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{{short description|Outer part of ear}}
{{Short description|Outer part of ear}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more footnotes|date=May 2014}}
{{Expand Russian|Наружное ухо|date=May 2012}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=May 2014}}
{{Expand Russian|topic=sci|date=May 2012}}

}}
{{Infobox anatomy
{{Infobox anatomy
| Name = Outer ear
| Name = Outer ear
Line 18: Line 19:
| Lymph =
| Lymph =
}}
}}

{{Ear series|expanded=Outer}}
{{Ear series|expanded=Outer}}


The '''outer ear, external ear, or auris externa''' is the external portion of the [[ear]], which consists of the [[auricle (anatomy)|auricle]] (also pinna) and the [[ear canal]]&nbsp;.<ref>[http://www.nyu.edu/classes/bello/FMT_files/2_hearing.pdf nyu.edu/classes/bello/FMT_files/2_hearing.pdf "Hearing" by Juan P Bello]</ref> It gathers sound energy and focuses it on the eardrum ([[tympanic membrane]]).
The '''outer ear''', '''external ear''', or '''auris externa''' is the external part of the [[ear]], which consists of the [[auricle (anatomy)|auricle]] (also pinna) and the [[ear canal]].<ref>[http://www.nyu.edu/classes/bello/FMT_files/2_hearing.pdf nyu.edu/classes/bello/FMT_files/2_hearing.pdf "Hearing" by Juan P Bello]</ref> It gathers sound energy and focuses it on the eardrum ([[tympanic membrane]]).


==Structure==
==Structure==
Line 27: Line 27:
===Auricle===
===Auricle===
{{Main|Auricle (anatomy)}}
{{Main|Auricle (anatomy)}}
The visible part is called the [[auricle (anatomy)|auricle]], also known as the [[pinna (anatomy)|pinna]], especially in other animals. It is composed of a thin plate of yellow [[elastic cartilage]], covered with integument, and connected to the surrounding parts by ligaments and muscles; and to the commencement of the [[ear canal]] by fibrous tissue. Many [[mammal]]s can move the pinna (with the [[auriculares muscles]]) in order to [[sound localization|focus their hearing]] in a certain direction in much the same way that they can turn their [[eye]]s. Most humans do not have this ability.
The visible part is called the [[auricle (anatomy)|auricle]], also known as the [[pinna (anatomy)|pinna]], especially in other animals. It is composed of a thin plate of yellow [[elastic cartilage]], covered with integument, and connected to the surrounding parts by ligaments and muscles; and to the commencement of the [[ear canal]] by fibrous tissue. Many [[mammal]]s can move the pinna (with the auriculares muscles) in order to [[sound localization|focus their hearing]] in a certain direction in much the same way that they can turn their [[eye]]s. Most humans do not have this ability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/33809-wiggle-ears.html|title = Why Can Some People Wiggle Their Ears?|website = [[Live Science]]|date = 30 March 2012}}</ref>
<ref>http://www.livescience.com/33809-wiggle-ears.html</ref>


===Ear canal===
===Ear canal===
{{Main|Ear canal}}
{{Main|Ear canal}}
From the pinna, the [[Sound#Sound wave properties and characteristics|sound wave]]s move into the [[ear canal]] (also known as the ''external acoustic meatus'') a simple tube running through to the [[middle ear]]. This tube leads inward from the bottom of the auricula and conducts the vibrations to the tympanic cavity and amplifies frequencies in the range 3&nbsp;[[Kilohertz|kHz]] to 12&nbsp;kHz.
From the pinna, the [[Sound#Waves|sound wave]]s move into the [[ear canal]] (also known as the ''external acoustic meatus'') a simple tube running through to the [[middle ear]]. This tube leads inward from the bottom of the auricula and conducts the vibrations to the tympanic cavity and amplifies frequencies in the range 3&nbsp;[[Kilohertz|kHz]] to 12&nbsp;kHz.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}


===Muscles===
===Auricular muscles===


====Intrinsic muscles====
====Intrinsic muscles====
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| Antagonist =
| Antagonist =
}}
}}
The '''intrinsic muscles of the external ear''' are:
The '''intrinsic auricular muscles''' are:
* The [[helicis major]] is a narrow vertical band situated upon the anterior margin of the [[helix (ear)|helix]]. It arises below, from the [[spina helicis]], and is inserted into the anterior border of the helix, just where it is about to curve backward.
* The [[helicis major]] is a narrow vertical band situated upon the anterior margin of the [[helix (ear)|helix]]. It arises below, from the [[spina helicis]], and is inserted into the anterior border of the helix, just where it is about to curve backward.
* The [[helicis minor]] is an oblique [[Muscle fascicle|fasciculus]], covering the [[crus helicis]].
* The [[helicis minor]] is an oblique [[Muscle fascicle|fasciculus]], covering the [[crus helicis]].
Line 58: Line 57:
* The [[Transverse muscle of auricle|transverse muscle]] is placed on the cranial surface of the [[pinna (anatomy)|pinna]]. It consists of scattered fibers, partly tendinous and partly muscular, extending from the [[eminentia conchae]] to the prominence corresponding with the [[scapha]].
* The [[Transverse muscle of auricle|transverse muscle]] is placed on the cranial surface of the [[pinna (anatomy)|pinna]]. It consists of scattered fibers, partly tendinous and partly muscular, extending from the [[eminentia conchae]] to the prominence corresponding with the [[scapha]].
* The [[Oblique muscle of auricle|oblique muscle]] also on the cranial surface, consists of a few fibers extending from the upper and back part of the [[Pinna (anatomy)|concha]] to the convexity immediately above it.
* The [[Oblique muscle of auricle|oblique muscle]] also on the cranial surface, consists of a few fibers extending from the upper and back part of the [[Pinna (anatomy)|concha]] to the convexity immediately above it.

The intrinsic muscles contribute to the topography of the auricle, while also function as a sphincter of the external auditory meatus. It has been suggested that during prenatal development in the womb, these muscles exert forces on the cartilage which in turn affects the shaping of the ear.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liugan |first1=Mikee |last2=Zhang |first2=Ming |last3=Cakmak |first3=Yusuf Ozgur |date=2018 |title=Neuroprosthetics for Auricular Muscles: Neural Networks and Clinical Aspects |journal=Frontiers in Neurology |volume=8 |page=752 |doi=10.3389/fneur.2017.00752 |pmid=29387041 |pmc=5775970 |issn=1664-2295 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


====Extrinsic muscles====
====Extrinsic muscles====
{{Infobox muscle
{{Infobox muscle
| Name = Auricular muscles
| Name = Auricular muscles
| Latin = Musculi auriculares
| Latin = musculi auriculares
| Image = Gray906.png
| Image = Gray906.png
| Caption = The muscles of the [[Pinna (anatomy)|pinna]]
| Caption = The muscles of the [[Pinna (anatomy)|pinna]]
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| Blood = [[Posterior auricular artery]]
| Blood = [[Posterior auricular artery]]
| Nerve = [[Facial nerve]]
| Nerve = [[Facial nerve]]
| Action = Undeveloped in humans (wiggle ears)
| Action = Subtle auricle movements (forwards, backwards and upwards)
}}
}}

The '''auricular muscles''' (or '''extrinsic muscles''') are the three [[muscle]]s surrounding the ''[[Pinna (anatomy)|auricula]]'' or outer ear:
The '''extrinsic auricular muscles''' are the three [[muscle]]s surrounding the ''[[Pinna (anatomy)|auricula]]'' or outer ear:
* [[anterior auricular muscle]]
* [[anterior auricular muscle]]
* [[superior auricular muscle]]
* [[superior auricular muscle]]
Line 81: Line 83:


In some mammals these muscles can adjust the direction of the pinna. In humans these muscles possess very little action.
In some mammals these muscles can adjust the direction of the pinna. In humans these muscles possess very little action.
The auricularis anterior draws the auricula forward and upward, the auricularis superior slightly raises it, and the auricularis posterior draws it backward. The superior auricular muscle also acts as a stabilizer of the [[occipitofrontalis muscle]] and as a weak brow lifter.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chon |first1=Brian H. |last2=Blandford |first2=Alex D. |last3=Hwang |first3=Catherine J. |last4=Petkovsek |first4=Daniel |last5=Zheng |first5=Andrew |last6=Zhao |first6=Carrie |last7=Cao |first7=Jessica |last8=Grissom |first8=Nick |last9=Perry |first9=Julian D. |date=February 2021 |title=Dimensions, Function and Applications of the Auricular Muscle in Facial Plastic Surgery |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33258010/ |journal=Aesthetic Plastic Surgery |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=309–314 |doi=10.1007/s00266-020-02045-x |issn=1432-5241 |pmid=33258010|s2cid=227236615 }}</ref> The presence of auriculomotor activity in the posterior auricular muscle causes the muscle to contract and cause the pinna to be pulled backwards and flatten when exposed to sudden, surprising sounds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Strauss |first1=Daniel J |last2=Corona-Strauss |first2=Farah I |last3=Schroeer |first3=Andreas |last4=Flotho |first4=Philipp |last5=Hannemann |first5=Ronny |last6=Hackley |first6=Steven A |date=2020-07-03 |editor-last=Groh |editor-first=Jennifer M |editor2-last=Shinn-Cunningham |editor2-first=Barbara G |editor3-last=Verhulst |editor3-first=Sarah |editor4-last=Shera |editor4-first=Christopher |editor5-last=Corneil |editor5-first=Brian D |title=Vestigial auriculomotor activity indicates the direction of auditory attention in humans |journal=eLife |volume=9 |pages=e54536 |doi=10.7554/eLife.54536 |pmid=32618268 |issn=2050-084X|pmc=7334025 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
The auricularis anterior draws the auricula forward and upward; the Auricularis superior slightly raises it; and the Auricularis posterior draws it backward.


==Function==
==Function==
{{Expand section|date=December 2013}}
{{Expand section|date=December 2013}}
One consequence of the configuration of the outer ear is selectively to boost the [[sound pressure]] 30- to 100-fold for frequencies around 3&nbsp;kHz. This amplification makes humans most sensitive to frequencies in this range&nbsp;— and also explains why they are particularly prone to acoustical injury and hearing loss near this frequency. Most human speech sounds are also distributed in the bandwidth around 3&nbsp;kHz.<ref name="Purves" >{{cite book | author = Purves, Dale, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, William C. Hall, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, and Leonard E. White | title = Neuroscience. 4th ed. | publisher = Sinauer Associates |pages= | page = 317 |chapter=Chapter 13| year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-87893-697-7}}</ref>
One consequence of the configuration of the outer ear is selectively to boost the [[sound pressure]] 30- to 100-fold for frequencies around 3&nbsp;kHz. This amplification makes humans most sensitive to frequencies in this range—and also explains why they are particularly prone to acoustical injury and hearing loss near this frequency. Most human speech sounds are also distributed in the bandwidth around 3&nbsp;kHz.<ref name="Purves" >{{cite book | author = Purves, Dale, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, William C. Hall, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, and Leonard E. White | title = Neuroscience. 4th ed. | publisher = Sinauer Associates | page = 317 |chapter=Chapter 13| year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-87893-697-7}}</ref>


==Clinical significance==
==Clinical significance==
Malformations of the external ear can be a consequence of [[hereditary disease]], or exposure to environmental factors such as [[radiation]], [[infection]]. Such defects include:
Malformations of the external ear can be a consequence of [[hereditary disease]], or exposure to environmental factors such as [[radiation]], [[infection]]. Such defects include:
*A [[preauricular fistula]], which is a long narrow tube, usually near the [[Tragus (ear)|tragus]]. This can be inherited as an [[autosomal recessive]] fashion and may suffer from chronic infection in later life.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|с=68—69}}
*A [[preauricular fistula]], which is a long narrow tube, usually near the [[Tragus (ear)|tragus]]. This can be inherited as an [[autosomal recessive]] fashion and may suffer from chronic infection in later life.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|pp=68–69}}
* Cosmetic defects, such as very large ears, small ears.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|с=65—66}}{{sfn|Пальчун, Крюков|2001|с=489}}
* Cosmetic defects, such as very large ears, small ears.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|pp=65–66}}{{sfn|Пальчун, Крюков|2001|p=489}}
* Malformation that may lead to functional impairment, such as [[atresia]] of the external auditory meatus {{sfn|СЭС|1986|с=89}} or [[aplasia]] of the pinna, {{sfn|СЭС|1986|с=68}}
* Malformation that may lead to functional impairment, such as [[atresia]] of the external auditory meatus{{sfn|СЭС|1986|p=89}} or [[aplasia]] of the pinna,{{sfn|СЭС|1986|p=68}}
* Genetic [[syndrome]]s, which include:
* Genetic [[syndrome]]s, which include:
**[[Konigsmark syndrome]], characterised by small ears and atresia of the external auditory canal, causing [[conductive hearing loss]] and inherited in an [[autosomal recessive]] manner.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|с=66—67}}
**[[Konigsmark syndrome]], characterised by small ears and atresia of the external auditory canal, causing [[conductive hearing loss]] and inherited in an [[autosomal recessive]] manner.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|pp=66–67}}
** [[Goldenhar syndrome]], a combination of developmental abnormalities affecting the ears, eyes, bones of the skull, and vertebra, inherited in an [[autosomal dominant]] manner.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|с=67}}
** [[Goldenhar syndrome]], a combination of developmental abnormalities affecting the ears, eyes, bones of the skull, and vertebrae, inherited in an [[autosomal dominant]] manner.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|p=67}}
**[[Treacher Collins syndrome]], characterised by dysplasia of the auricle, atresia of the bony part of the autiory canal, hypoplasia of the auditory ossicles and tympanic cavity, and 'mixed' deafness (both [[sensorineural deafness|sensorineural]] and conductive), inherited in an autosomal dominant manner.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|с=67—68}}{{sfn|Асанов и др.|2003|с=198—199}}
**[[Treacher Collins syndrome]], characterised by dysplasia of the auricle, atresia of the bony part of the auditory canal, hypoplasia of the auditory ossicles and tympanic cavity, and 'mixed' deafness (both [[sensorineural deafness|sensorineural]] and conductive), inherited in an autosomal dominant manner.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Асанов и др.|2003|pp=198–199}}
**[[Crouzon syndrome]], characterised by bilateral atresia of the external auditory canal, inherited in an [[autosomal dominant]] manner. .{{sfn|Асанов и др.|2003|с=198}}
**[[Crouzon syndrome]], characterised by bilateral atresia of the external auditory canal, inherited in an [[autosomal dominant]] manner.{{sfn|Асанов и др.|2003|p=198}}


===Surgery===
===Surgery===
Usually, malformations are treated with surgery, although artificial prostheses are also sometimes used.{{sfn|Пальчун, Крюков|2001|с=489}}
Usually, malformations are treated with surgery, although artificial prostheses are also sometimes used.{{sfn|Пальчун, Крюков|2001|p=489}}
*Preauricular fistulas are generally not treated unless chronically inflamed.{{sfn|Пальчун, Крюков|2001|с=489}}
*Preauricular fistulas are generally not treated unless chronically inflamed.{{sfn|Пальчун, Крюков|2001|p=489}}
*Cosmetic defects without functional impairment are generally repaired after ages 6–7.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|с=65}}
*Cosmetic defects without functional impairment are generally repaired after ages 6–7.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|p=65}}
If malformations are accompanied by hearing loss amenable to correction, then the early use of [[hearing aid]]s may prevent complete hearing loss.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|с=65}}
If malformations are accompanied by hearing loss amenable to correction, then the early use of [[hearing aid]]s may prevent complete hearing loss.{{sfn|Богомильский, Чистякова|2002|p=65}}


==Additional images==
==Additional images==
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{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Auditory and vestibular anatomy}}
{{Auditory and vestibular anatomy}}
{{Portal bar|Anatomy}}
{{Portal bar|Anatomy}}
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[[Category:Auditory system]]
[[Category:Auditory system]]
[[Category:Ear]]
[[Category:Ear]]
[[Category:Otology]]

Latest revision as of 14:44, 4 April 2024

Outer ear
A diagram of the anatomy of the human ear:
  Brown is outer ear.
  Red is middle ear.
  Purple is inner ear.
The auricula. Lateral surface.
Details
Identifiers
Latinauris externa
MeSHD004431
NeuroLex IDbirnlex_1705
TA98A15.3.01.001
TA26862
FMA52781
Anatomical terminology
This article is one of a series documenting the anatomy of the
Human ear
Outer ear
Middle ear
Inner ear


The outer ear, external ear, or auris externa is the external part of the ear, which consists of the auricle (also pinna) and the ear canal.[1] It gathers sound energy and focuses it on the eardrum (tympanic membrane).

Structure[edit]

Auricle[edit]

Main article: Auricle (anatomy)

The visible part is called the auricle, also known as the pinna, especially in other animals. It is composed of a thin plate of yellow elastic cartilage, covered with integument, and connected to the surrounding parts by ligaments and muscles; and to the commencement of the ear canal by fibrous tissue. Many mammals can move the pinna (with the auriculares muscles) in order to focus their hearing in a certain direction in much the same way that they can turn their eyes. Most humans do not have this ability.[2]

Ear canal[edit]

Main article: Ear canal

From the pinna, the sound waves move into the ear canal (also known as the external acoustic meatus) a simple tube running through to the middle ear. This tube leads inward from the bottom of the auricula and conducts the vibrations to the tympanic cavity and amplifies frequencies in the range 3 kHz to 12 kHz.[citation needed]

Auricular muscles[edit]

Intrinsic muscles[edit]

Intrinsic muscles of external ear
The muscles of the auricula
Details
NerveFacial nerve
ActionsUndeveloped in humans
Identifiers
MeSHD004431
NeuroLex IDbirnlex_1705
TA98A15.3.01.001
TA26862
FMA52781
Anatomical terms of muscle

The intrinsic auricular muscles are:

  • The helicis major is a narrow vertical band situated upon the anterior margin of the helix. It arises below, from the spina helicis, and is inserted into the anterior border of the helix, just where it is about to curve backward.
  • The helicis minor is an oblique fasciculus, covering the crus helicis.
  • The tragicus is a short, flattened vertical band on the lateral surface of the tragus. Also known as the mini lobe.
  • The antitragicus arises from the outer part of the antitragus, and is inserted into the cauda helicis and antihelix.
  • The transverse muscle is placed on the cranial surface of the pinna. It consists of scattered fibers, partly tendinous and partly muscular, extending from the eminentia conchae to the prominence corresponding with the scapha.
  • The oblique muscle also on the cranial surface, consists of a few fibers extending from the upper and back part of the concha to the convexity immediately above it.

The intrinsic muscles contribute to the topography of the auricle, while also function as a sphincter of the external auditory meatus. It has been suggested that during prenatal development in the womb, these muscles exert forces on the cartilage which in turn affects the shaping of the ear.[3]

Extrinsic muscles[edit]

Auricular muscles
The muscles of the pinna
Auricular muscles in context with the other facial muscles
Details
OriginGaleal aponeurosis
InsertionFront of the helix, cranial surface of the pinna
ArteryPosterior auricular artery
NerveFacial nerve
ActionsSubtle auricle movements (forwards, backwards and upwards)
Identifiers
Latinmusculi auriculares
MeSHD004431
NeuroLex IDbirnlex_1705
TA98A15.3.01.001
TA26862
FMA52781
Anatomical terms of muscle

The extrinsic auricular muscles are the three muscles surrounding the auricula or outer ear:

The superior muscle is the largest of the three, followed by the posterior and the anterior.

In some mammals these muscles can adjust the direction of the pinna. In humans these muscles possess very little action. The auricularis anterior draws the auricula forward and upward, the auricularis superior slightly raises it, and the auricularis posterior draws it backward. The superior auricular muscle also acts as a stabilizer of the occipitofrontalis muscle and as a weak brow lifter.[4] The presence of auriculomotor activity in the posterior auricular muscle causes the muscle to contract and cause the pinna to be pulled backwards and flatten when exposed to sudden, surprising sounds.[5]

Function[edit]

One consequence of the configuration of the outer ear is selectively to boost the sound pressure 30- to 100-fold for frequencies around 3 kHz. This amplification makes humans most sensitive to frequencies in this range—and also explains why they are particularly prone to acoustical injury and hearing loss near this frequency. Most human speech sounds are also distributed in the bandwidth around 3 kHz.[6]

Clinical significance[edit]

Malformations of the external ear can be a consequence of hereditary disease, or exposure to environmental factors such as radiation, infection. Such defects include:

Surgery[edit]

Usually, malformations are treated with surgery, although artificial prostheses are also sometimes used.[9]

  • Preauricular fistulas are generally not treated unless chronically inflamed.[9]
  • Cosmetic defects without functional impairment are generally repaired after ages 6–7.[17]

If malformations are accompanied by hearing loss amenable to correction, then the early use of hearing aids may prevent complete hearing loss.[17]

Additional images[edit]

  • External and middle ear, opened from the front. Right side.
    External and middle ear, opened from the front. Right side.

References[edit]

Public domain This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1033 of the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)

  1. ^ nyu.edu/classes/bello/FMT_files/2_hearing.pdf "Hearing" by Juan P Bello
  2. ^ "Why Can Some People Wiggle Their Ears?". Live Science. 30 March 2012.
  3. ^ Liugan, Mikee; Zhang, Ming; Cakmak, Yusuf Ozgur (2018). "Neuroprosthetics for Auricular Muscles: Neural Networks and Clinical Aspects". Frontiers in Neurology. 8: 752. doi:10.3389/fneur.2017.00752. ISSN 1664-2295. PMC 5775970. PMID 29387041.
  4. ^ Chon, Brian H.; Blandford, Alex D.; Hwang, Catherine J.; Petkovsek, Daniel; Zheng, Andrew; Zhao, Carrie; Cao, Jessica; Grissom, Nick; Perry, Julian D. (February 2021). "Dimensions, Function and Applications of the Auricular Muscle in Facial Plastic Surgery". Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. 45 (1): 309–314. doi:10.1007/s00266-020-02045-x. ISSN 1432-5241. PMID 33258010. S2CID 227236615.
  5. ^ Strauss, Daniel J; Corona-Strauss, Farah I; Schroeer, Andreas; Flotho, Philipp; Hannemann, Ronny; Hackley, Steven A (2020-07-03). Groh, Jennifer M; Shinn-Cunningham, Barbara G; Verhulst, Sarah; Shera, Christopher; Corneil, Brian D (eds.). "Vestigial auriculomotor activity indicates the direction of auditory attention in humans". eLife. 9: e54536. doi:10.7554/eLife.54536. ISSN 2050-084X. PMC 7334025. PMID 32618268.
  6. ^ Purves, Dale, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, William C. Hall, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, and Leonard E. White (2008). "Chapter 13". Neuroscience. 4th ed. Sinauer Associates. p. 317. ISBN 978-0-87893-697-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Богомильский, Чистякова 2002, pp. 68–69.
  8. ^ Богомильский, Чистякова 2002, pp. 65–66.
  9. ^ a b c Пальчун, Крюков 2001, p. 489.
  10. ^ СЭС 1986, p. 89.
  11. ^ СЭС 1986, p. 68.
  12. ^ Богомильский, Чистякова 2002, pp. 66–67.
  13. ^ Богомильский, Чистякова 2002, p. 67.
  14. ^ Богомильский, Чистякова 2002, pp. 67–68.
  15. ^ Асанов и др. 2003, pp. 198–199.
  16. ^ Асанов и др. 2003, p. 198.
  17. ^ a b Богомильский, Чистякова 2002, p. 65.

External links[edit]

Media related to Outer ear at Wikimedia Commons

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