle, David. Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom, UK: Brockhampton Press, 1999, p 169
  17. ^ Gravett, Christopher. English Medieval Knight 1300-1400, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002, p 59
  18. ^ Oakeshott, Ewart. A Knight and his Horse, Rev. 2nd Ed. USA:Dufour Editions, 1998, p 11
  19. ^ Nicolle, David. Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom, UK: Brockhampton Press, 1999, p 267
  20. ^ Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua B; Cairns, John. Warfare in the Medieval World, UK: Pen & Sword Military, 2006, p112
  21. ^ Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, p30
  22. ^ Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval Times, UK: Grange Books, 2005, p 88 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
  23. ^ Too numerous to reference all, but notable sources include: Clark, John (Ed). The Medieval Horse and its Equipment: c.1150-c.1450, Rev. 2nd Ed, UK: The Boydell Press, 2004, p 23; Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, p 30
  24. ^ Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua B; Cairns, John. Warfare in the Medieval World, UK: Pen & Sword Military, 2006, p113
  25. ^ Nicolle, David. Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom, UK: Brockhampton Press, 1999, p267
  26. ^ Bumke, Joachim. Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages, translated by Thomas Dunlap, USA: Overlook Duckworth, 2000, pp 177-178 (First published in 1986 as Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im holen Mittelalter by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag)
  27. ^ Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval Times, UK: Grange Books, 2005, p 88 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
  28. ^ Including: Davis, R. The Medieval Warhorse, London:Thames and Hudson, 1989;
  29. ^ study by Ann Hyland, quoted in: Clark, John (Ed). The Medieval Horse and its Equipment: c.1150-c.1450, Rev. 2nd Ed, UK: The Boydell Press, 2004, p 23
  30. ^ Gravett, Christopher. English Medieval Knight 1300-1400, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002, p 59
  31. ^ Clark, John (Ed). The Medieval Horse and its Equipment: c.1150-c.1450, Rev. 2nd Ed, UK: The Boydell Press, 2004, p 25
  32. ^ Oakeshott, Ewart. A Knight and his Horse, Rev. 2nd Ed. USA:Dufour Editions, 1998, pp 104-105
  33. ^ Barker, Juliet, The Tournament in England, 1100-1400, UK: Boydell Press, 1986, pp 175-6
  34. ^ Oakeshott, Ewart. A Knight and his Horse, Rev. 2nd Ed. USA:Dufour Editions, 1998, p 49
  35. ^ Oakeshott, Ewart. A Knight and His Armour, Rev. 2nd Ed. USA: Dufour Editions, 1999, p 92
  36. ^ Barker, Juliet. The Tounament in England: 1100-1400, UK: The Boydell Press, 1986, pp 4-15
  37. ^ Oakeshott, Ewart, A Knight and his Horse, Rev. 2nd Ed. USA:Dufour Editions, 1998, pp 79-83
  38. ^ Barber, Richard. The Reign of Chivalry, 2nd Ed. UK: The Boydell Press, 2005, p 42
  39. ^ http://www.royalarmouries.org/extsite/view.jsp?sectionId=484
  40. ^ http://www.royalarmouries.org/extsite/view.jsp?sectionId=2452
  41. ^ Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, p 30
  42. ^ Bumke, Joachim. Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages, translated by Thomas Dunlap, USA: Overlook Duckworth, 2000, p178 (First published in 1986 as Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im holen Mittelalter by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag)
  43. ^ Nicolle, David. Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom, UK: Brockhampton Press, 1999, p 267
  44. ^ Tuchman, Barbara W. A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century, New York: Ballantine Books, 1978, p57
  45. ^ Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval Times, UK: Grange Books, 2005, p56 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990) Pack horses were also used.
  46. ^ Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval Times, UK: Grange Books, 2005, p128 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
  47. ^ Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval Times, UK: Grange Books, 2005, p 147 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
  48. ^ Leyser, Henrietta. Medieval Women: A Social History of Women in England 450-1500, UK: Phoenix Press, 1996, pp 162-165 and Power, Eileen. Medieval Women, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975
  49. ^ Leyser, Henrietta. Medieval Women: A Social History of Women in England 450-1500, UK: Phoenix Press, 1996, p 145
  50. ^ Tuchman, Barbara W. A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century, New York: Ballantine Books, 1978, p 57
  51. ^ Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval Times, UK: Grange Books, 2005, p56 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
  52. ^ Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval Times, UK: Grange Books, 2005, p 273 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
  53. ^ Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval Times, UK: Grange Books, 2005, p273 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
  54. ^ Tuchman, Barbara W. A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century, New York: Ballantine Books, 1978, p 57
  55. ^ Clark, John (Ed). The Medieval Horse and its Equipment: c.1150-c.1450, Rev. 2nd Ed, UK: The Boydell Press, 2004, p 25
  56. ^ Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph. Daily Life in Medieval Times, UK: Grange Books, 2005, p 147 (originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
  57. ^ Talhoffer, Hans. Medieval Combat, 1467. Translated and edited by Mark Rector, London:Greenhill Books, 2000, plate 269
  58. ^ Prestwich, Michael. Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, p 326
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Gwinva/Sandbox3&oldid=111929173"