Cognate
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Cognate (Latin: cognatus co+gnatus, ie. nasci "to be born") means: "related by blood, having a common ancestor, or related by an analogous nature, character, or function".[1] In linguistics, cognates are words in one or more languages that have a common origin, meaning that they are descendants of a same word, possibly in a common predecessor language. One example is the English word night, whose cognates include words with the same meaning in other languages, like nuit (French), Nacht (German), and nakti- (Sanskrit). In less formal usage, "cognate" may simply mean a synonymous relationship between words.
Cognates need not have the same meaning: dish (English) and Tisch ("table", German), or starve (English) and sterben ("die", German), or head (English) and chef ("chief, head", French), serve as examples as to how cognate terms may diverge in meaning as languages develop separately, eventually becoming false friends.
In addition to having separate meanings, cognates through processes of linguistic change may no longer resemble each other phonetically: cow and beef both derive from the same Indo-European root *gʷou-, cow having developed through the Germanic language family while beef has arrived in English from the Italo-Romance family descent.
Cognates may thus also arise through borrowings into languages. So the resemblance between English to pay and French payer originates through English borrowing to pay from Norman which, like French, had derived its word from Gallo-Romance.
Cognates across languages
Examples of cognates in Indo-European languages are the words night (English), nuit (French), Nacht (German), nacht (Dutch), nicht (Scots), nat (Danish) noc (Czech, Polish), noch' (Russian), nich (Ukrainian), noć (Serbian), nox (Latin), nakti- (Sanskrit), natë (Albanian), noche (Spanish), nos (Welsh), noite (Portuguese), notte (Italian), nit (Catalan), noapte (Romanian), nótt (Icelandic) and naktis (Lithuanian), all meaning night and all deriving from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *nekwt-, "night." Another Indo-European example is star (English), str (Sanskrit), astre or étoile (French), star (Sinhala), aster (Greek), stella (Latin, Italian), stea (Romanian and Venetian), stairno (Gothic), Stern (German), ster (Dutch and Afrikaans), starn (Scots), stjerne (Norwegian), stjarna (Icelandic), setare (Persian), seren (Welsh), steren (Cornish), estel (Catalan), estrella (Spanish), estrela (Portuguese) and estêre (Kurdish), from PIE *ster-, "star".
Hebrew shalom and Arabic salaam ("peace") are also cognates deriving from a common Semitic root.
Cognates within the same language
Cognates can exist within the same language. For example, English ward and guard (<PIE *wer-, "to perceive, watch out for") are cognate as are shirt and skirt (<PIE *sker-, "to cut"). In some cases, one of the cognate pairs has an ultimate source in another language related to English, while the other one is native, as happened with many loanwords from Old Norse (which was mutually intelligible with Old English) borrowed when the Vikings conquered part of England. Sometimes, both cognates come from other languages, often the same one but at different times. For example, the word chief comes from the Middle French chef, and its modern pronunciation preserves the Middle French consonant sound. The word chef was borrowed from the same source centuries later, by which time the consonant had changed to a "sh"-sound in French. Such words are said to be etymological twins.
Cognates may often be less easily recognised than the above examples and authorities sometimes differ in their interpretations of the evidence. The English word milk is clearly a cognate of German Milch and of Russian moloko (<PIE *melg-, "to milk"). On the other hand, French lait and Spanish leche (both meaning "milk") are less obviously cognates of Greek galaktos (genitive form of gala, milk) (<*g(a)lag-, galakt-).
False cognates
False cognates are words that are commonly thought to be related (have a common origin) whereas linguistic examination reveals they are unrelated. Thus, for example, on the basis of superficial similarities one might suppose that the Latin verb habere and German haben, both meaning 'to have', are cognates. However, an understanding of the way words in the two languages evolve from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) roots shows that they cannot be cognate (see for example Grimm's law). German haben (like English have) in fact comes from PIE *kap, 'to grasp', and its real cognate in Latin is capere, 'to seize, grasp, capture'. Latin habere, on the other hand, is from PIE *ghabh, 'to give, to receive', and hence cognate with English give and German geben.
The similarity of words between languages is not enough to demonstrate that the words are related to each other, in much the same way that facial resemblance does not determine whether two people are genetically related. Over the course of hundreds and thousands of years, words may change their sound completely. Thus, for example, English five and Sanskrit pança are cognates, while English over and Hebrew a'var are not, and neither are English dog and Mbabaram dog.
Contrast this with false friends, which frequently are cognate.