Infantry tactics

Ever since human beings fought, infantry existed. Infantry tactics have evolved over time.

Introduction

The Greeks were some of the first to use infantry through the use of a phalanx. The phalanx was tightly knit group of men armed with 4-meter spears and overlapping shields. The phalanx required training but as a result of it, they were able to negate the effectiveness of the chariot. The phalanx was the dominant tactic of that era.

However, as effective as the Greek phalanx was, it was defeated by the Roman Empire. A Greek phalanx required only minimal training; even a small militia could use it if they trained on their free time. The Romans made their army into a complex professional one, with a developed leadership structure and a rank system. The Romans made it possible for small-unit commanders to receive rewards and medals for valor and advancement in battle. Another major advantage was that Roman units were organized into small groups, which could each be used independently to attack a single enemy unit. The Romans were the first to create these revolutionary ideas.

The Roman System

On the infantry level, most Roman soldiers were armed with a variety of throwing spears, which they trained profusely with. Generally, in a battle with Roman soldiers, the enemy would be met with a volley of light spears, followed by a volley of heavy spears (piliums), finally by another volley of lead-weighted pilums. After the enemy was disheartened by all these volleys the Roman soldiers would close in with short swords which were designed for stabbing (gladius). Like with throwing spears the Roman soldiers were trained profusely to stab with these swords instead of slashing. Their training was constant and repetitive, to insure stabbing was used in combat rather than slashing, which is more natural.

The mix of projectile weapons, excellent organization, intense training, and the presence of effective leaders, made the Roman system the most effective tactic of its time, annihilating any other tactic used at that time.

Ranged Infantry Tactics

A common and effective infantry tactic developed in the 1400s utilized the long bow. It consisted of having long bowmen lined up behind a phalanx of pikemen. When an enemy came within the range of the longbowmen they would open up, showering them with hundreds of arrows. Even fully armored knights were not protected by these volleys of arrows. The most notable example of this was the Battle of Agincourt, where outnumbered English longbowmen and soldiers were able to destroy a force of French knights that was pursuing them.

When gunpowder came about, the phalanx was still used until the muskets were fitted with bayonets. Once a musket was fitted with a bayonet, it could serve as a spear, so it made the group of pikemen protecting the musketeers from cavalry obsolete. The infantry would still line up like they had in the past but this time they had bayonets protecting them; if the enemy closed into hand-to-hand combat range. Generally in battles, two sides would line up, fire a few volleys at each other and then the one side would rush at the other with bayonets. At this point the side being rushed often retreated. Although not always and sometimes these bayonet charges would result in a massacre as happened many times during the American Civil War.

Napoleon Bonaparte did many things to change the nature of warfare. Among his adaptations was entrenching. No longer did soldiers have to always stand exposed. With the advent of entrenching, soldiers could have large degree of protection from direct fire weapons. The largest problem with entrenching is the time it takes to make a trench. Another infantry tactic that Napoleon introduced was a diamond shaped formation, which allowed soldiers to rapidly change directions.

The line tactics that had been used for so long made the American Civil War as bloody as it was. By that time, the weapons were accurate enough that the lines were not necessary, yet many commanders clung to older, more traditional forms of combat. However, these line tactics continued to be used until World War I. The line tactics were still for the most part effective against natives in lands being taken over by the European powers during the late 1800s.

Colonial Warfare

So far the tactics that have been covered were ones that were used by the major powers of the world, however many other tactics were used by infantry in other countries. In South Africa, the Zulu impis (regiments), were infamous for their bull horn tactic. It involved four groups, two in the front and one on the left and right side of the main two groups. They would surround the enemy unit and close in and destroy them with iklwas (small spears). The Zulu warriors surprised and often overwhelmed their enemies, even much better armed and equipped enemies such as the British army. However, as effective as the Zulus were, they were no match to the technologically advanced and professional British Army.

The Sudanese fought their enemies by using a handful of riflemen to lure enemy riflemen into the range of concealed Sudanese spearmen. On the other side of the spectrum, the Maori didn't fight; rather, they hid in fortified bunkers that could withstand strikes from even some of the most powerful weapons of the 1800s. Sometimes the natives would become armed with the same if not better weapons than the imperial country they were fighting. During the Battle of Little Bighorn, Lt. Colonel George Custer and the Seventh Cavalry were destroyed by a force of Sioux and Cheyenne Indians, who were in many ways better armed than they were.

Unconventional infantry tactics often puts a conventional enemy at a disadvantage. During the Second Boer War, the Boers used guerilla tactics to fight the conventional British Army. Boer marksmen would often pick off British soldiers from hundreds of feet away. These constant sniper attacks forced the British infantry to begin wearing khaki uniforms instead of than their traditional red. The Boers were much more mobile than the British infantry and thus could usually choose where a battle would take place. These unconventional tactics forced the British to adopt some unorthodox tactics of their own. These included putting the families of Boer soldiers in camps in order to deprive the Boer soldiers of support.

World War I

With the advent of tanks and aircraft, infantry's role in combat began to decrease. Roles which were traditionally held by infantry were taken over by these new weapons. Infantry still played a vital role in holding ground gained by tanks and aircraft. Because of the lethality of more modern firearms, such as the Maxim machine gun and artillery, infantry began hunkering down in trenches. No longer could a group of infantry stand out in the open and expect to survive.

A common tactic used during the war was to shell an enemy trench line, followed up by a group of infantry which would charge the trench line and kill anyone left alive. However this tactic of "preliminary bombardment" was largely unsuccessful. The tactic was necessary for the obvious reason of the weapons the other side were armed with but also because of "no-mans' land". No man's land was an area between two trench lines which would be filled with barbed wire, mines, and anything else that could be placed to slow down an advancing soldier. For a group of soldiers from one trench to get to an enemy trench line they would have to cross this and in the process would be slowed by all the obstructions and largely annihilated.

A similar tactic to "preliminary bombardment" was the "creeping barrage" in which artillery would fire right in front of advancing infantry to clear any enemy in they way. The tactic was only successful for limited objectives. A tactic devised by the Germans was on of infiltration. A small group of experienced infantry would slip into enemy defenses. Once they were in position to attack, the main infantry force would advance.

World War II

Infantry tactics were widespread throughout World War II. In some areas of the war, guerilla tactics were used, while in others more conventional tactics. More than ever battles consisted of infantry working together with tanks, aircraft, artillery, etc. One example of this is how infantry would be sent ahead of tanks to search for anti-tank teams, while tanks would be providing cover for the infantry.

Infantry became essential for urban warfare. After a city had been put turned almost total rubble, infantry would be sent in to search the area to secure what was left and clear out any enemy infantry that might have survived. Tanks could not be sent into these areas without great risk because their limited mobility and maneuverability. When they were sent in they could be more easily disabled by enemy anti-tank teams hiding in buildings, using anti-tank weapons such as the panzerfaust and the molotov cocktail.

Another major difference between any previous conflict was the means of transportation. No longer did soldiers have to move on foot from location to location. Although there were trucks in World War I, the mobility of them could never be fully used because of the trench warfare. During World War II, infantry could be moved from one location to another through half-tracks and trucks. A new type of infantry, the paratrooper, came about during World War II. These lightly armed soldiers would parachute behind enemy lines, hoping to catch the enemy off guard so they could carry out an important mission against them. They would have to be fast and effective because if they became bogged down they would be no match for tanks or a large well armed force of conventional infantry.

The Marines became prominent during the war in the pacific theater. These soldiers would land and beaches and engage in battles. They often times became engaged in some of the fiercest battles during the war, against fanatical Japanese soldiers. After re-taking an island they would go onto another. Usually they would have the support of battleships or aircraft carriers. Their role in World War II was essential for taking back the pacific.

Squad

Offensive tactics

Aggressive squad tactics were similar for most sides though specifics in arms, numbers, and the subtleties of the doctrine differed. The main goal of these tactics was to advance by means of fire and movement with minimal casaulties while maintaining unit effectiviness and control.

The German squad would win the Feuerkampf (fire fight), and then occupy key positions. The riflemen and machine gun team were not separate, but part of the Gruppe even though men were often firing at will. Victory in this tactic was won by the side that could concentrate the most rapid fire on target. Generally, soldiers were ordered to hold their fire until the enemy was 600 metres or closer. From that far away, troops opened fire on mainly large targets, though individuals were fired upon from 400 meters away.

The German squad had two main formations while moving on the battlefield. When advancing in the Reihe, or single file formation, the commander took the lead, followed by the machine gunner and his assistants, then the rifleman, and the assistant squad commander moving on the rear. The Reihe moved mostly along tracks and it presented a small target on the front. In some cases, the machine gun could be deployed while the rest of the squad held back. In most cases, the soldiers were to take advantage of the terrain, keeping behind countours and cover, and running out into the open when there were none to be found.

The Reihe could easily be formed into the Schützenkette, or skirmish line. The machine gun was deployed on the spot, while the riflemen could come up on the right, left or both sides. The result of this formation was a ragged line with men about five paces apart that would take cover whenever available. In areas where resistance was serious the squad became fully fledged 'fire and movement'. This is used either with the entire spuad taking part or the machine gun team down while the riflemen advanced. It was often cautioned to commanders not to fire the machine gun until forced to do so by enemy fire. The object of the fire fight was to not only destroy the enemy, but Niederkampfen--to beat down, silence, or neutralize them.

The final phases of an offensive squad action were the fire fight, advance, assault, and occupation of position:

The Fire Fight is the fire unit section. The section commander usually only commands the LMG to open fire upon the enemy. If much cover exists and good fire effect is possible, the riflemen take part in the firefight early. Most of the riflemen should be on the front later to prepare for the assault. Usually, they fire individually unless they commander orders them to focus on one target.

The Advance is the section that works its way forward in a loose formation. Usually, the LMG forms the front of the attack. The longer the riflemen follow behind the LMG, the more the rear machine guns could shoot past them.

The Assault is the main offensive in the squad action. The commander makes an assault whenever he is given the opportunity, not being ordered to. The whole section is rushed into the assault while the commander leads the way. Throughout the assault, the enemy must be engaged with the maximum rate of fire. The LMG took part in the assault, firing on the move. Using hand grenades, machine pistols, rifles, pistols, and entrenching tools, the squad tried to break the enemy resistance. The squad must reorganize quickly once the assault is over.

The Occupation of Position is as the name says. When occupying a position, the riflemen group up into twos or threes around the LMG in way that they could hear the section commander.

The American squad's basic formations were very similar to the German equivalents. The US squad column had the men strung out with the squad leader and BAR man in front with the riflemen in a line behind them roughly 60 paces long. This formation was easily controlled and manuevered and it was suitable for crossing areas open to artillery fire, moving through narrow covered routes, and for fast movement in woods, fog, smoke, and darkness.

The skirmish line was very similar to the Schützenkette formation. In this formation the squad was deploy in a line roughly 60 paces long. The skirmish line was suitable for short rapid dashes but wasn't easy to control. The squad wedge was alternitave to the skirmish line and was suitable for ready movement in any direction or from emerging from cover. Wedges were often used away from the riflemen's range of fire as it was much more vulnerable than the skirmish line.

In some instances, especially when a squad is working independently to seize an enemy position, the commander may order the squad squad to attack in sub-teams. 'Team Able', made up of two riflemen scouts, would locate the enemy, 'Team Baker', comprised of a BAR man and three riflemen, would open fire, and 'Team Charlie', made up of the squad leader and the last five riflemen, would make the assault. The assault is given whenever possible and without the regard of the progress of the other squads. After the assault, the squad was to advance, dodging for cover to cover and bayonets fixed. They would move rapidly towards the enemy firing and advancing in areas occupied by hostile soldiers. Such fire would usually be delivered in a standing position at a rapid rate. After taking the enemy's position, the commander would either order his squad to defend or continue the advance.

The British method's formations were designed to depend chiefly on the ground and the type of enemy fire to be encountered. Five squad formations were primarily used: blobs, single file, loose file, irregular arrowhead, and the extended line. The blob formation, first used in 1917, referred to ad hoc gatherings of 2 to 4 men, hidden as best as possible. The regular single file formation was only used in certain circumstances like when the squad was advancing behind a hedgerow. The loose file formation was a slightly more scattered line that was suitable for rapid movement but was vulnerable to enemy fire. Arrowheads could deploy rapidly from either flank and were hard to stop from the air. The Extended Line was perfect for the final assault, but was vulnerable if fired from the flank.

The British squad would commonly break up into two groups for the attack. The 'Bren group' consisted of the two-man Bren team and second in command that formed one element, while the main body of the riflemen with the squad commander formed another. The larger group that contained the commander was responsible for closing with the enemy and advanced on the double when under fire. When under effective fire the riflemen went to fully fledged 'fire and movement'. The riflemen were ordered to fall to the ground as if shot, and then crawl to a good firing position. They took rapid aim and fired independently until the squad commander shouted the command the cease fire. On some occasions the Bren group advanced by bounds, to a position where they could effectively open fire, preferebly at an angle of 90 degrees to the main assault. In this case both the groups would give each other cover fire. The final attack was to be made by the riflemen who were ordered to fire at the hip as they went in.

Cold War Era

The Korean War was the first major conflict following World War II. During the Korean War the human wave tactic was used by Chinese forces. Human wave tactics emphasised overwhelming an enemy by sending large numbers of soldiers against fortified positions. This tactic had been used before by the Soviets and Japanese during World War II and in general a tactic used by a poorly armed force against a more advanced one. This tactic was very costly to the side performing it.

Vietnam

Guerrilla tactics became very popular throughout the third world. Many of these attacks revolved around "hit and run" attacks. "Hit and run" attacks involved a small group usually hiding in ambush and attacking a larger force, only to retreat seconds later. This took away from a lot of the advantages of the conventional forces' advanced weapon systems. It gave an ambushed squad no time to call in an artillery or air strike.

Booby traps were another common tactic among guerillas. The punji stick was a common example of booby traps used in Vietnam. Grenade traps were another example. They were grenades poised with the pin removed and the lever pushed down. If it were moved the pressure would come off the lever and the grenade would explode. Pits with punji sticks were another booby trap in Vietnam.

One of the biggest aspects of a guerilla however was camouflage. The Vietcong would travel around in small groups and often wearing civilian clothes to make it difficult for American soldiers to know who they were. Often times the Vietcong would hide in tunnels underground. Some of these tunnels were so advanced that commanders briefed soldiers and slept there. When American soldiers had to enter the tunnels, they had to be lightly armed and travel through the dark.

Soviet-Afghan War

During this war, Russia had to deal with a guerilla force that was in the mountains, Mujahideen. Although the Soviets were much more powerful than the Mujahideen, they weren't able to completely destroy them because they hid in the mountains and used guerilla tactics. They often attacked Soviet convoys from mountains as they drove by below in valleys. Like the Vietcong, they would often retreat soon after ambushing the Soviets.

When the FIM-92 Stinger missile was introduced to the Mujahideen, they began to ambush Soviet helicopters and fixed wing aircraft at airfields. The Stinger was only effective up to 15,000 feet, so the Mujihadeen would attack aircraft as they were landing or taking off. The Stinger, however isn't the "weapon that won the war" like many people mistake. Although it did have a big effect on the war, it didn't shoot down too many aircraft. What it did do was force the Soviets to modify their tactics. For example helicopters stayed over friendly forces, fixed wing aircraft began flying higher, and armor and electronic defense systems were added to aircraft to help protect them from the Stinger.

The Soviets countered all the tactics the Mujahideen were using in several various ways. Spetsnaz were used heavily to fight the Mujahideen. They would be flown into areas where Mujahideen often passed or had been seen or were ambushing someone. The Spetsnaz were some of the most effective means used to deal with the Mujahideen, much more effective than the tanks and aircraft had helped so much in other wars. In Afghanistan, the high tech weapons dind't help as much. The only two technologies that had a significant impact on the Mujahideen were land mines and helicopters but in the end the Mujahideen were able to work around the problem they caused.

As the Soviets seemed to get stalled, they began punishing the local population for supporting the Mujahideen. It wasn't uncommon for Soviet helicopters to raze an Afghan village in retaliation for an attack that happened to Soviet soldiers. At other times they dropped mines from aircraft in fields and pastures and machine gunned live stock. Without the support of the villagers, the Mujahideen would have to carry their own food. Another common tactic was to cordon off and search villages for Mujahideen.

Modern Times

Russian-Chechnyan Conflict

The conflict between Russia and the Chechens have involved mostly a guerilla/terrorism war. Most fighting is done with the support of armored vehicles, artillery, or aircraft, rather than just infantry. Russian infantry were important for fighting in Grozny during the mid 1990s although they weren't prepared for the urban warfare that occurred. The Chechen insurgents were hiding on the top floors and basements of buildings armed with small arms and anti-tank weapons. The Russians came in with convoys of armored vehicles which were unprepared for the tactics the Chechens would use.

Almost always the Chechens attacked the Russian lead and last vehicle in a convoy would be attack first. Then with the vehicles in between them trapped they began destroying every other vehicle in the convoy, one-by-one. The tanks and APCs that were in the convoys could do little to counter the Chechens because they couldn't elevate their main guns high enough to hit them in the upper stories of the buildings or low enough to hit them in the basements. In order the help counter this the Soviets began using the ZSU-23-4.

The Soviets began using artillery and air strikes in the city also. However this was often counter productive because it would make the civilian population angry because it would being used in areas where they lived, which was close by where the Chechen insurgents were. The Chechen insurgents often hid in hospitals and schools, leaving soon after the shooting. So when the air strike or artillery strike finally came, they would be long gone.

Chechen snipers were infamous. They would purposely wound a soldier and then wound the soldiers who come to rescue him. Then they would continue wounding as many people as they can who come to save the wounded soldiers until, then they kill all the wounded soldiers and run off.

Operation Iraqi Freedom

Before and during the insurgency many unconventional tactics were used. Human shields were common during the war and in the ensuing insurgency in places like Fallujah. Suicide bombers have attacked soldiers at checkpoints, on patrols, on their bases, and in convoys. This in turn as has made soldiers become more cautious. They have to treat everyone who comes to a checkpoint as a potential suicide bomber because the explosives can be hidden under their clothes or in something they're carrying.

Infantry armed with small arms and RPGs have aided in ambushes with Improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Several times convoys have been stopped with IEDs, only to have insurgents open up on them armed with RPGs and small arms.

There has been several instances in which infantry have had to deal with angry crowds. One incident in which several Iraqis were killed when American soldiers opened fire.

Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

Suicide bombers have been used in the same way here against infantry as in Chechnya and Iraq.

A common problem for infantry in Israel is dealing with angry crowds. The crowds may throw rocks and Molotov cocktails at soldiers. Sometimes people within them fire at soldiers. The Israelis are trying to find more ways to deal with them non-violently, so rubber bullets and tear gas are used.